Groupthink
Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when a group of individuals
reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the
consequences or alternatives. Groupthink is based on a common desire
not to upset the balance of a group of people.
This desire creates a dynamic within a group whereby creativity and
individuality tend to be stifled in order to avoid conflict.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Groupthink is a phenomenon in which individuals overlook potential
problems in the pursuit of consensus thinking.
Any dissenters in the group who may attempt to introduce a rational
argument are pressured to come around to the consensus and may
even be censored.
Groupthink is particularly dangerous in political situations where no
single actor has all of the relevant information.
Groupthink can be reduced by inviting criticism or appointing one
person to act as a "devil's advocate" against the group.
The Challenger shuttle disaster, the Bay of Pigs, Watergate, and the
escalation of the Vietnam War are all considered possible
consequences of groupthink.
Understanding Groupthink
In a business setting, groupthink can cause employees and supervisors to
overlook potential problems in the pursuit of consensus thinking. Because
individual critical thinking is de-emphasized or frowned upon, employees
may self-censor and not suggest alternatives for fear of upsetting the
status quo.
Yale University social psychologist Irving Janis coined the term groupthink
in 1972. Janis theorized that groups of intelligent people sometimes make
the worst possible decisions based on several factors. For example, the
members of a group might all have similar backgrounds that could insulate
them from the opinions of outside groups.
Some organizations have no clear rules upon which to make decisions.
Groupthink occurs when a party ignores logical alternatives and makes
irrational decisions.
Groupthink is not always problematic. In the best cases, it allows a group
to make decisions, complete tasks, and finish projects quickly and
efficiently. In the worst cases, it leads to poor decision-making and
inefficient problem-solving.
Groupthink Characteristics
Janis identified eight signs, symptoms, or traits of groupthink, all of which
lead to flawed conclusions. In summary, the group may have an illusion of
invincibility and consider that nothing the group decides to do can go
wrong.
The eight traits of groupthink, according to Janis, are:1
Illusions of unanimity among key decision-makers that cause them
to doubt their own misgivings.
Unquestioned beliefs that lead group members to ignore potential
consequences of the group's actions.
Rationalization of potential warning signs that should cause group
members to question their beliefs.
Stereotyping of contrary viewpoints leading members of the group
to reject perspectives that question or challenge the group's ideas.
"Mindguards" or members of the group who prevent troubling or
contrarian viewpoints from circulating among group members.
Rather than sharing important information, they may keep quiet or
prevent other members from sharing.
Illusions of invulnerability lead group members to engage in
unjustified risky behaviors with an overly optimistic hope of success.
Direct Pressure may silence group members who tend to pose
inconvenient questions or raise objections that may be seen as
evidence of disloyalty.
Collectively, these behaviors may make members of a group be
excessively optimistic about their success, ignoring any possible negative
outcomes. Members are convinced their cause is right and just, so they
ignore any moral quandaries of the group's decisions. The group body
tends to ignore the suggestions of anyone outside the group.
Any dissenters are pressured to come around to the consensus. After the
pressure is exerted, members censor themselves to prevent further
shunning. Once decisions are made, the group assumes them to be
unanimous.
Some members of a group may act as a "mindguard;" these sentinels
prevent any contrary advice from reaching the leaders of the organization.
Time constraints may exacerbate all of these issues, and any decisions
that need to be made fast may not undergo due diligence.
Groupthink is a dynamic that can lead to bad decisions and even
disasters; it is a phenomenon in which a group of individuals may consider
themselves infallible.
What Causes Groupthink
Janis also identified certain factors that may contribute to or exacerbate
problems related to groupthink. One of the key factors is group identity:
when there is a strong sense of shared identity, group members may place
a higher value on in-group perspectives and disregard those perspectives
from outside the group. Leadership influences may also be a factor:
members may be more likely to ignore their own misgivings if the group
has a powerful or charismatic leader.
Information levels and stress may also contribute to groupthink, by causing
group members to act irrationally. If members of the group lack information
or feel that other members are better-informed, they may be more likely to
defer to others in group decision-making. High-stress situations can also
contribute to poor decisions, by reducing the opportunities for careful
discussion.
These issues may be exacerbated by extrinsic factors, such as the
perception of an external threat to the group or isolation from outside
sources of information. Group members might not be able to make rational
decisions when they believe that they are under urgent pressure for
immediate action.
Groupthink can be exacerbated by a strong leader, or a strong sense of
pressure to make an immediate decision.
Why Is Groupthink Dangerous?
Groupthink may cause people to ignore or reject important information,
ultimately leading to poor decisions and errors in leadership. These errors
can sometimes result in disaster or unethical behavior because the key
decision-makers are unaware of potential risks and contrarian viewpoints
have been silenced.
Groupthink is particularly dangerous in political situations where decisions
are made through collective deliberation, and no single member of the
group has enough knowledge to make an informed decision. Members of
the group may feel pressure to conform to the consensus or pressure
other members to conform. This may result in the false perception that the
group is unanimous, creating even more pressure for group members to
hide their misgivings.
How to Avoid Groupthink
Even in highly cohesive groups, there are steps that can be taken to
lessen the impact of groupthink on collective decision-making. Groupthink
arises out of a natural pressure for conformity, so the problem can be
alleviated by assigning one member to act as a "devil's advocate,"
intentionally raising every possible objection. Since this is an assigned
role, the devil's advocate need not worry about the perception of being
opposed to the group.
Group members may avoid speaking out to avoid contracting the group's
leadership. To avoid that problem, leaders should step back from early
discussions to allow lower-ranked members to air their views first. After
discussion, leaders should consider holding a "second-chance" discussion
for any objections that were not raised before.
Example of Groupthink
After the space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds after liftoff on the
morning of Jan. 28, 1986, investigators discovered that a series of poor
decisions led to the deaths of seven astronauts. The day before the
launch, engineers from Morton Thiokol, the company that built the solid
rocket boosters, had warned flight managers at NASA that the O-ring seals
on the booster rockets would fail in the freezing temperatures forecast for
that morning. The O-rings were not designed for anything below 53
degrees Fahrenheit.
NASA personnel overrode the scientific facts presented by the engineers
who were experts in their fields and fell victim to groupthink. When flight
readiness reviewers received the go-ahead for launch from lower-level
NASA managers, no mention was made of Morton Thiokol's objections.
The shuttle launched as scheduled, but the result was disastrous.
Other events that may be possible groupthink-involved failures include the
Bay of Pigs invasion, Watergate, and the escalation of the Vietnam War.
Why Is Groupthink Often Bad?
Groupthink causes people to ignore or silence opposing viewpoints,
creating the illusion that members of the group are in agreement. This may
cause them to ignore potential dangers or take excessive risks. In military
or political situations, groupthink can sometimes result in disasters or
unethical actions because there is high pressure to agree with the group's
consensus.
What Are the Symptoms of Groupthink?
Irving Janis identified eight signs that are closely associated with
groupthink: illusions of unanimity, unquestioned beliefs, rationalization,
stereotyping, "mindguards," illusions of invulnerability, and direct pressure
on opposing views. Each of these signs leads members of the group to
ignore dissenting viewpoints and to hide their own doubts. This enforces
the illusion that the group's decisions are superior to individual judgment,
and that any opposing views are contrary to the group's interests.
Under What Conditions Is Groupthink Most Likely to
Occur?
Groupthink is most likely to occur in highly cohesive groups with a strong
sense of shared identity, where there is a strong pressure to arrive at the
correct decision. This pressure may lead some members of the group to
withhold key information, in order to avoid undermining the sense of group
agreement. A strong or charismatic leader is also a major contributor to
groupthink since members will be under pressure to agree with the
leader's decisions.1
The Bottom Line
Groupthink occurs when people converge on the same idea with little
critical thinking or opposition within the ranks. While groupthink can signal
solidarity and may show respect or deference to more senior leaders, it
also shuts down dissenting voices and alternative opinions. This means
that wrong ideas or bad strategies can become amplified and ultimately
implemented. Groupthink, therefore, can lead to suboptimal or even
disastrous outcomes.