MODULE 4

FLOW TRANSDUCERS
Flow transducers are used to measure air and liquid flow velocity. Flow transducers use
different measuring principles. By means of the flow velocity, analysis units of flow
transducers can calculate the flow level or determine the amount of flow with a counter.

Bernoulli’s Principle and The Continuity Equation

Flow meters are the devices used for measuring the flow rate of liquids or gases. They
work on Bernoulli’s principle and continuity equation
The Continuity equation

The continuity equation represents that the product of the cross-sectional area of the
pipe and the velocity of the fluid at any point is always a constant.

Consider the fluid flows from end A, having a cross-sectional area A1, to end B
with a cross-sectional area A2 in the pipe. Then we can write,

In general form, we can say

Bernoulli’s Principle
The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational
potential energy of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and
the kinetic energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.
The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given by

Where,
P – Pressure exerted by the fluid.

v – Velocity of the fluid.

ρ – Density of the fluid.

h – Height of the container.

Flow Meters
Flow meters are the devices used for measuring the flow rate of liquids or gases. Flow
rate can be defined as the volume of fluid flowing through an area in unit time. In a pipe,
the flow rate can be expressed in terms of speed of the fluid and the cross-sectional
area of the pipe.

Obstruction Type Flow meter

Different types of flow measuring techniques are used based on the requirements and
depending upon the situation. Common types of flow meters include

 Obstruction type.
 Inferential.
 Electromagnetic.
 Anemometer.

In an obstruction type flow meter, an obstruction is created in the flow passage and
the pressure drop across the obstruction is measured. This change in pressure is
calibrated in terms of flow rate.

Depending upon the type of obstruction, different types of obstruction flow meters such
as Orifice meter, Venturi meter, Flow nozzle, etc. are available.

Orifice meter
In an orifice type flow meter, an orifice plate is placed in the pipe as shown in the figure.
The pressure is dropped suddenly when the fluid passes the orifice and continues to
drop until ‘vena contracta ‘is reached. It is a result of the increase in velocity of the fluid
passing through the reduced area

Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is
the least

After vena contracta, the pressure increases gradually until a maximum pressure point is
reached that will be lower than the pressure P1. The flow rate can be obtained by
measuring the pressure difference (P1-P2).

The major advantages of the orifice plate that it is simple in construction, low-cost device
and easy to install. The main disadvantage of using the orifice plate is the permanent
pressure drop occurred in the orifice plate. This problem can be overcome by using
Venturi meter or Flow nozzles.

Venturi meter

A venturi meter is constructed in such a way that change in the flow path is gradual. As a
result, no permanent pressure drop has occurred in the flow path.

The middle portion of the venturi meter is called the throat. The crossectional area of
this area is too small. Here pressure decreases and velocity increases.

The starting section of venturi meter where the crossectional area starts to decrease is
called converging section. The end of the converging section is attached with the
throat.

The last part of the venturi meter is called the diverging part. The crossectional area of
this section increases continually.

Venturi meter works on Bernoulli’ equation. That is pressure decreases with increasing
velocity. Since the crossectional area of the throat section is smaller, the velocity of flow
will be higher in this area. This happens according to the continuity equation. This
increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure. This change in pressure is
measured to calculate the flow rate of the fluid.

The main disadvantage of venturi meter is that the cost of making is high

Flow nozzle

Flow nozzles are a compromise between the orifice plate and venturi meter both in cost
and performance. Typical construction of a flow nozzle is shown in the figure.

The shape of the flow nozzle provides lesser resistance to flow when compared to an
orifice meter. It has no divergent cone for pressure recovery as in a venturi meter.

Flow nozzles are compact, cheaper and easy install as compared to venturi meter.
Since there is no divergent cone pressure recovery is low when compared to venturi
meter.

Rotameter

The orifice meter, Venturimeter and flow nozzle work on the principle of constant area
variable pressure drop. Here the pressure drop changes with flow rate and the area of
obstruction are always constant. The rotameter works as a constant pressure drop
variable area meter. That is the pressure drop is always constant and the area of
obstruction is changed.

Typical construction of a rotameter is shown in the figure. It consists of a tapered pipe

and a floating element. The float has specific gravity higher than the fluid. When the fluid
starts to flow through the pipe, the float rises due to the buoyancy, increasing the area
for passage of the fluid. The movement of the float will directly proportional to the flow
rate of the fluid. Flow rate can be measured when the float reaches a stable position
where the force exerted by the fluid equals the gravitational force exerted by the float.

Rotameters are simple to operate, easy to handle and the cost of making is low. It
doesn’t require external power or energy for its operation.

Anemometer
A hot wire anemometer is a temperature transducer used for measuring flow rate

When the electrically heated temperature sensor is placed in a flowing fluid, heat is
transferred from the sensor to the fluid. Hence the temperature of the sensor reduces
resulting in a change in resistance of the wire. The amount of cooling of the wire
depends on the flow velocity and hence the resistance variation can be used to measure
the flow rate of the fluid.

Hot wire anemometer are connected in two methods for measuring flow rate

 Constant current method

 Constant temperature method.
In the constant current method, the current of the wire is kept fixed and is exposed to
flow velocity. Then the change in temperature of the wire becomes a measure of flow
velocity.

In constant temperature method we maintain the temperature and resistance of the wire
at a constant level. So, the current through the wire is increased and it is a measure of
flow velocity.

Advantages

 Can be used for fluids with rapidly fluctuating velocity.

 Relatively low cost.

Electromagnetic Flow Meter

Electromagnetic flow meters are suitable for measuring the flow of electrically
conducting liquid.

Schematic diagram of an electromagnetic flowmeter is shown in the figure. It consists of

a pair of electrodes fixed in the opposite sides of a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow is
to be measured. A pipe with non-conducting and non-magnetic property is used. The
pipe is surrounded by some material to produce a magnetic field.

An electromagnetic flowmeter works on the Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction.

A voltage is produced inside the pipe which is proportional to the velocity of the medium
and it is captured by electrodes. The voltage is given by

Where B=Magnetic flux * Density, l=Length of the conductor and v= Velocity of the
conductor.
That is if the magnetic field is kept constant then voltage produced across the pipe will
be proportional to the velocity of the fluid.

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

A light dependent resistor(LDR) is used to detect the presence or level of light. They
work on the basic principle of photo-conductivity. It is also called a photoresistor,
photoconductor or photocell. The circuit symbol of an LDR is shown in the figure.

LDR consist of a resistor made up of semiconductor material. Cadmium sulphide and

cadmium selenide are the most commonly used materials for constructing these
resistors. They have high resistivity and their resistance value varies according to light
intensity. Photons from the fallen light are absorbed by the material lattice and some
electrons gain this energy to break the bond and be free. As a lighter strike, more free
electrons are emitted that can conduct electricity thereby decreasing the resistance.

A snake-like track is formed using cadmium sulphide on the surface as shown in the
figure. This structure provides maximum surface and reduces resistance.

Structure of LDR Internal Structure of LDR

Advantages of LDR

 Low cost.
 Ease of manufacture.
 Ease of use.
Disadvantages of LDR

 High response time.

Applications

 Automatic Street Lighting.

 Burglar Circuits.
 Cameras, Alarm Clocks.

Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell is a device that generates an electric current when exposed to light.
The basic principle behind its working is the photovoltaic effect.

Construction

Layers – Conducting material on top surface and backside collects produced electricity.
The material on the top doesn’t cover the surface fully to allow penetration of radiation to
the depletion region on the p-n semiconductor. The anti-reflection layer traps maximum
light rays to be occupied by the p-n semiconductor.

Materials Used: Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, Cadmium Telluride, Gallium Selenide.

Working of Photovoltaic cell

The photoelectric cell is formed of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor. The n-type
semiconductor material has electrons as majority carriers and the p-type has holes
(positively charged) as majority carriers. When these two are joined, electrons from the
n-region migrate to the p-region creating a depletion region between them. When light
falls on the depletion region, the energy from photon is transferred to electrons, creating
free electron-hole pairs that can move freely and conduct electricity.

Advantages

 Fast response.
 High efficiency.
 Generate voltage without any bias.
Disadvantages

 Powe generation depends on weather conditions.

 Easily damaged.
Applications

 Solar farms.
 Telecommunication and Signalling.
 Standalone systems including solar lamps, parking meters, trash compactors.

Photodiode
The photodiode is a p-n junction diode that converts light energy into electrical energy. It
is also known as a photodetector, photosensor or light detector.

Working

A photodiode always works in reverse biased condition. That is the n region of the
semiconductor is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the p region of the
semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
When the photodiode is exposed to light, the electrons from n region moves towards the
positive terminal and holes from the p region move towards the negative terminal. Thus
a photocurrent is produced which is proportional to the intensity of light. It is called the
photoelectric effect.

Types

1. PN Junction Diode
It is formed with a p-type and an n-type semiconductor and creates a depletion region
where the incidence of photons generates free electrons that can conduct electricity.

2. PIN Diode
It has a thin layer of intrinsic (pure form of semiconductor) material between two
extrinsic (n-type and p-type) materials. The added layer has high resistivity and electric
field strength. It also increases the depletion region thereby increasing the possibility of
a larger number of photons hitting the region.

3. Avalanche Photodiode(APD)
High reverse biased voltage is applied to create an avalanche effect, which is the rapid
increase of current when enough electric force is applied to the material. This happens
because photoexcited electrons have high energy to excite other atoms and free more
electrons.

Modes of Operation

1. Photovoltaic modes
Also known as a zero-bias mode. It is forward biased, i.e., the positive terminal is
connected to the p-region and the negative terminal to the n-region. This arrangement
decreases the width of the depletion region and the voltage produced when photon hits
will have a small dynamic range

2. Photoconductive mode
It works on reverse biased condition, increases the width of the depletion region and
therefore is fast by having a low response time.

3. Avalanche Mode
Under the high reverse biased condition, the avalanche effect is initiated which produces
internal gain which in turn increases device response by producing a larger current per
photon.

Applications

 Optical communication system

 Used in solar cell panels
 Smoke detectors, Remote controls in VCR, Street lights
Photo emissive cell
A photo emissive cell is also known as a phototube that operates on the photoelectric
effect. It consists of a photosensitive cathode(negative) from which electrons are emitted
when hit by light. It also contains an anode(positive) that attracts these free electrons.
Both cathode and anode are enclosed in glass or quartz. When the electrons are drawn
from cathode to anode, an electric current is generated proportional to the fallen light.
Types of Photo emissive cell

Vacuum type cell

In a vacuum phototube, a rod anode and curvature cathode are housed in a vacuum
glass. The current is generated immediately on light incidence and is proportional to the
brightness of the light.

Gas-filled cell

A similar arrangement as the vacuum tube except, inert gas like argon is filled in the
tube and emitted electrons by the light are accelerated by the electric field and cause
ionization thereby increasing the current due to high collision

Photomultiplier cell

It contains evacuated glass which is occupied by multiple dynodes in addition to anode

and cathode. Each dynode has a higher electrical potential than the previous one.
Electrons emitted from the cathode strike the first dynode that emits multiple electrons
which in turn hits the next higher potential dynode and more electrons are emitted and is
repeated forward. The anode is placed at the end and a large number of electrons
reaching the anode results in a current pulse which is detected easily. It is highly
sensitive and has a high-frequency response.

Sound Transducers
Sound is a type of energy generated from vibrations and can propagate as acoustic
waves through a medium. Sound transducers convert sound energy into electrical
energy or vice versa. Generally, the transducers that convert sound energy to electrical
energy are input sound transducers such as microphone and those that transform
electrical energy to sound are output sound transducers such as loudspeakers.
It is a device that is used to display sound levels and expressed in decibels. A
microphone is used to intercept the sound to be measured. The electrical signal
produced by the microphone is very low and is made stronger by a pre-amplifier. The
amplified signal is processed by a weighting network so as to be compatible with the
perception of the human ear when exposed to certain frequencies. It is further boosted
through another amplifier. The rectifier then converts the AC signal to DC signal so that
the meter can display the sound pressure level in decibels. An output jack may exist so
that the measured signal can be recorded or analysed whenever desired.

Microphone

A microphone is a transducer that picks up sound and coverts into electrical energy. A
microphone may use electromagnetic induction, capacitance variation or piezoelectricity
to produce electrical energy from air pressure variations.

Moving Coil Microphone

The moving coil microphone or the dynamic microphone works on the principle that if a
coil is moved which is placed in a magnetic field, and electric current is induced.

A moving coil microphone has a diaphragm to which a coil is attached which is

surrounded by a magnet. When sound waves hit the diaphragm, the coil moves in the
magnetic field to produce voltage.

Other types of microphones include condenser microphones, which has a capacitor with
one plate acting as a diaphragm and changes the capacitance according to vibrations.
On the other hand, a ribbon microphone has a thin ribbon of sensing element to which
sound waves are applied. Th ribbon is suspended between poles of a magnet. When the
ribbon vibrates a voltage is induced due to magnetic induction proportional to the sound
energy.

Hall effect Transducers

Hall effect transducers can measure the magnetic field strength. Direct measurement of
magnetic field intensity is impracticable and hence, this kind of transducer uses the Hall
effect for this purpose. Hall effect is the production of e.m.f or voltage difference across a
current-carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field, which is perpendicular to
both the current and magnetic field.

The magnitude of voltage depends on the strength of the magnetic field, current and
properties of the conductor material used. A voltmeter can be used to measure the
magnitude of the produced voltage.

The voltage developed due to Hall effect or the Hall Effect e.m.f is given as

The magnitude of voltage depends on the strength of the magnetic field, current and
properties of the conductor material used. A voltmeter can be used to measure the
magnitude of the produced voltage.

The voltage developed due to Hall effect or the Hall Effect e.m.f is given as

Where,
KH is a constant of proportionality known as the Hall Effect Coefficient.
B is the magnetic field intensity.
I is the current through the conductor.
T is the thickness of the conductor.

Advantages

 Long life.
 High-speed operation.
Disadvantages

 May be affected by an external magnetic field.

 High temperature affects the sensitivity of the transducer.
Applications

 Position sensing.
 Magnetometer.
 Automotive fuel level indicator.
 Encoded Switches.