WAVE OPTICS

 NEWTON’S RING:-
When a concave lens of long focal length is placed on a
plane glass plate with its convex surface in contact with
glass plate , a thin film of air is formed between the
convex surface of plane glass plate and the lower surface
(convex surface) of lens. When a beam of light from a
monochromatic source is made to fall normally on the
combination of convex lens and plane glass plate. The
fringes are circular because the air film has a circular
symmetry. These are known as newton’s ring. These rings
are formed due to the interference between the wave
reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film.
 Here source is of monochromatic light and a horizontal
beam of light falls on the glass plate G1 at 45°.

 AB is the incident ray and R1 and R2 are the reflected rays

which produce interference. The path difference between
the refelected rays R1 and R2 is
∆ = 2µt Cos r + λ/2
Here , μ is the refracting angle depends upon the incident
angle depends upon the incident angle and θ is the wedge
angle but since θ is small,
For normal incidence ,
r = 0 , Cos r = 1
So , Δ = 2t + λ/2
 (a) Condition for maximum intensity as bright rings :-
Δ = effective path difference = nλ
2t + λ/2 = nλ

∴ 2t = (2n-1) λ/2
2t = (n-1/2)λ = (2n-1) λ/2

(b) Condition for minimum intensity as dark rings :-

Δ = path difference = (2n+1) λ/2

∴ 2t = nλ
2t + λ/2 = (2n+1) λ/2 = (n+1/2) λ

(C) Condition for dark spot :- At the point of contact

between the lens and the plate t=0. Therefore the path
difference is λ/2 and we get a dark spot at the centre.
(D) Condition of dark and bright fringes :-
 ☛ Let AOB is a vertical section of the convex lens surface
with its centre of curvature CA = R. The thickness of air film
at A is tn where the interference fringe at radius rn = EA is
formed
∴ From Pythagoras theorem
(EA)2 = (CA)2 – (CE)2
rn2 = R2 – ( CO – EO )2

∴ rn2 = 2Rtn – tn2

= R2 – ( R – tn )2

Since the thickness of air is negligible in comparison of the

radius of curvature of lens , so neglecting tn 2 in
comparison of 2Rtn
Since, rn2 = 2Rtn
Hence diameter of nth ring is
Dn = 2 rn = 2 √(2Rtn)
Dn = √(8Rtn) ………… (3)
(1) Diameter of dark fringes :-
For dark fringes from equations (2) and (3)
Dn = 2√(nλR) ………….(4)
Thus diameter of dark fringes is directly propotional to
the under root of
(i) N positive natural integer
(ii) Wavelength λ of light used
(iii) The radius of curvature R of the lens
(2) Diameter of bright rings :-
From equation (1) and (3)
Dn = 2 √(n-1/2)λR
Thus the diameter of bright fringes is directly propotional
to the square root of - positive odd integer (2n-1)

 Determination of wavelength of
monochromatic light using newton’s ring
From equation (4) the diameter of nth ring is given by
Dn2 = 4nrλ ………………. (6)
Dn = √(4nrλ)

Similarly the diameter of (n+p)th dark ring is given by ,

D(n+p)th = 4(n+p)Rλ …………………(7)
Subtracting equation (7) and (6) we get
Dn+p2 – Dn2 = 4(n+p)Rλ – 4nRλ

∴ λ=( Dn+p2 – Dn2) / 4pR ☜ for air film μ=1

= 4pRλ

 Michelson’s Interferometer :-
  Principal and working :- When a beam of light from a
monochromatic source is incident on a half silvered
glass plate , it is divided into two parts . One part is a
reflected wave and other part is a refracted wave .
 After reflection from mirrors (M1 and M2) , when they
superpose each other , they produce interference
fringes. P and C are two optically parallel glass plate of
same thickness and same material at an angle of 450.

The surface of the plate P towards C is half silvered. There is no

polish on the pate C. This plate is called “compensatory plate”.

 Action of compensatory plate :- In absence of plate C the

reflected wave passes the plate P twice where as the
 refracted wave does pass even one through the plate P.
Therefore the optical path of the reflected and refracted
wavesnot equal when mirrors M1 and M2 are at equal
distance from plate P. in order to equalize the optical path
of these waves a plate C is placed parallel to the plate P.
This plate C is called “compensatory plate” .
 Formation of fringes :- In Michelson’s interferometer the
fringes may be straight , circular, elliptical depending upon
distance between M1 and M2.

(i) Circular fringes :- Mirror M1 is parallel to M2 ’ then

the air film between M1 and M2’ will be look as if is
coming from virtual sources S1 and S2 . Distance
between S1 and S2 id 2d . Then path difference is

2dCosθ +
λ/2 = nλ
…………(1)
2d Cosθ+λ/2
=nλ
……………(2)
☛ Equation
1 is maxima
and
equation 2
is minima.
☛ Since for given values of n,λ,δ,θ will be in
the form of circle . These fringes are called
“Haidingers fringes”.

(ii) Localised fringes :- When mirror M1 and M2 are not

perpendicular then M1 and M2’ is wedge shape film is formed.
These fringes are known as localized fringes. When M1
intersects M2’ is centre , the fringes will be straight.

 Determination of different
wavelengths between two nearly
equal wavelengths :-
 Let the light emittedby
source with two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 , which are nearly
equal . The fringe patern formed by two wavelengths is very
small then two pattern overlap. Let for λ1, n th fringe consides
with (n+1)th fringe of λ2.

∴ 2d Cosθ + λ/2 = nλ
2d = nλ1 = (n+1)λ2
Or 2d = (n-1/2)λ1 = (n+1-1/2 )λ2
∴ d = (n-1/2)λ1/2 = (n+1/2)λ2/2

(n-1/2) = 2d/λ1 ………………..(1)

(n+1/2) = 2d/λ2 ……………….(2)
Subtracting equation (2) by (1)
2d/λ2 – 2d/λ1 = 1
2d { (λ1-λ2)/λ1λ2 } = 1

∴ Δ λ = λ2/2d
λ1 – λ2 = λ1λ2/2d

Where Δλ = difference in two wavelengths

λ = average wavelength
d = distance by which mirror is moved
  Determination of wavelength of
monochromatic light by Michelson’s
interferometer :-
Now if mirror M1 is placed through a
distance d, then the path of rays will be 2d .
Let N fringes cross the field of view when the mirror M2 ’ is
displaced through a distance x.
Hence 2d = nλ ……….(1)
2(d+x) = (n+N) λ ……………. (2)
By equation (1) and (2)
2x = Nλ
λ = 2x/N

# DIFFRACTION :-
The phenomenon of bending of
light waves around the obstacle is called diffraction of light
and it depends on on the size of the obstacle and the
wavelength of the waves .

 Types of diffraction :-
(i) Fresnel Diffraction :- When the light source and the
observation point are at finite distance from the obstacle,
diffraction so produced is called Fresnel diffraction.
☛ In this diffraction the incident and the diffracted
wavefronts are spherical.

(ii) Fraunhofer diffraction :- When the light source and

the observation point are at infinite dictance from the
obstacle that is , the incident and diffracted wavefronts are
plane , diffraction so produced is called fraunhofer
diffraction.

 Fraunhofer pattern at single slit :-

Let a plane wavefront WF
produced by a monochromatic light source of
wavelength λ be incident upon a slit AB of width e .
According to Hygen’s wave theory each point of the
wavefront at the slit AB acts as a secondary source of
light and and sends out secondary wavelets in forward
directions . Now consider these wavelets which are
diffracted at an angle θ from the direction of incident
ray. The diffracted plane wavefront W’F’ is incident at a
point P on the screen by a convex lens L.
To determine the resultant intensity at the point P , [ Let us
consider a large no. of secondary sources on the wavefront
at the slit AB which emit wavelets of same phase and same
amplitude a] . Thus path difference between the wavelets
produced at A and B is given by

BK = e Sinθ

As AK is perpendicular to BK and the optical paths from the

AK to P are equal . Then phase difference is
= 2π/λ (BK) = 2π/λ (eSinθ) = δ ……… (1)

Let the width AB of the slit be divided into P equal parts . The
amplitude of wavelets at P due to the wavelets from each
part will be the same ( suppose a ) but their initial phase
increases gradually from A to B in steps of δ/P . The resultant
amplitude due to all equal parts of slit AB at point P can be
determined by the method of vector addition of amplitude
(polygon method).

Now construct a polygon of each side of length a represent

the amplitude of wavelets coming from a small part of the
slit AB and keeping the phase angle δ/P between the
successive amplitude . Resultant amplitude vector is
represent by AB(vector) due to all the wavelets . The phase
difference between the first and the last amplitude vector is
δ which will be equal to the tangents drawn at the points A
and B.
Angle δ = arc. AB / radius = Pa/R
R = Pa / δ ………………..(2)

Now a perpendicular CG is drawn from the centre C of are on

the line AB which will bisect the line AB in two equal parts .

Thus ∠ ACG=¿ ∠BCG = δ/2

 ∴
And Sinδ/2 = AG/AC
Length of line AB , AB = 2 AG = 2r Sinδ/2 …………(3)
Substituting the value of r in equation (3) we have
A = 2Pa/δ Sin δ/2 = Pa Sinδ/2/δ/2
= Pa Sinα/α
Where α = δ/2 = πe Sinθ/λ { from equation 1 }
Hence, the resultant intensity at point P

∴ I = Io Sin2α/α2 ……………….(4)
I = KA2 = KP2a2 Sin2/α2

Io = KAo2 = KP2a2 is the maximum

intensity at the point where all the waves reach
Where

in same phase .

(i) Central maximum :-

For the central point O on the screen i.e.

lim ( α→ 0 ¿ Sinα/α = 1
θ = 0 and hence δ = 0 or α = 0.

I = Io {Sin2α/α2} = Io =
Hence , intensity at O

maximum intensity
…………………..(5)
The maximum intensity at θ = 0 is called central maximum .

(ii) Principal minima :-

I = 0 if Sinα = 0
From equation (4)
 Thus for minimum intensity
Sin α = Sinδ/2 = 0 but α is
not equal to 0
δ/2 = ±2nλ
where n = 1,2,3,………..
from equation (1) δ = 2πeSinθ/λ = ±2πn
eSinθ = ±nλ
……………..(6)
Thus the position of 1st , 2nd , 3rd ,………., minima
are given by ±λ/e , ±2λ/e , ±3λ/e , ………….from
various value if Sinθ.

(iii) Secondary maxima :- To find other direction of

maximum intensity differentiate equation (4) with respect to
α and equate to zero .
Thus dt/dα = 0
d/dα { Io Sin2α/α2 } = 0

Io (2 Sin α/α3) ( α Cosα – Sin α) = 0

Io [ Sin2α(-2/α3) + 1/α2 (2SinαCosα) ] = 0

Hence, either Sinα= 0 or αCosα – Sinα = 0

Since Sinα = 0 gives the positions of minimum
intensity , so for the secondary maxima
α Cosα – Sinα = 0
Tanα = α …………….(7)
This is the condition for secondary maxima and
can be solved by plotting graphs for y = α and y
= tanα taking α as x – coordinate . The curve y =
αis a straight line passing through the origin
and inclined to x-axis at 450 and the curves y =
tanα are th discontinuous curve from y = -∞ to y
=∞.

The point of intersections of the two curve give the sol n of

equation (7) . The solution of equation (7) are 0 , ±1.43π ,
±2.46 , ±3.47 , …………… , α shows the position of central
maximum .
Thus for other secondary maxima
 = ±3π/2 , ± 5π/2 , ±7π/2 , ………..
α = ±1.43 , ±2.46 , ±3.47 , ……………

= ± (2n+1)π/2 where n =
1,2,3,……….

Or eSinθ = ±(2n+1)λ/2 …….from equation

(1) {α=δ/2}
Substituting the value of α in equation (4)
The intensity of secondary maxima is given by
I = 4Io/(2n+1) 2π2 …………………
(8)
(a) For first secondary maximum
α = ±3π/2 = πeSinθ/λ
………….(9)
The intensity of first secondary maximum
I = Io [ Sin(3π/2)/(3π/2) ]2 = 4Io/9π2 =
Io/22…..(10)

(b) For secondary maximum :-

 α = ±5π/2 = πeSinθ /λ
e Sinθ = ±5λ/2

I = Io [ sin(5π/2)/5π/2 ]2 = 4Io/25π2 =
The intensity of second secondary maximum

Io/61
………………(11)
  Width of central maximum :- The distance between the
first minima on either side of central maximum is called
width of central
maximum . If
the distance
between the
central
maximum and
the first
minimum is x ,
then Sinθ = x/f ,
where f is focal
length of the convex lens .

[ But Sinθ = ±λ/e

Sinθ = x/f = ±λ/e
X = ± λf/e

∴ The width of cental of central maximum , 2x

= 2λf/e
The angular width of central maximum
Θ = 2x/f = 2λ/e
 Thus it is clear that the width of central
maximum is propotional to the wavelength of
incident light and inversely propotional to the
width of the slit .

 Plane transmission grating :-

A plane transmission grating is a
transparent material plate such as glass plate on which a
large number of equidistant parallel and fine are drawn by
means of a fine diamond point worked with a ruling engine
when the line is incident on this plate the ruled lines act
like opaque and the space between the ruled lines acts like
slit so that light can pass through them . Such type of
transparent glass plate is called plane transmission grating
the number of lines on a plane transmission grating is of
the order of 10,000 to 15000 per inch.
Theory :-
Let a plane wavefront be incident normally on N
slits then according to hygen’s principle all points is each slit
become a source of secondary wavelets . By the theory of
diffraction at a single slit the resultant amplitude in the
direction θ is given by
A(θ) = Ao Sinα/α …………….(1) where α = πeSinθ/λ
The resultant wave in each slit may supposed to be coming
from the middle point of the slit now suppose S1 , S2 , ….. ,
Sn be the middle point of the successive slits then we have N
diffracted parallel waves are each from S1 , S2 , ……., Sn
producing in interference .
Path difference between the successive wavelets diffract at
an angle θ from each slit is same and is equal to (e+b) Sinθ.

☛ The equivalent phase difference will be 2π/λ (e+b)Sinθ

Let 2 = 2π/λ (e+b) Sinθ
 = π/λ (e+b) Sinθ
The resultant of all the wavelets at the point P is the
vector sum of all the amplitudes of the concurrent wavelets
obtained from N identical source . The amplitude of each
wavelets is Ao and its phase increases by an amount 2 in
successive wavelets .
If the wavelets produced by first source and arriving at P is
represented by the equation
E1 = Ao exp. ( wt
Then the wavelets produced by other successive sources and
arriving at point P can be represented by
E2 = Ao exp ( wt -  - 2 ) …………….
En = Ao exp(wt - - 2(N-1) 
Resultant of the waves is given by
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ………..+ En
E = Ao exp (wt -  ) ( 1+ e-2J + e-4J + …….+ e-2J(N-1) )
Since R.H.S of thus equation is a geometric series so
E = Ao { (1-eJ2N/ ( 1-eJ2) } exp (wt - )
= Ao e-J(n-1) SinN /SinNerpJ (wt - )
E = A erpJ (wt-) {A = Ao SinN/SinerpJ (wt-}
Intensity I = KAA’
= K A2Sin2/Sin2 { erpJ (N-1)  erp-(-J(N-1) }

I = Io (Sin/)2
= KA2 Sin 2N / Sin2 but A(θ) = Ao Sin/

(SinN/Sin
Since resultant intensity

where Io = BA2


It is clear from equation (2) that the first factor (Sin/)2

gives the diffraction due to single slit while the second factor
(SinN / Sin)2 gives the interference pattern due to N slits .

 Dependence of interference component of

resultant intensity on ( SinN /Sin )2 :-

(i) Principal minima :-

When Sin = 0 or  = ±nπ where n = 0,1,2,3. SinN is also
equal to zero thus SinN / Sin comes out to be
intermediate
Hence Lim ( → ±nπ) SinN/Sin = lim ( → ±nπ)
d/d ( SinN ) / d/d (Sin
 N
Cos Nc(±nπ) / Cos (±nπ) = N
 I = Io Sin2 / 2 (n2) = maximum
Therefore the intensity at  = ±nπ

The intensity at these positions are called

principal maxima for these positions
 = ±πn
Or π (e+b) Sinθ /  = ±nπ
(e+b) Sinθ = ±nλ …………..
(3)
Where n =
0,1,2,3,………

(ii) Minima :-
When SinN = 0 then the
intensity at p will be I = 0 thus for minima
N = ±Pπ
Nπ (e+b) Sinθ /λ = ±Pπ
(e+b) Sinθ = ±P/N (λ)
…………..(4)
The minima can be obtained are
(e+b) Sinθ = ±λ/N , ±2λ/N ,
………….

a Sinθ = nλ
n=1
 a Sinθ = λ
θ →small
aθ = λ → θ = λ/a

 Resolving power :-
Two close objects just separate is called
resolution and the ability or the power of the optical
instruments to see two close objects just as separate is
called resolving power .
Resolving power = 1 / Resolving limit

 Rayleigh’s criterin for resolution :-

According to Rayleigh , two close
point sources of nesrly equal intensity are said to be just
resolved by an optical instrument. When the central
maximum of the diffraction pattern of one source falls on
the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other .
☛ In case of just resolution the distance between the two
sources is called rsolution limit .

☛ Let A & B are the central maxima of diffraction pattern due

to two lines of wavelength λ1 and λ2 respectively .
The objects are said to be well resolved of the diffraction
pattern overlaps as shown in above figure .

The objects are said to be just resolved if the diffraction pattern

overlaps as shown in the above figure.
The objects are said to be unresolved if the diffraction
pattern overlaps as shown in above figure .

 Resolving power of plane

transmission grating :-
Resolving power of a grating is
its ability to separate different spectral lines of nearly
same wavelength .
☛