Science Reviewer Milky Way galaxy at a rate

proportional to distance
Manifesting Good Grades - Redshift: where light from cosmic
bodies is shifted towards red as they
Module 1 move away from an observer.
Chemistry - a branch of science that studies
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
matter – its composition, properties, the
changes it undergoes, and the energy - George Gamow, along with Robert
associated with these changes. Herman Alpher, predicted that if the
universe started hot and dense,
Cosmology - study of the origin, there must be a radiation afterglow
development, structure, history and future of (CMB) from the cooling process.
- In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert
the entire universe. Wilson confirmed the presence of
the CMB with a temperature of 2.7
Formation of the Universe K. It is considered the second most
● Big Bang Theory important observation about the
- occurred 13.7 billion years ago universe after Hubble's Law.
- The CMB shows a transition from an
- the universe was formed from an
ionized gas (plasma) to a neutral
infinitely dense and hot core gas, indicating that the early
(Singularity) universe was hot and dense and
- explains the formation of light cooled over time.
elements, which evolved to heavier
elements through stellar evolution. Primordial or Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
(BBN)
Evidence that supports the Big Bang:
- Gamow, Herman, and Alpher,
● Hubble / Cosmic Expansion believed that the universe's early
● Cosmic Microwave Background high temperature was conducive for
(CMB) nuclear processes to happen in the
● Primordial/ Big Bang first few minutes of the Big Bang.
Nucleosynthesis (BBN) - Big Bang Nucleosynthesis refers
to the formation of “light elements”
Hubble or Cosmic Expansion (Early ( He-4, He-3, Li-7, and Deuterium)
1930’s) during the first few minutes after the
Big Bang.
- Edwin Hubble identified Cepheid - The relative abundance of light
(variable stars pulsating periodically) elements shows that the universe
in spiral nebulae (galaxies), was really hot and really dense in
revealing other galaxies beyond the the past
Milky Way and establishing the
expanding universe concept.
- He and his assistant, Milton Epoch Stages:
Humason, formulated Hubble’s Law ● Singularity - Infinitely hot and dense
which proves that the universe is point with all of space, time and
expanding, suggesting it was once energy
compact. ● Inflation - rapid expansion. Space
- Hubble’s Law: stars and galaxies
itself expanded faster than the
are moving away relative to the
 speed of light. Expanded by a factor Reactants - are substances that takes part
of 10^26 in less than 10^-32 in and undergoes change during a reaction
seconds due to a mysterious force
Products - are substances that is formed as
or particle.
the result of a chemical reaction
● Annihilation - pairs of matter and
antimatter (quarks and antiquarks)
were formed from energy, but these
pairs canceled each other back into
energy (annihilation).
● Recombination- Much later
on,eletrons started binding to
protons and nuclei, forming neutral
atoms.
● Plasma Soup - An excess of matter Chemical vs Nuclear Reaction
(electrons, protons, neutrons and
other particles). Photons (light
CHEMICAL NUCLEAR
particles) were scattered everywhere
in the “soup” Atoms retain their Atoms usually
● Gravity pulled atoms together, identity change their
leading to the formation of stars, identity,
galaxies, and eventually other forms transforming from
of matter. one element to
● The universe continues to expand at another.
an accelerating rate.
Reactions involve Reactions involve
only electrons, mainly protons and
primarily the neutrons.
● 114 elements identified to be outermost electrons
present in the universe, including the
Earth. These elements are Energy absorbed is Enormous changes
composed of atoms – the building comparatively small in energy occur
blocks of matter.
Mass is conserved; Huge changes in
Atom - smallest unit of matter that have all the mass of energy are
the properties of an element products equals the accompanied by
mass of starting measurable
- Protons (+) materials. changes in mass (E
- Neutrons (neutral) = mc).
- Electron (-)
Entities involved in Nuclear Reaction:.
Isotope - atoms with the same atomic
number but different atomic masses. - Protons: Constituents of atomic
(number of neutrons mag lahi) nuclei, positively charged.
- Neutrons: Particles with a mass
approximately equal to that of a
proton but with no charge.
Module 2: Introduction to Nuclear
Reactions
 - Alpha Particles: High-energy helium
nuclei, consisting of two protons and
two neutrons.
- Beta Particles:High-energy electrons
emitted during nuclear reactions.
- Positrons: Positively charged
electrons, also known as "anti-
electrons."
- Gamma Rays :Photons of very high-
energy electromagnetic radiation.
Module 3 : Formation of Elements

Compounds - combination of elements

R
a Elements - a pure substance made of atoms
di that are all of the same type
o
a 3 cosmic stages:
ct
iv 1. BBN (Big Bang Nucleosynthesis)
it - Formation of light elements (1-3)
y 2. Stellar Formation/ Nucleosynthesis
- - Formation of heavy elements (4-26)
3. Stellar Explosion/Supernova
- Formation of heavier
elements than Iron (27 &
above) and death of star

the emission of energetic particles of an

atom How are heavy elements formed?
Alpha Decay - when an atom gets rid of a small
After the Big Bang, atoms merged into large
piece called an alpha particle. The atom losses
mass and becomes a different element clouds of gas, which contracted under
gravity, leading to the formation of stars.
Beta Decay - when an atom changes one of its Inside these stars, heavier elements are
neutrons into a proton and releases a particle created.
called a beta particle (which is basically an
electron). The element gains a proton and Stellar Evolution : the process by which a
changes identity. star changes over the course of time

Gamma Decay - When an atom is too excited Supernova: Death of a star

and needs to calm down, it releases energy in
the form of gamma rays. The element stays the Stellar Nucleosynthesis:
same, just with less energy
- The process responsible for the
formation of heavy elements within
stars.
 - Process by which the natural the “iron peak” (Cr, Mn, Fe,
abundances of the chemical Co, Ni)
elements within stars vary due to
nuclear fusion reactions in the core
and overlying mantles of stars.
Binding Energy - the energy that is used to
2 types of nuclear reaction: separate a system of particles into single
- Nuclear Fission - splitting of heavy nuclei units
into lighter nuclei.
Supernova - explosion of star; largest
Nuclear Fusion - light nuclei combine to explosion that takes place in space
form heavier nucleus.
R-process/ Rapid Neutron Capture Process
2 PHASES:
- Rapid capture of neutrons by the
- Phase 1 - Exothermic Reactions atom
- Phase 2 - Burning Phases - Lead to non-man made elements

S-Process/ Slow Neutron Capture Process

Phase 1: - Slow neutron capture in red giants

- Cobalt to Lead
- Proton - Proton Chain Reaction:
Where stars convert hydrogen to CHEMISTRY
helium. During the ancient times, two major
- CNO Cycle : Stars convert hydrogen historical periods play an important role in
to helium using carbon, nitrogen, the development of the atomic theory:
and oxygen
- Main phase of a star’s life, called the 1. The development of Ancient Greek
main sequence phase. Most stars philosophy
spend the majority of their lives 2. Emergence of Alchemy.
burning hydrogen and fusing helium
in their cores. Ancient Greece

Phase 2: *Atom -comes from the greek word Atomos;

means indivisible*
1. Helium Burning
- Helium nuclei (alpha ● Atomistic
particles) fuse into carbon - Particles are uncuttable
and other heavy elements in - Leucippus of Miletus and
a process called the triple- Democritus of Abdera
alpha process. - Unacceptable during their
2. Carbon and Oxygen Burning time; more people accepted
- Pairs of Carbon and Oxygen aristotle’s ideas cause he
nuclei fuse into elements like was more popular
Mg, Na, Si and S ● Non - Atomistic
- Carbon burning is source of - Aristotle, Plato, Axoxaguras
oxygen for the stars - Did not believe in the
3. Silicon Burning existence of atoms
- Process in which silicon with
mg and s burns, producing
 - Believed the universe was - art of transmuting; from the greek/arabic
made up of fire, earth, air word alkīmiyā
and water
- Foundation of Alchemy - became popular in the Western world
because of Aristotle’s ideas
How different civilizations dealt with
substances: - Alchemists tried to play with the balance
of the four elements (fire, water, air, earth)
Mesopotamians and three principles (salt, sulfur and
mercury) to transform or transmute
- Utilized metals like gold and copper. substances
- Assigned symbols to metals, linking
them to heavenly bodies (e.g., Sun, Aims:
Moon).
- Used materials such as dyes, glass, - Try and transform “impure” or “base”
paints, and perfumes. metals like lead or iron into the
“purer” metals of silver or gold
Egyptians - Perfected the use of bronze, - Discover a magical “Philosopher’s
dye, and glass, techniques later copied by Stone,”
the Greeks. - Produce the so-called “Elixir of Life.”

Chinese Alchemists became secretive to avoid

prosecution, using symbols and coded
- Developed processes for metalwork names for substances.
and ceramics.
- Focused on finding substances to Things that happened because of
prolong life (some effective, some Alchemy:
harmful like mercury).
- Led to discoveries such as sodium
Indians hydroxide (NaOH) and ammonium
salts.
- Practiced alchemy (rasayana) for - The process of distillation was
Vedic medicine refined during this period.
- Perfected the use of iron and steel.
- Well-known manufacturers of dyes, Alchemy declined in the 17th century and
glass, cement, solutions for textiles, was fully separated from chemistry by the
and soap. late 18th century.

Arabs/Muslims. Alchemy is considered a protoscience, a

precursor that allowed the field of chemistry
- Scholar Jabir Ibn-Hayyan (Geber) to be what it is today
translated Greek practices and
Aristotelian thinking and wrote (Protoscience - an unscientific field of study
extensively on how metals can be which later developed into real science)
purified
- He came up with the preparation of DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC
acids such as nitric, hydrochloric and THEORY
sulfuric acids, as well as aqua regia
(nitro-hydrochloric acid). Current theoretical model : involves a
dense nucleus surrounded by a probabilistic
ALCHEMY "cloud" of electrons
Atomic Models: Plum Pudding, Nuclear,
Bohr, Quantum

1. Dalton's Atomic Theory (1808)

- John Dalton
- First Atomic Model
- matter consists of small
particles (atoms) that were
indivisible 4. Bohr's Planetary Model (1913)
- Atoms arrange in different - Niels Bohr
combinations to make - Proposed that electrons
different compounds move in circular orbits
2. Plum Pudding Model (Late 1800s) around the nucleus, similar to
- J.J. Thomson planets orbiting the Sun.
- Discovered electrons, - His model suggested that
smaller particles within electrons are confined to
atoms. specific energy levels or
- Thought of them as negative orbits.
electrons stuck in positively
charged matter

3.

Rutherford's Nuclear Model of the 5. Quantum Mechanical Model

atom (1909) (1920s)
- Ernest Rutherford: - Erwin Schrödinger:
- Discovered that the atom - Refined Bohr’s model, showing that
consists of a dense, electrons do not travel in fixed orbits
positively charged nucleus but rather in orbitals.
at its center through the gold - Described the motion of electrons
foil experiment. like "hyperactive flies" that create
- Showed that atoms are different shapes around the nucleus
mostly empty space, with over time.
electrons orbiting the
nucleus.
 making them negatively charged.
Millikan applied an electric field to
Protons and Neutrons (1919 - 1932) control the movement of these
droplets, allowing them to hover or
● Ernest Rutherford (1919): fall at a steady speed.
Discovered the proton, a positively - He discovered that the charges of
charged particle in the nucleus. the droplets were always whole
● James Chadwick (1932): number multiples of a specific value,
Discovered the neutron, a neutral confirming that electrons have a
particle in the nucleus. definite charge.

Discovery of the Neutrons

- James Chadwick
- Chadwick did an experiment where
(mga videos na wa gi discuss ni he shot alpha particles at a beryllium
miss, poohtangena) target. This caused the beryllium to
produce a strong type of radiation.
JJ Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron To explore this radiation, he used
(1987) paraffin wax, which released protons
when hit by it. By checking the
Cathode Ray Tube Experiment energy of these protons, Chadwick
discovered a new particle.
1. Electric Field Test: - The new particle had no electric
- Thomson took a cathode ray tube, charge and a mass similar to that of
which is a glass tube with metal a proton. He named it the neutron. It
pieces inside. He added two metal explained the missing mass in the
plates on the sides of the [Link] atomic nucleus.
he applied an electric charge, the
ray bent towards the positively Gold Foil Experiment
charged plate, showing that it was
negatively charged - Ernest Rutherford
2. Magnetic Field Test: - Rutherford shot alpha particles at a
- Thomson used a magnet to confirm thin gold foil. Most alpha particles
his [Link] he applied an went straight through the foil,
electric charge, the ray bent towards showing that atoms are mostly
the positively charged plate, showing empty space. However, some were
that it was negatively charged deflected at large angles, and a few
bounced back. This led Rutherford
He realized that since atoms are electrically to conclude that atoms have a small,
neutral overall, there must also be a positive dense, positively charged nucleus
charge to balance the negative charge of surrounded by electrons.
the [Link] proposed the Plum - Rutherford's experiment changed
Pudding Model the atomic model, moving away from
the Plum Pudding Model to the
Milkan’s Oil Drop Experiment Nuclear Model.
- Robert Millikan (1909) aimed to
measure the charge of the electron.
- Tiny oil droplets were sprayed into a 3 Fundamental Laws:
chamber and picked up electrons,
 1. Law of Conservation of Mass -
Matter can't be made or lost in a
reaction. The amount you start with
is the same as what you end with.
2. Law of Definite Proportions - A
compound always has the same
ingredients in the same amounts.
For example, water always has 2
hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions -
when two elements combine to form
more than one compound, the mass
of one element, which combines with
a fixed mass of the other element,
will always be ratios of whole
numbers.

Scientists Contribution

John Dalton Atomic Theory

Robert Boyle Boyle’s Law, J-

Tube

Amadeo Avogadro Avogadro’s Law

Antoine Lavoisier The Law of

Conservation of
Mass

Joseph Gay Lussac Gay-Lussac’s Law

JJ Thomson Plum Pudding

Model; Electron

Ernest Rutherford Nucleus and Proton

Niels Bohr Bohr’s Atomic

Model

Erwin Schrodinger Quantum

Mechanical Model;
Proton

James Chadwick Neutron