CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Food and nutrition security which is part of livelihood, is notably attracting the attention of
stakeholders, spanning across nations, research organizations, the general public, academic
institutions, and policymakers. At present, the world population is estimated at 7 billion;
however, by 2050, the population is expected to reach 9.3 billion. As of 2017, the number of
food-insecure people worldwide was estimated at 690 million (Cazzalo et al., 2012); however,
by 2050, a 70–85% increase in food production will be needed to feed the projected 9.3 billion
people (Ntatsi et al., 2018). Notwithstanding, upscaling the adoption and utilization of
sustainable crops offers considerable potentials in boosting food production amidst the prevailing
challenges.

Grain-Legumes are sustainable, capable of surviving under harsh climate conditions. The grain
legumes require minimal fertilizer inputs because of their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen
through symbiosis with soil Rhizobia. Also, intercropping legumes with other crops has
improved soil fertility and crop productivity (Cakir et al., 2019). Importantly, legumes are a good
source of food and feed for humans and animals, respectively; crops within the legume category
are nutritionally rich; most significantly, they provide affordable sources of protein (Amoatey et
al., 2000). The contribution of legumes as food and feed differs across types, while some
legumes are known worldwide and considerably utilized (soy bean) (Glycine max L), common
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)) others are less known and
underutilized (African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Harms), lablab beans, (Lablab
purpureus L) wing bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolabus L.). Adopting and accepting
underutilized legumes such as African yam bean as a food crop is vital for their survival;
nevertheless, AYB’s adoption and utilization is intertwined with several factors, including
cooking time, nutrient potentials, palatability, and value-added products.

African yam beans are known as Gikigri in Hausa and Sese in Yoruba. It belongs to the family
leguminosae (Fabaceae), an annual, climbing or prostrate vine. African yam bean is the most

1
important and probably has the greatest potential, of all legumes. African yam beans are known
to be a very rich source of protein, good for diabetes, prevents cancer promotes weight loss,
lower cholesterol. African yam beans are being prioritized for the protein, energy, vitamins and
minerals they offer. Health benefit of African yam bean as reported by Azuzu, (1986) seemed to be
the first study on the medicinal qualities of the crop in curing stomach aches and acute drunkenness.
There is no record of clinical studies on the usefulness of both the seed and tuber of the crop. However,
successful in vitro and human studies revealed the efficacy of the crop in the management of anemia,
diabetes, and arthritis.

Traditional culinary and health: A report of its medicinal value in traditional Igbo settings in Enugu State,
Nigeria, informed as follows: the seed is an important ingredient utilized in the topical treatment of
stroke, insomnia, diabetes, measles, and stress. In addition, the liquid extract of mashed African yam bean
cooked seed is often served to lactating mothers to induce and improve lactation after delivery. The fried
seed coat is grounded and used in the treatment of stroke (Nnamani et al., 2018). Moreover, the roasted
bean is traditionally prepared to entertain guests during marriage ceremonies. The legume is also reported
to be of importance in the management of chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular
diseases because of its high dietary fiber content (Enwere, 1998). Nwankwo et al. (2018) reported the
anti-diabetic activity of the seed extract of African yam bean. The seed milk extract of S. Stenocarpa
possessed anti-diabetic activity like the reference drug glibenclamide. Graded doses of the seed milk
extract were reported to have a blood glucose-lowering effect in a time and concentration-dependent
manner (Nwankwo et al., 2018).

Management of gouty arthritis: African yam bean has a long history of pharmacological potential,
especially in the management of gout and arthritis in addition to the already known nutritional properties
(Eneh et al., 2016). There are a lot of other health benefits that can be derived from this plant. According
to Soetan and Adeola (2018), the bioactive compounds in the grains of African yam beans have
pharmacological and beneficial effects on disease management. Phenolic extracts from African yam bean
seed (See the range of values in Table 3) have antioxidant power and the ability to scavenge free radicals
(Enujiugha et al., 2012). The pathology of gout involves the deposition of urate crystals at the joints and
tissues (Nsirim, 1999). Consumption of African yam bean was observed to reduce uric acid levels in the
serum thus mopping up urate crystals (Eneh et al., 2016). This research unveiled the potential of African
yam bean to contain potent bioactive ingredients for gouty arthritis management.

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1.2 Statement of the problem

African yam bean is the most important and probably has the greatest potential, of all
legumes. African yam beans are known to be a very rich source of protein, good for
diabetes, prevents cancer promotes weight loss, lower cholesterol. African yam beans are
being prioritized for the protein, energy, vitamins and minerals they offer. Despite its
health benefits, the proximate and sensory properties of this Lima bean is uncertain which
if not cooked properly, can result gas and bloated when eaten. Therefore, it is necessary
to determine the proximate and sensory properties of this African yam bean.

1.3 Aim and objectives

The aim of this study is to determine the proximate composition and sensory properties of
African yam bean. Its specific objectives are;

i. to determine the proximate composition of African yam bean such as protein, fat,
carbohydrate, moisture and ash content.
ii. to determine the sensory properties of African yam beans.
iii. to make comparison between the flour and starch in terms of baking, frying, and
cooking.

1.4 Significance of the study

It lies in understanding the nutritional composition and potential health benefits of this particular
variety of beans. By analyzing the sensory properties, such as taste, aroma and texture,
researchers can determine the sensory attributes that contribute to consumer preference and
acceptance. This information can be valuable for food manufacturers and processors in
developing new products or improving existing ones. Additionally, studying the proximate
properties, which include the levels of protein, carbohydrates, fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals,
can provide insight into the nutritional value of African yam beans. The knowledge can be used

3
to promote the consumption of these beans as part of a healthy diet, especially in regions where
they are commonly grown and consumed.

Furthermore, understanding the sensory and proximate properties of African yam beans can
contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of this crop. By identifying its unique
characteristics and nutritional profile, efforts can be made to preserve and promote the
cultivation of African yam beans, ensuring food security and biodiversity conservation. Overall,
the significance of studying the sensational and proximate properties of African yam beans lies
in enhancing our knowledge of this crop’s sensory attributes, nutritional composition, and
potential benefits which can have implications for food industry, public health, and agricultural
practices.

1.5 Scope and limitations

This research work is limited to the study of proximate and sensory determination of African
yam beans.

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 CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

2.1 African yam bean

African yam bean which, is commonly referred to as AYB, is one among the underutilized grain
legumes of tropical Africa. The crop is grown for its edible seeds and tuberous roots. Figure
1 presents AYB seeds harvested from a field evaluation in 2020. AYB seeds are enclosed in pods
measuring about 3–15 cm long, such that a single pod can accommodate up to 30 seeds. The
crop is a climber usually grown in mixed cropping with major crops (Jinek et al., 2012). AYB is
locally adopted and has wide adaptability across diverse environmental conditions (Abbey &
Berezi, 1988). Even though the crop is usually cultivated as an annual crop (Abiodun & Adeleke,
2011). Some schools of thought consider it as perennial (Abbey & Berezi, 1988). The cultivation
of AYB majors among smallholder farmers across sub-Saharan Africa, of which Nigeria is one
country prominent on the list (Adewale et al., 2008). The consumption of AYB is known to
contribute to daily nutrition, food availability, and diet diversification to communities utilizing it;
this date back to the Nigerian civil war of 1967–1970, where the crop’s food and nutritional
potentials were efficiently utilized in fighting malnutrition and hunger (Adegboyega et al.,
2020).

The seeds of AYB provide an affordable source of protein when compared with other plant
sources and animal extract. Aside from its rich protein content, its high carbohydrate content
(Adewale & Odoh, 2013) is comparable to the amount reported in grain cereals. AYB’s amino
acid (histidine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine) profile is more in quantity than the amount
observed in soybean (Avanza et al., 2012). Likewise, several authors have reported the presence
of essential nutrients in AYB’s seeds (Arisa & Ogbuele, 2007). AYB tubers contain considerable
amount of magnesium (167 mg/100 g), potassium (1010 mg/100 g), protein (15–16%), and
carbohydrate (67–68%) (Enware et al., 1990). In addition to the crop’s nutritional qualities, the
crop is flexible for use in various diets; it can be utilized as a condiment, or as a whole meal, or
as a snack. The contribution of AYB in feeds enrichment is an added advantage of the crop’s
food and nutrition attributes (Avanza et al., 2012).

5
Considering the enormous potential of AYB and its role in some African traditions (Baiyeri et
al., 2018) the efficient utilization of AYB can reduce hunger and nutritional challenges in sub-
Saharan Africa. Nevertheless, the food potential of the crop remains widely untapped, which can
be attributed to several constraints such as long cooking hours of up to 24 hours (Bordin et al.,
2013) a long-maturity cycle of 9–10 months, and the abundance of anti-nutrition factors
(Aminigo et al., 2005). However, the genetic variability reported in the crop provides a
foundation for breeders to develop improved cultivars. In particular, the availability of AYB
cultivars with reduced cooking time could boost the cultivation and consumption of the crop
(Anya & Ozung, 2019).

2.1.1 Structure of African yam bean seeds

Past research investigations have explained the relationship between seed properties, variety
type, seed storage conditions, and cooking time AYB seeds are, dicot in nature and they can
measure up to 10 mm in length and 7 mm in width and thickness (Cermak et al., 2011). The
seeds of AYB differ in texture across germplasm; they could be rough, wrinkled, or smooth. The
electron microstructure study of seeds revealed the presence of smooth starch granules exhibiting
different sizes and shapes (Chaves-Lopez et al., 2014). The cells were bounded by cell walls
same as observed in other legumes (Chinedum et al., 2018). Likewise, the round undulating
surface observed in the cotyledon is similar in structure to that of cowpea (Diaz et al., 2021). For
seeds subjected to milling, the cotyledon and cell components showed structural change.
Equally, cell wall materials and protein matrix were reduced to flakes and particles; however, the
structure of starch granules remained unchanged. The micrographs of cotyledon, flour, and
starch showed the size of starch granules within the range of 4–40 μm for lengths and 4–25 μm
for diameter.

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 African yam beans
2.2 Cooking quality in African yam bean
Preparing and cooking food is an integral part of daily living (Del & Jorge, 2006). For example,
most grain legumes are subjected to cooking before consumed; the cooking process converts raw
food into a ready-to-eat product. Also, cooking facilitates the destruction of foodborne
pathogens, thereby eliminating microbial hazards and achieving quality (De Oliveira et al.,
2015). Moreover, the physical and chemical changes that occur during cooking increases the
digestibility and availability of nutrient for use and storage in the body; through processes
including inactivation of anti-nutrient, starch gelatinization, proteins denaturation, leaching of
polyphenols and solubilization of polysaccharides among other factors (Doerge, 2002). Despite
the importance of cooking in food and nutrition the cooking culture is dwindling, especially in
industrialized societies where individuals are exposed to a busy lifestyle with little time at their
deposal. To cope with busy schedules, consumptions are choosing convenience food that

7
requires less cooking time. Also, reports have shown that consumers are ready to pay more in
exchange for long cooking hours (Enwere et al., 1990).
Cooking time, an attribute of cooking quality is defined as the time from the beginning of
cooking up to when the food becomes tender and suitable to eat (Ezueh, 1984). AYB, the same
as most legumes is characterized by seed hardness, requiring long cooking hours of up to 24
hours in some scenarios. Seed hardness has been identified as a heritable trait but also affected
by seed composition, production, and, storage environment (Faye et al., 2004). The mechanism
by which seeds become hard-to-cook is categorized as a very complex phenomenon; it includes
processes such as changes in the intracellular cell wall, middle lamella, polysaccharides, and
other components. The hard-to-cook mechanism in seeds has been extensively reviewed by
authors (Karp et al., 1997). According to a particular study, an increase in calcium ion
concentration led to a subsequent increase in seed hardness and a decrease in phytate
concentration. It was also reported that a higher rate of leaching in phytate and peptic acid
occurred in cooked and soaked hard-to-cook seeds than in fast-to-cook seeds (Jinek et al., 2012).
Generally, grains with short cooking time are more preferred by consumers; because less time is
invested in their preparation, and importantly less energy is spent when compared to energy
requirements for grains with long cooking time. In addition, several studies have shown that
nutrients such as minerals and proteins are conserved when grains are cooked over a short
period. In contrast grains requiring long cooking hours usually lose a significant amount of
nutrients (Jiang et al., 2020). Cooking methods reported in AYB include boiling, steaming,
roasting, and frying. However, advanced procedures including, sensory analysis: involving
sensory panel; tactile method: a method of compressing seeds within the thumb; texture analysis:
a method that measures the resistance of seed compression using a texture analyzer have been
investigated in major legumes (Jansen et al., 2003).

2.3 Cooking method reported in AYB

2.3.1 Boiling

Boiling cooking method is a moist approach whereby the target food is submerged into a liquid.
Cooking is achieved through the transfer of heat from the cooking equipment to the liquid in
contact with the food. The food surface absorbs the heat and through conduction, the heat passes

8
through to cook the food. The boiling method was experimented with selected AYB grains. The
steps included boiling the grains in water for 480 minutes and thereafter oven drying for 24 hours
before milling into flour (Kumar et al., 2017). In another report, AYB grains were boiled for
228 minutes. The analysis of the boiled seeds showed a reduction in phytate content and an
increase in moisture content (Li et al., 2012). In addition, the boiling cooking method was
reportedly used in preparing porridge. The procedure included presoaking seeds overnight and
boiling them for 60 minutes. The porridge analysis showed an increase in carbohydrate, gross
energy, fiber, lipid, water absorption capacity, oil absorption, bulk density, and gelation capacity
however a decrease in protein and moisture content was observed (Li et al., 2007).
2.3.2 Roasting
The roasting method is commonly used in preparing “roasted AYB grain,” a popular snack
consumed in combination with other food in South-East Nigeria (Malumba et al., 2016).
Roasting was effective in increasing the level of phosphorus and in-vitro protein digestibility of
grains. An increase in phytic acid was also reported; however, the tannin level was shown to be
at the barest minimum (McGowan et al., 2017). In the preparation of breakfast cereal from AYB
grains in combination with maize and coconut fiber, the blends were roasted for 5 minutes at
2800c temperature. The formulated blends revealed a protein content of 18.26%, moisture
content of 4.20%, ash content of 7.36%, and energy content of 339.47% (Obasi et al., 2012). The
roasting approach was likewise used in preparing AYB flour. The grains were subjected to
roasting for 45 minutes using firewood as the energy source. Then, the roasted grains were
dehulled and milled. The analysis of the roasted flour showed a decrease of about 0.27 mg/100 g
in the level of the tannin content (Okafor & Usman, 2013).. In a separate study, AYB grains
were roasted in an oven at 1200c for 300 minutes; and the roasted grains were dehulled and
milled. The analysis of the dehulled flour showed a reduction in the emulsifying capacity, foam
capacity, and stability of the flour, also the samples presented a high water and oil absorption
capacity (Ojuederie et al., 2017). In a further experiment, researchers investigated the effect of
roasting on the proximate, mineral, and anti-nutrient content of AYB grains. The study preceded
the roasting of grains over firewood for 1 hour at 3000c temperature condition. An increase was
reported in the levels of calcium, potassium, copper, iron, manganese, magnesium, phosphorus,
and sodium, and a drastic reduction in the percentage level of phytate, oxalate, tannins, hydrogen

9
cyanide, and trypsin inhibitor was reported. On the contrary, there was no significant increase in
the nutrient content (Popoola et al., 2011).
2.3.3 Steaming
The steaming approach involves the use of steam as the cooking medium; the steam is mostly
generated from vigorously boiling water. Unlike reported in boiling method, the steaming
procedure does not require submerging the food directly into the water; in steaming, the target
food gets cooked as the result of the steam or vapors generated from the boiling water. Steam is
considered a good heat conductor, nevertheless, the temperature release from steam does not
exceed that of boiling water except in the pressure system (Saka et al., 2007). Steaming was
reported to have minimal effects on chlorophyll, soluble protein, sugar, vitamin c, and
glucosinolates (Sharma et al., 2002). The steaming process helped preserve antioxidant
properties and maintained the lowest biogenic amine content in bean varieties (Uguru &
Madukaife, 2001). In AYB, the steaming approach was reportedly used in preparing a traditional
snack called “Moi-Moi”. The procedure involved dehulling and wet milling of the grains
accompanied by spicing. For the Moi-Moi to get cooked, it was steamed for about 60 minutes
(Zhang et al., 2018). The analysis of the AYB Moi-Moi showed a lower gelation capacity, higher
water absorption capacity, lower oil absorption capacity when compared to Moi-Moi made from
cowpea. The sensory analysis of AYB Moi-Moi showed no significant difference in color and
flavor from Moi-Moi made from cowpea (cowpea is the most common grain for preparing Moi-
Moi). Additionally, the acceptance level of the AYB Moi-Moi was similar to Moi-Moi
constituted from cowpea (Wood, 2016). Some researchers utilized the steaming cooking method
in making Moi-Moi from AYB and cowpea blends, they reported a total steaming time of about
50 minutes (Yuan et al., 2009).
2.3.4 Frying
Frying is one of the ancient and well-known cooking methods used for food preparation; the
procedure is known for its ease, speed, and unique flavor and taste; in addition, frying gives an
attractive color, texture to food. The frying process involves the use of fat or oil which serves as
the medium of direct heat transfer with the food (Yusufu et al., 2018). The transfer of heat, oil,
and air during the frying process brings about changes like loss of moisture, oil uptake, starch
gelatinization, aromatization, denaturation of protein, and changes in the color of the food. The
changes in food and oil are largely dependent on the food property, the quality of oil, heating

10
process, length of immersion, the rate at which air mixes with the oil, temperature, and the
quality of the frying medium (Volante et al., 2020). Frying could lead to the release of toxic
products through oxidation, which usually occurs when oil is continuously used under high
temperatures and atmospheric air (Wang & Daun, 2005). The frying method of cooking was
reportedly used in the preparation of traditional snacks commonly known as “akara” or “beans
ball”, a snack widely eaten in Nigeria. The grains were soaked overnight and dehulled before wet
milling (paste) and spicing. The frying medium (groundnut oil) was heated to 185-190 0c, and the
total frying time was about 5 minutes. The end product (akara) showed an increase in
carbohydrate, gross energy, water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, bulk density, and
gelation capacity. Meanwhile, no significant difference was reported in accepting the AYB akara
from the usual cowpea akara (Wani et al., 2017). In like manner, the frying method was used in
preparing Kokoro a popular snack in South-West Nigeria. The Kokoro process involved deep-
frying the paste constituted from the AYB-Maize blend for about 10 minutes. The proximate
analysis conducted on the Kokoro showed an increase in protein, sugar, ash, moisture,
potassium, and calcium as the proportion of AYB flour increases. On the contrary, a decrease in
fat and starch was observed with an increase in AYB flour (Rolle et al., 2012). Furthermore, the
frying process was used to produce AYB cheese, using palm oil as the frying medium. The
sensory evaluation indicated a general acceptance of the AYB cheese (Sam, 2019).
2.3.5 Baking
The baking process is a method whereby the raw dough is transformed into crumb and crust
texture, under the influence of heat. During baking, the changes that occur include the crust
formation, yeast inactivation, coagulation of protein, volume expansion, starch gelatinization,
and moisture loss (Ntatsi et al., 2018). The baking approach was used in producing cookies from
AYB-wheat composite flour. The cookies were baked for 20 minutes using an oven mark of
1800c. The nutritional analysis of the cookies showed an increase in protein content from 8.59 to
9.35% fat from 3.84 to 4.63%, ash from 4.84 to 5.21%, and crude fiber from 3.84 to 4.22%.
An increase in mineral content corresponding to a percentage increase in the level of AYB flour
was also observed (Nwosu et al., 2014).

2.4 Technological gap in the evaluation of AYB cooking time

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In AYB, the majority of the cooking time investigations were conducted using basic approaches
like firewood, gas, and kerosene stove. No information is documented on the use of standard
equipment such as texture analyzer and Mattson bean cooker; however, the use of Matson bean
cooker and texture have been reported in several legumes.

2.4.1 Mattson bean cooker

One standard method of measuring cooking time in pulses is to evaluate using a Mattson bean
cooker (Nwosu, 2013). The equipment is easy to use, cost-effective, and generates unbiased data
compared to other methods (O’Connor et al., 2020). The use of Mattson cooker is recommended
in grain genetic improvement for evaluating new varieties (Oagile et al., 2012). Mattson first
developed the Mattson bean cooker, having 100 plungers, but was later redesigned to have 25
plungers (Malzahn et al., 2017). The usage of the equipment involves placing individual
presoaked seeds on each of the saddle on the rack such that the tip of each plunger comes in
contact with the surface of the seed. The weight of each plunger can be optimized to suit the size
of the target grain by adjusting the number of lead buckshot inside each plunger. To initiate the
cooking test, the lower part of the cooking rack is immersed in a boiling water bath up to half of
its height. When a seed reaches tenderness, the plunger penetrates that particular seed and drops
a short distance through the hole in the saddle. The top of a plunger that has dropped (penetrated
a seed) will be lower than the top of the plungers which are yet to drop. The scenario makes it
visibly easy to identify the plunger that has penetrated its seed (Jaganathan et al., 2018). The
cooking time for a set of seeds (25) has been explained differently by researchers; the cooking
time was defined as the time required for 100% of the seeds to get penetrated (Kahajdova &
Karovicova, 2007). In an additional study, the cooking time was recorded as the time 92% of
seeds got penetrated (Idowu, 2015). Operating the Mattson cooker requires the uninterrupted
attention of the user; the user manually records the time each plunger penetrates a seed the
situation becomes more critical when multiple plungers penetrate at the same time. To overcome
the bottleneck of manual recording several researchers have reported the use of an automated
Mattson cooker where the cooking time is automatically recorded (Ihemeje et al., 2018}.
2.4.2 Texture analysis
The texture is an important trait of food characterized by its mechanical, geometrical, surface,
and body attributes detected by senses of vision, hearing, touch, and kinesthetics (Frank-

12
Peterside et al., 2002). The mechanical attributes have to do with the qualities of the food under
stress conditions; like hardness, cohesiveness, elasticity, and adhesiveness. In contrast, the
geometrical attributes are related to the size, shape, and structural arrangement of the product.
The surface attribute has to do with the sensations produced (in the mouth) around or in the
surface of the product by moisture and fat or either of the two; similarly, the body attributes are
related to the feelings produced in the mouth and how the moisture and fat or both are released
(Baiyeri et al.,2018). Of recent, instrumental texture analysis has proven to be efficient in
evaluating the mechanical and physical qualities of the raw and finished product, of which the
application of texture analyzer is a well-established protocol. A texture analyzer is used for
evaluating the hardness, fragility, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess,
chewiness, and resilience of food (Carvalho et al., 2017). The instrument is easy to operate; it
eliminates subjective judgment, as may be found in sensory evaluations (Bordin et al., 2013).
The selection of a probe for use during analysis is dependent on the type of test, which could be a
compression test, penetration (puncture) test, traction (tension). The different texture analysis test
types were previously reviewed. The texture analyzer has been applied in several texture studies
in legumes, fruits, vegetables, meat, milk, among others (Chinedum et al., 2018).

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Equipments

Weigh balance, crucible, volumetric flask, beakers, drying oven, desiccator, extraction flask,
retort stand, Kjeldahl flask, burner, filter paper, litmus paper

3.1.2 Reagents

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NaOH, petroleum ether, hydrogen tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid, distilled water, HCl

3.2 Method

3.2.1 Sample collection

The African yam bean was obtained at Kasuwa-Bira market in Jalingo, Taraba state

3.2.2 Proximate analysis by AOAC, 2000

Determination of Moisture Content

2.0 grams of the sample was accurately weighed into a previously cleaned, dried and weighed
crucible. The crucible with its content was put into a Gallenkamp drying oven at 105 0C for 3
hours. The sample was then cooled in desiccators and weighed. The process was repeated until a
constant weight was obtained. The loss in weight expressed as a percentage of the initial weight
of sample gave the percent moisture (AOAC, 2000).

% Moisture = (weight of wet sample – weight of dry sample) x 100

Sample weight

Determination of Ash Content

1 gram of the samples was weighed into a clean dried and cooled crucible. It was incinerated in a
furnace at 550 to 600 0C for 3 hours. It was then removed and allowed to cool in desiccators and
weighed again. The percentage ash content was calculated as:

% Ash content = weight of ash (g) x 100

Wt. of original sample

Crude Protein Content Determination

2.0 g of the sample was weighed into a digestion flask containing 0.5g of selenium catalyst. 25
cm3 of concentrated H2SO4 was added and the contents thoroughly mixed. The flask was then
heated on a digestion burner for 8 hours until the solution was green and clear. The solution was
transferred into a 100 cm3 volumetric flask and made up to the mark with distilled water. 25 cm 3
of 2% boric acid was pipette into a 250 cm 3 conical flask and 2 drops of mixed indicator (20 cm 3

14
of bromocresol green and 4 cm3 of methyl red) solution were added 10 cm3 of the digested
sample solution was then introduced into a Kjeldahl flask, the condenser tip if the distillation
apparatus containing 15 cm3 if 40% NaOH was dipped into the boric acid contained in the
conical flask. The ammonia in the sample solution was then distilled into the boric acid until it
became bluish green. The distillate was titrated with 0.1M HCl solution colourless end point.
The percent total nitrogen and crude protein were calculated (AOAC, 2000).

% Total nitrogen = (100 x (VA – VB) x M x 0.01401) x 100

10W

Where:

VA = volume (cm3) of HCl used in the sample titration

VB = volume (cm3) of HCl used in the blank titration

M = Molarity of HCl W = weight of sample (g)

% Crude protein = % nitrogen x 6.25

Crude Fibre Content Determination

2.0 g of the defatted sample (from crude fat determination) was transferred into a 250 cm 3
Erlenmeyer flask and 2.5 cm3 of 1.25% H2SO4 was added. The content of the flask was boiled
under reflux and digested for 30 minutes. At the end of the 30minutes, the content was filtered
and subsequently washed with boiling water until the washings were no longer acidic using blue
litmus paper. The sample was washed back into the flask with 200 cm 3 boiling 1.25% NaOH
solution and boiled for 30 minutes. It was then filtered and thoroughly washed with boiling water
until the washings were no longer alkaline using red litmus paper. The crucible with its content
was then dried in an oven at 105 0C overnight and cooled in desiccators and weighed. The
crucible with its content was them ignited in a furnace at 600 0C for 30minutes, cooled and
weighed. The loss in weight was expressed as a percentage of the initial weight of the sample
(AOAC, 2000).

Crude fibre (%) = (Wt. of crucible + sample before ignition) – (weight of crucible + ash) x 100

Weight of fresh sample

15
Carbohydrate Content Determination

Total percentage carbohydrate (Nitrogen Free Extract) was determined by the difference method
as reported by Amadi et al., (2004). This method involves adding the total values of crude
protein, crude fat, crude fibre, moisture and ash constituents of the sample and subtracting it
from 100. The value obtained is the percentage carbohydrate.

% Carbohydrate = 100 – (% moisture + % ash + % protein + % fat + % fibre)

Determination of Crude Lipid Content

5g of the sample was weighed into the extraction thimble, and about 50 cm 3 of petroleum ether
(40 – 60 0C) range was added to the extraction flask. A condenser was fixed at the top of the
extractor. The flask was fitted into the extraction unity and refluxed to about 60 0C for 6 hours.
The ether extract was evaporated on an evaporating bath until the lipid was solvent free. This
was dried in an oven at 100 0C for 1 hour, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The lipid was
stored in plastic containers for further analysis.

% Total nitrogen = (weight of beaker + lipid) – (weight of beaker) x 100

Sample weight

3.2.3 Sensory properties evaluation

Sensory evaluation was carried out using a 10-man untrained panellist to access the organoleptic
attributes of the prepared samples. The organoleptic attributes assessed were; taste, aroma,
appearance and general acceptability. The panellists were selected randomly from the students of
Taraba state university, Jalingo. The sensitivity evaluation was conducted using a 9-point
hedonic scale as described by (Ihekoronye & Ngoddy, 1985), where the scoring scale range from
9 = liked extremely and to 1 = disliked extremely.

16
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