32 Positive Psychology

Gloria H. M. Park and Ashley Corn

INTRODUCTION

What is a life well-lived? And how do we get there? How do we promote human flourishing
and well-being? These are the types of questions explored by positive psychology researchers
and practitioners when examining the conditions and processes that enable flourishing in indi-
viduals, groups, and institutions. For optimal human functioning, building strength at both the
physiological and psychological levels is crucial. A healthy mind creates a healthy body, and a
healthy body can have a reciprocal effect on aiding happiness and well-being (Hefferon, 2013).
The physical and psychological health benefits of physical activity are well documented, and
growing connections between physical activity and well-being across the lifespan continue to be
established (Acevedo, 2012; Buecker et al., 2021; Penedo & Dahn, 2005). Despite compelling
evidence supporting the link between exercise and well-being, health professionals continue to
be challenged by how to move people from contemplation to health behavior transformation.
In this chapter, we will introduce you to the basic tenets of positive psychology and explore
how positive psychology interventions may also help individuals adopt regular physical activ-
ity and adhere to exercise programs. We argue that goal setting is one of the most effective
and empirically supported methods for enhancing motivation and adherence to exercise and
physical activity, and that several theoretical concepts from positive psychology can enhance our
understanding of the nuances of the goal-setting process. In addition to the well-established
approaches practitioners are already using to guide clients toward health goals, we will introduce
several validated positive interventions that may also provide a new perspective to augment cur-
rent practices. We will also make suggestions for positive interventions that may make goal set-
ting even more effective, and we will foster discussion about future directions and implications
of bridging the two fields in the spirit of enabling well-being and flourishing, both physically
and psychologically.

FROM HAPPINESS TO WELL-BEING

The modern-day adaptation of positive psychology grew from a call put forth by then past
president of the American Psychological Association, Martin E.P. Seligman, in 1999, who urged
social scientists to begin broadening psychology’s paradigm beyond curing pathology, mediat-
ing deficits, and simply treating disorder and illness (Gable & Haidt, 2005). In the near quarter
century following Seligman’s address, the study of positive psychology has advanced theory
on what is right and good in the human condition, and explored salient approaches to build-
ing psychological wellness. It seeks to balance the scale to make goodness, human strength,
meaningful relationships, enabling communities, success, meaning, and all that goes right in
life, equally important areas to explore and illuminate as illness, suffering, and all that is wrong
about humanity.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003279587-32 483

484 Gloria H. M. Park and Ashley Corn
At its outset, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) defined positive psychology as the “sci-
ence of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions” (p. 7).
Much of the initial research was focused on how to increase happiness (as measured by life satis-
faction), and, without intent, positive psychology became associated with images of smiling and
cheer (Seligman, 2011) and was defined as a “happiology” in the scientific community as well as
in public perception. Despite the initially narrow focus, some of the key findings from the fol-
lowing decades of research highlighted why studying happiness had value in its own right (see
Bao & Lyubomirsky, 2013). Researchers learned that happiness is not merely the by-product of
attaining success, accumulating material or financial assets, or obtaining ideal life circumstances.
Happiness has value and practical utility; it is associated with many physical, psychological, social,
and cognitive benefits throughout life. Happiness is associated with, and can precede, success
in various domains in life such as marriage, relationships, and work (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005;
Oishi et al., 2007). Happiness and optimism were also associated with better health (Fried-
man & Kern, 2014), more robust social networks, stronger interpersonal relationships, and
greater longevity (Diener & Chan, 2011).
Seligman (2011) recently acknowledged shortcomings in his introductory theory of positive
psychology, inadequacies that were often the focus of critics of the field: well-being cannot be
reduced to affective contentment and cheer nor measured simply by life satisfaction. The role
of current mood states on assessments of well-being need to be disentangled, and the concept
of well-being itself needed clarification in terms of what it encompassed and measured. Well-
being research has expanded greatly over the past decade, as have the practical applications
of well-being science (Rusk & Waters, 2013). However, as a multi-dimensional and complex
construct, there remains little consensus among theorists on what constitutes well-being (see
Jayawickreme et al., 2012, for a full discussion). As an example, Well-being Theory (Seligman,
2011, 2018) includes several facets or dimensions that can be encapsulated in the acronym
PERMA: Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Achievement (for a
comprehensive discussion of Well-being Theory, see Forgeard et al., 2011; Seligman, 2018).
Alternative theories may include or exclude other hypothesized contributors or components
to well-being.

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY EMBODIED

The authors of this chapter envision a holistic view of well-being, one that is incomplete without
a discussion of the role of the human body, the true “engine” of well-being. Human beings are
embodied. Thus, vitality, physical health, and absence from pain and illness should be included
in the pursuit of a comprehensive state of well-being since the mind and body are inextrica-
bly connected. Positive psychology aims to study all the factors that promote well-being and
optimal human functioning, and in recent years, there has been an increasing emphasis on the
impact of the physical self and health status in the positive psychology literature. Exercise and
future-mindedness are key components to maximize chances of a long and healthy life (Selig-
man, 2011), and the field of positive psychology should pay closer attention to the benefits that
regular exercise has on well-being. Physical activity is a primary pathway to physical health and
should be leveraged as a mechanism that will help individuals and communities thrive and flour-
ish (Mutrie & Faulkner, 2004). Hefferon and Mutrie (2012) argued that physical activity can be
considered a “stellar” positive intervention in that exercise can be linked to both hedonic and
eudemonic aspects of well-being.
In this section, we will briefly discuss some of the current findings related to habitual physi-
cal activity and its effects on physical and psychological well-being. It is well known that regu-
lar physical activity greatly impacts physiological functioning and greatly decreases the risk of
developing many adverse health conditions including, coronary heart disease, sleep disorders,
 Positive Psychology 485
osteoporosis, hypertension, obesity, type 2 diabetes, breast and colon cancers, and even pre-
mature death (Biddle & Mutrie, 2001; Department of Health, 2004; Lee et al., 2012). In
addition to the physical health benefits, there is now a strong body of research supporting the
relationship between physical activity and overall psychological well-being (see Acevedo, 2012;
Biddle & Mutrie, 2001).
There is evidence to support that regular physical activity can enhance self-esteem and pro-
mote physical self-worth, often considered two of the most important indicators of psychologi-
cal well-being (Fox, 2000). Spence et al. (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of 113 studies on
the effects of exercise on global self-esteem, and found that exercise participation leads to small
but significant increases in global self-esteem. Physical activity is theorized to increase physical
self-worth and self-esteem due to enabling the mastery of new tasks, providing a greater sense of
personal control, and allowing for time away from the stressful aspects of one’s life (Fox, 2000).
Additionally, physical activity makes people feel better. Regular participation in physical
activity is consistently associated with both short and long term increases in positive mood and
psychological well-being (Biddle & Mutrie, 2001; Dua & Hargreaves, 1992; Maxwell & Lynn,
2015; Penedo & Dahn, 2005; Reed & Buck, 2009). Some of the strongest evidence support-
ing the positive correlation between psychological functioning and physical activity comes
from the study of depression: A physically active lifestyle is associated with lower levels of
depression and an inactive lifestyle significantly increases the likelihood of developing depres-
sion in children and adolescents (Brown et al., 2013). A more recent systematic review by Dale
et al. (2019) examined physical activity and mental health outcomes in children and youth,
and found that physical activity was associated with lower depression and improved physical
self-concept. However, the quality of such studies needs to be improved to determine how
to use physical activity as an intervention. Meta-analytic studies revealed that physical activity
interventions reduced depression in mentally ill populations (Rosenbaum et al., 2014) and
reduced depression (Conn, 2010) and anxiety symptoms (Rebar et al., 2015) in non-clinical
populations. Acute bouts of exercise are also associated with small reductions in state anxiety
(Ensari et al., 2015).
Current research has sought to explain the effects of physical activity on sleep and cognitive
functioning. Some of the evidence associated with sleep suggests that individuals who exercise
regularly are able to fall asleep more quickly, and sleep longer and more deeply than individuals
who do not exercise (Kredlow et al., 2015). Though varied results have been reported on the
effects of physical activity and academic improvement in youth, a meta-analysis of the literature
showed that physical activity has a significantly positive impact on children’s cognitive outcomes
and academic achievement (Ahn & Fedewa, 2011). In addition, Boutcher (2000) found that
cognitive performance in older age is associated with physical fitness, physical activity, and sports
participation. Another study by Laurin et al. (2001) demonstrated that regular high levels of
physical activity halved the risk for cognitive impairment, Alzheimer’s disease, and dementia.
How does exercise produce psychological changes? Some of the theorized mechanisms
responsible for how positive psychological changes occur through physical activity include
thermogenic changes, as well as shifts in endorphins, serotonin, and neurotransmitters in the
body. These changes impact subjective well-being, mood or affect, stress, and self-esteem,
which are all important factors in optimal human functioning and overall well-being (Hef-
feron & Mutrie, 2012). We know that the human body has a somatopsychic effect on mental
health and well-being by acting as a buffer against depression and anxiety, as a protective factor
in the decline of cognitive function and ability, and plays a large role in the acquisition of self-
efficacy and competency beliefs (Hefferon, 2013). Despite research supporting the benefits of
regular physical activity, and the evidence based guidelines developed around the amount of
physical activity needed to gain health benefits, more than half of the U.S. population does not
adhere to the recommended amount of physical activity necessary to reap the benefits (Haskell
et al., 2007).
486 Gloria H. M. Park and Ashley Corn
BRIDGING POSITIVE AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY THROUGH
GOAL-SETTING

Health promotion and disease prevention practitioners have long used the tenets of goal-setting
theory to help aid in the adoption and maintenance of healthy behaviors. Goal-setting theory
is based on the idea that “conscious goals affect action” (Locke & Latham, 2002, p. 705), and
researchers have devoted much of their attention to examining how goals affect motivation
and performance, and how they can facilitate behavior change (see Weinberg, 2014). Goals are
effective in shifting behavior because they create challenges and, in turn, feelings of accomplish-
ment when goals are met. Goals have the potential to add meaning to otherwise meaningless
activities, and can make completing tasks more enjoyable (Latham, 2003). Over 400 studies
have shed light on how the practice of effective goal-setting can enhance task performance,
bolster motivation and feelings of accomplishment, and marshal attention and focus (Locke &
Latham, 2006).
Locke and Latham (2002) suggest that goals positively impact performance by affecting
the goal-setter directly and indirectly. First and foremost, goals direct attention to where it is
necessary. Second, people are often energized by setting goals. Third, goal-setters persist in the
pursuit of a goal longer than they would other pursuits without a specific goal. Fourth, hav-
ing goals leads goal-setters to use their own knowledge and skills more completely and in new,
strategic ways.
Positive psychology theories and interventions can also help advance the way we think about
goal-setting theory and change the landscape of the possible methods and strategies available
to enhance exercise motivation and adherence. Positive interventions are, in theory, different
from typical psychological interventions because they place the focus away from curing illness
and pathology or diminishing deficits. These interventions focus instead on building individual
strengths and competencies to promote mental health and well-being. It is difficult to truly
define what a positive intervention precisely is, and is not (Parks & Biswas-Diener, 2013).
Broadly speaking, Parks and Biswas-Diener conceptualize positive interventions as having a
focus on positive topics, interventions that operate by a positive mechanism or target a positive
outcome variable, and interventions designed to promote wellness rather than to fix weakness.
Using goal-setting theory as the foundation, positive psychology approaches can help
enhance the process in several ways. First, practitioners can enhance goal commitment by help-
ing people connect with what they deeply value and bring the most profound sense of mean-
ing and purpose to their lives during the goal-setting process. Second, by building resilience
through cognitive-behavioral approaches, fostering a growth mindset, and teaching skills of flex-
ible and accurate thinking, positive psychology interventions can augment cognitive processing
of goals, interpretations of setbacks and failures, and create more productive styles of thinking.
Finally, positive psychology theory can also inform how individuals can shift how they measure
goal progress and achievement, and provide alternative ways of conceptualizing goal success. In
the next few sections, we will explore how positive psychology interventions and practice can
enhance goal achievement by enhancing goal commitment through self-regulation, managing
setbacks through developing a resilient mindset, and maintaining motivation through celebrat-
ing successes.

Enhancing Goal Commitment Through Self-Regulation

Goal-setting appears to be intuitive, but effective goal setting is nuanced and complicated. It
begins with goal commitment and how to set goals in a way that enhances one’s long-term
commitment to the goal and the goal directed behaviors. We know from traditional goal set-
ting theory that goal commitment moderates goals and subsequent behavior and, without a
strong sense of objective commitment, there is a greater chance of low task performance and
 Positive Psychology 487
goal failure (Klein et al., 2001). One well known, traditionally used strategy to enhance goal
commitment is to make superordinate goals concrete and actionable through SMART goals -
specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time bound - which far exceed the ability to
­produce high levels of performance and motivation when compared to more generalized goals
(Latham, 2003). Goal-setting is a complex, social-psychological, and self-regulatory process that
can greatly impact health behavior (Mann et al., 2013) and is a promising intervention strategy
for changing dietary and physical activity behavior in adults (Shilts et al., 2004). For a full discus-
sion on psychological skills for health behavior change, see Chapter 10 in this volume.
How do people decide what goals to set for themselves and which of those are most worth
pursuing? The use of effective prospection and planning is one strategy for addressing challenges
that impact goal-striving (Mann et al., 2013). Seligman et al. (2013) have recently proposed
that counter to the belief that has dominated much of psychology in the past, human beings are
not simply driven by their pasts, and that, “past history, present circumstance, and inner states
drive behavior …” (p. 119). The process of constructing and evaluating an array of new pos-
sibilities and the subsequent selection of action in light of values and goals is called prospection,
and theorists argue that “intelligent action is guided by assessment of future possibilities rather
than driven by the past” and that “a major function of human consciousness is to permit better
prospection of the future” (Seligman et al., 2013, p. 129).
Establishing goals through the lens of prospection can offer an alternative way of think-
ing about the goals we set out for ourselves. One intervention that may be helpful in helping
enhance goal commitment is the Best Possible Future Self intervention, which is a validated
positive psychology tool that may improve goal adherence through imagery and expressive writ-
ing about one’s goals and through articulating a vision of their “best possible self” (King, 2008;
Lyubomirsky, 2007). Through deeply envisioning what their best selves look like in the future,
individuals are able to clarify their values, solidify their approach, and establish the steps neces-
sary to live life congruent with their highest aspirations. King (2008) found that the articula-
tion of best possible self and daily striving toward goals that are aligned with a greater life goal
was significantly correlated with well-being. The Best Possible Future Self intervention could
provide an excellent platform for practitioners to help clients establish their ultimate exercise
goal and their approach for obtaining that goal. For example, one might start by having clients
visualize and write about their best possible selves in terms of accomplishing their exercise goal.
Having their clients be specific about what it will mean to them and how they will feel, think,
and look, after their goal is achieved could provide valuable insight into what they want to
accomplish and ignite their motivation for pursuing the goal.
In goal pursuit, envisioning a positive future and the achievement of goals isn’t enough to
energize and motivate action. Positive thinking may feel good, but it does not help the person
setting goals anticipate and plan for the inevitable obstacles and setbacks they will encounter
along the way, which are both common predictors of goal abandonment. A strategy called men-
tal contrasting could be used to prospect and plan for barriers in the goal striving process. Men-
tal contrasting is the process of alternating between imagining and indulging in what it might
look like to attain a goal, and then dwelling on the obstacles that may stand in the way en route
to goal achievement. Studies have found that setting proper expectations about the difficulty and
potential obstacles one is likely to face in pursuit of a goal increases planning, persistence, and
goal directed behavior (Oettingen & Stephens, 2009). One caveat to using mental contrasting is
that it is only effective with individuals who truly believe they have the ability to reach their goal.
If the individual does not really believe that they will be successful, mental contrasting could
have a negative effect on the process (Oettingen & Stephens, 2009).
Once the goal has been set, motivation is an essential component in the goal setting and
attainment process, and therefore, it is a preeminent concern for practitioners, trainers, and
coaches in the sport and exercise field. Self-determination theory illuminates some of the psycho-
logical processes that influence exercise participation and adherence. Self-determination theory
488 Gloria H. M. Park and Ashley Corn
proposes that humans seek to fulfill three innate psychological needs: relatedness, competence,
and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Relatedness is the need to feel a deep sense of belonging
and connection to others. Competence is the need to feel that one has the skills and abilities
required to accomplish goals and ends. Autonomy is the need for free will and having the choice
to select experiences. According to Ryan and Deci (2000), the fulfillment of these needs is
essential for optimal functioning and personal well-being, as well as kindling intrinsic and inter-
nal motivation. Intrinsic and internal motivation is supported when someone feels autonomous
and able to engage in an activity out of their own volition, thereby enhancing enjoyment and
engagement in the pursuit of an activity, persistence in the face of difficulty, and creativity, and
enhanced performance (Halvorson, 2010). In addition, multiple studies within the exercise
domain support the premise that autonomy supportive environments produce motivation and
cultivate success (Edmunds et al., 2006; Wilson & Rodgers, 2004).
Ryan and Deci (2000) believe that the environment either promotes intrinsic motivation
or stifles it. Therefore, practitioners and trainers should strive to increase their clients’ internal
sources of motivation and well-being by creating a supportive environment. First, this can be
done by assisting their clients in setting the right goals. Research shows goals that satisfy the
need for relatedness, competence, or autonomy are the most fulfilling goals, and lead to the
most satisfaction (Halvorson, 2010). Connecting goals to deeper values is one way that this can
be accomplished. For example, helping reformulate the initial goal of losing weight to look bet-
ter or adhere to social pressure by connecting the goal to one or more of the basic needs, such as
“improving relationship with my spouse,” (relatedness) or, “having energy I need to accomplish
what I want in my career” (competence) will make the goal more meaningful and help to create
intrinsic motivation. Second, practitioners can create environments that foster the development
of basic needs by connecting these to personal goals. Clients can be encouraged to build on
their sense of relatedness by taking group classes or using family members and friends as support
through the goal process. Assessing the clients’ starting point and gradually building on previ-
ously developed skills to move toward more difficult goals can help foster a sense of competence.
Lastly, providing an array of options and allowing the client to have some say in developing the
exercise routine may help enhance feelings of autonomy.
Another way we see positive psychology concepts enhancing goal commitment is by further
connecting goals to an individual’s values and providing a deeper sense of meaning and purpose.
Goal-systems theory dictates that goal-conflict can be reduced by linking health goals to per-
sonal goals and when health goals are a means to multiple ends (Mann et al., 2013). Along this
vein, connecting physical activity goals with gains in the various facets of PERMA (positive emo-
tions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement) may also enhance goal coherence,
reduce goal conflict, and create a method of connecting the singular goal of increased exercise
with the much larger, more complex goal of well-being. Health goals are often perceived as
conflicting with other goals. When goals can be set to support the development of basic needs,
and coincide rather than compete with goals in other domains, goal conflict can be reduced, and
goal adoption may be enhanced (Riediger & Freund, 2004).
Setting the goal and gaining goal commitment are the first steps toward goal attainment, but
typically, there are numerous obstacles one must navigate to take action and put effort toward a
goal. Often individuals have grand intentions of reaching goals, but individuals will fail to do so
because of missed opportunities to attend to the goals or failure to self-regulate. Executing the
behaviors that enable a person to effectively strive toward and stay on track with established goals
requires self-regulation, particularly when it comes to adopting health-related goals. Avoiding
temptations and goal distractions and regulating impulses that inhibit goal attainment deplete
self-regulation (Bratslavsky et al., 1998). Goal commitment must be trained and exercised, and
studies have shown that adherence to a physical activity program could enhance self-regulation
across a range of unrelated domains (Baumeister et al., 2006). Physical exercise, then, both
requires and restores self-regulation.
 Positive Psychology 489
Social scientists as far back as William James (1899) argued that one of the most effective
ways to improve well-being is by developing good habits by committing oneself completely to a
goal, taking immediate action, and being willing to experience suffering and self-denial along the
way. However, new research suggests that self-control is not limited to simply exercising effortful
inhibition of maladaptive impulses or suppressing unwanted impulses related to a goal (Galla &
Duckworth, 2015). The formation of habits, or “automatic response tendencies that are triggered
by contextual cues,” and “formed via the gradual development of mental associations between a
frequently repeated behavior and recurring situational cues,” are critical to goal adherence (Galla &
Duckworth, 2015, p. 2). Facilitating automated behaviors and crafting good habits are another
way to preserve conscious attention, maintain self-regulatory resources, and prevent ego-depletion.
Habitual responses can become solidified with sustained practice through forging connections
between contextual and situational cues and the desired behaviors, until, eventually, environmental
triggers lead to automated behaviors (see Galla & Duckworth, 2015, for a full discussion).
Sustained effort at the outset of a goal fosters the automation of good habits, thereby con-
serving physical and psychological energy. One method to reduce the burden on conscious
attention is by utilizing environmental cues and priming strategies. For example, Gollwitzer
(1993) proposed a strategy called implementation intentions, which promotes the initiation of
goal-directed behaviors when opportunities arise. Implementation intentions are phrased in the
format of “I intend to do x when situation y is encountered,” thus linking the anticipated future
situation to the goal-directed behavior (Gollwitzer, 1993). For example, an implementation
intention could look like, “every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, I will wake up at 6:00 to run
30 minutes before work.” When the alarm goes off at 6:00 AM on Monday, it acts as a cue to
take action toward the goal. A meta-analysis on 94 studies measured the effects of implementa-
tion intentions, and found that they promoted the initiation of goal striving and had a strong
positive effect on goal attainment (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).
A model of goal setting called WOOP (Oettingen, 2012) leverages mental contrasting cou-
pled with implementation intentions to help enhance goal directed behavior. WOOP consists
of four steps:

1. Wish: Begin with a meaningful wish or important concern, and should be something chal-
lenging, realistic, and attainable.
2. Outcome: This step asks goal setters to deeply imagine, see, and feel what it would be like
to attain the best possible outcome and to think about what it would look and feel like to
have that wish fulfilled.
3. Obstacle: Next, goal setters are asked to imagine an internal obstacle––such as thoughts,
feelings, bad habits, or actions—that might prevent them from working toward the wish,
and to deeply imagine what it might feel like to encounter that obstacle.
4. Plan: The final step involves devising a plan for overcoming the internal obstacle. This
plan involves “if…then” statements known as implementation intentions. Using “if…then”
statements helps to deliberately connect a plan to the obstacles identified ahead of time.

Research studies in behavior change have shown that WOOP can support efforts to increase
physical activity in both healthy (e.g., Stadler et al., 2009) and clinical (e.g., Christiansen et al.,
2010) populations.

MANAGING SETBACKS THROUGH DEVELOPING A RESILIENT

MINDSET

Goal pursuit is fraught with stress and adversity. As expectations are often met with setbacks,
how individuals process, reflect on, and learn from goal setbacks and failures forms a critical
490 Gloria H. M. Park and Ashley Corn
determinant of success. According to Reivich and Shatté (2002), resilience is broadly defined as
the ability to bounce back or recover quickly from stress or adversity and appears to be comprised
of ordinary competencies that enable a person to endure through challenges to reach goals, and
find constructive ways to navigate through adversity. Within any theory of behavior change, and
particularly related to exercise and physical fitness goals, there is a high probability that a person
will encounter goal failure, especially in the early stages of change. As such, developing a resilient
mindset––one that is strengths-focused, oriented toward growth, optimism, and hope––can bet-
ter equip individuals with the ability to carry forward once a challenge has been met.
To begin, in the goal-setting process, it is common practice to evaluate the barriers and the
available resources that may hinder or facilitate goal attainment. It is easy to identify environ-
mental and circumstantial barriers (e.g., lack of time) and exogenous resources (e.g., support
network) that one can leverage during goal striving. It is less intuitive for individuals to iden-
tify the strengths within themselves that can enable better goal choice and provide them with
endogenous resources they can leverage when faced with challenges and setbacks. Peterson and
Seligman (2004) endeavored to create consensual definitions and a common language around
understanding individual strengths of character, codifying the behaviors and attitudes that reflect
a person’s “signs of nature” or core being. The Values in Action Survey of Character (VIA-IS)
is a 240-item, validated questionnaire that produces rankings for an individual’s 24 character
strengths across six broad classes of virtues: wisdom and knowledge, courage, humanity, justice,
temperance, and transcendence (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). The survey can be taken online
at no cost at [Link]. The results of an individual’s survey can then be used as a
platform to discuss how strengths can be effectively leveraged in the goal process.
There is compelling evidence to support that greater understanding and employment of
character strengths enable well-being. Strengths of bravery, humor, kindness, spirituality, and
appreciation of beauty have been associated with successful recovery from physical illness, psy-
chological disorder and the deleterious effects of trauma (Peterson et al., 2006). A recent study
on character strengths and physical well-being found that all of the character strengths except
for spirituality and modesty were positively related to health-related behaviors, such as feeling
healthy and leading a healthy way of life (Proyer et al., 2013). In addition, Proyer et al. (2013)
found that self-regulation, curiosity, zest, leadership, and hope were positively related to overall
fitness. The ongoing research on character strengths and physical health portrays the positive
role that character strengths play at the individual and provider levels: (1) At the individual level,
character strengths can support health promotion and management of illness (e.g., chronic pain;
Graziosi et al., 2022); and (2) At the provider level, strengths can reduce burnout and support
well-being in hospital physicians (Kachel et al., 2021). Finding novel ways to use one’s signature
strengths can increase happiness and decrease depression (Gander et al., 2013; Mongrain &
Anselmo-Matthews, 2012). When work, relationships, and environments support the use of
signature strengths on a daily basis, individuals feel more satisfied, energized, and more engaged
with their lives.
Finding ways to deliberately utilize strengths in conjunction with the pursuit of fitness goals
can help to bolster motivation, adherence, and enjoyment along the way. With this premise in
mind, Hefferon and Mutrie (2012) proposed that trainers build an exercise program around
their clients’ top character strengths. For example, fun exercise classes like Zumba may be appeal-
ing to those with the top strength of humor and playfulness, while raising money for a favorite
charity through participating in a race may excite someone with a top strength of kindness and
generosity. In addition, knowing their clients’ strengths could assist trainers in identifying the
most effective delivery method for the fitness program. For example, a fitness plan for someone
with caution and prudence as their top strength would probably need to look different than a fit-
ness plan for someone whose signature strengths are bravery or zest. The daily pursuit of activi-
ties congruent with one’s signature strengths is robustly correlated with well-being (Peterson &
Seligman, 2004). Therefore, it seems reasonable to believe that building a fitness plan around
 Positive Psychology 491
someone’s strengths and providing clients with the opportunity to put their strengths to use in
the exercise environment will enhance engagement and energy in the processes, help navigate
challenges, as well as build confidence toward goals.
Another key aspect of developing a resilient mindset is optimism, here defined as attributional
style (or explanatory style). Distinct from dispositional optimism, explanatory style describes the
way in which an individual interprets events and outcomes that he or she experiences in life, and
attempts to make causal inferences about why that event occurred (Weiner, 1985). A person
with a pessimistic attributional style explains negative outcomes or failures as one’s own fault
(internal), as unchanging (stable), and as occurring at all times across all situations (global)
(Schulman et al., 1987). In contrast, a person with an optimistic attributional style explains
negative outcomes as due to environmental factors (external), as variable (unstable), and as
occurring as an isolated incident in a specific situation (specific) (Peterson & Seligman, 1984).
The depressive or persistently pessimistic attributional style can lead to a form of helpless-
ness referred to as “learned helplessness,” which is characterized by the belief that an individual
has no control over negative outcomes (Seligman et al., 1979), is strongly related to the devel-
opment of clinical depression (Metalsky & Joiner, 1992), and, when coupled with prolonged
exposure to uncontrollable aversive events, results in motivational, cognitive, and behavioral
deficits. Optimistic attributional style, on the other hand, has been shown to have positive effects
on health behavior, immune function, and recovery from illness (Seligman, 1998). In general,
attributions are theorized to influence how people set proximal goals and how those intentions
drive future behavior (Shields et al., 2006).
In the realm of physical activity, much of the research on attributional style has been related to
sport performance. For example, optimistic attributional style has been associated with improved
performance after failure (Martin-Krumm et al., 2003; Seligman et al., 1990), and was found to
reduce effects of a low perceived ability on task value in physical education classes (Martin-Krumm
et al., 2005). Further, individuals who view themselves as having reached their physical activity
goals (measured by attendance at exercise class or change outcomes) tend to attribute their suc-
cess to more internal, controllable, and stable causes (Shields et al., 2006). One possible modera-
tor between attributions and health behavior is self-efficacy, or a person’s perceived beliefs about
their abilities to produce a certain level of performance (Bandura, 1994). It appears that one’s
coping strategies may directly affect one’s ability to manage the demands to meet desired goals,
and an individual’s perceived self-efficacy is believed to influence the choice of tasks, the level of
task performance, the amount of effort put into performing the task, and perseverance in the task
performance (Bandura, 1994). Self-efficacy, and the management of attributions, become a criti-
cal part of maintaining motivation to help keep people on track with their physical activity goals.
Attribution retraining programs have been explored as a potential way to boost physical activ-
ity levels with the intent of helping individuals make accurate attributions about their levels of
physical activity, and aiding them in evaluating inaccurate assumptions about why they are not
meeting their goals. For example, Sarkisian et al. (2007) (as a part of an attribution retraining
program with sedentary, older adults) helped participants disassociate the belief that a seden-
tary lifestyle is often attributed to old age. By enabling the participants to make more accurate
attributions about the causes of their inactivity, the intervention helped increase activity levels
(Sarkisian et al., 2007). Thus, thinking more flexibly and accurately, and realistically, about goals
can help individuals make more productive attributions toward reaching goals, even in the face
of perceived setbacks and failure.
Finally, the prospect of developing a resilient mindset does not have to be a singular endeavor.
The most resilient people rely on both resources within themselves and on perspectives outside
of themselves to be able to stay on track with goals.
Feedback (whether provided through self-monitoring from external sources) on progress
toward goals is a critical piece of the goal-setting process (Ashford et al., 2013). Often, feedback
is focused on addressing failures and shortcomings, with the hope that this information will shape
492 Gloria H. M. Park and Ashley Corn
changes and revisions to future efforts. Although corrective feedback is important for successful
goal striving, encouragement and praise can provide motivational boosts throughout the goal
striving process. However, as with effective criticism, research has shown that not all praise is
created equal (Dweck, 2007). Exercise practitioners, such as coaches and personal trainers, can
foster a growth mindset––the belief that clients’ abilities can be strengthened and developed
through hard work and dedication––by enhancing the kind of feedback they provide to clients.
Dweck (2006) argues that praise focused on effort rather than ability is sincere rather than
disingenuous, and is specific rather than general, appears to contribute to enhanced performance
and promotes a sense of control and accountability in the final outcome. Dweck’s research shed
light on how ability-focused praise could potentially lead to underperformance. In the academic
sphere, students praised for being smart often chose easier tasks to try when given a choice to
avoid making mistakes and looking stupid (Dweck, 2006). Since beliefs about physical ability,
self-efficacy, and self-esteem can be linked to exercise behavior and participation, it would be use-
ful for practitioners to understand how certain types of praise can be more useful than others to
an individual. Through setting mastery goals and providing feedback focused on successful skill
acquisition and incremental improvements in ability (vs. outcome attainment), practitioners can
reduce the all-or-nothing thinking often associated with failure to adopt physical activity goals.

CELEBRATING SUCCESSES

For many individuals, the types of goals they set at the outset of a physical activity program con-
cern weight and/or body fat loss, achieving a particular body shape, or gains in physical strength
and cardiorespiratory fitness levels. Success or failure then is measured based on how much or
how little headway one makes toward a very specific outcome. It is often the case that practi-
tioners (e.g., personal trainers) will also use similar metrics as a yardstick of progress. However,
not all people are primarily motivated to exercise to bring about physical and aesthetic changes.
Some may be more inspired to have more vigor and energy to do the things they are most pas-
sionate about, make stronger social connections, or enhance psychological well-being. However,
often these perceptually secondary goals are not monitored and tracked with as much rigor and
regularity as the physiological changes experienced. Here, we explore alternative methods to
monitor positive changes in well-being and psychological states enhanced by the adoption of
physical activity programs.
As previously discussed, both chronic and acute exercise can lead to positive shifts in mood,
and reductions in depressive and anxiety symptoms. One of the greatest contributions of positive
psychology research comes from studying the benefits of positive emotion. Positive emotions
have the capacity to broaden the scope of attention; raise awareness of the surrounding environ-
ment and increase openness to stimuli; build durable intellectual (problem solving, learning),
physical (coordination, cardiovascular health), social (bonding, inter-personal relationships),
and psychological (resilience, goal orientation) resources; and can serve as effective antidotes to
physiological activation and cardiovascular reactivity that result from experiencing negative emo-
tions (Fredrickson, 2009). Fredrickson and colleagues found that positive emotions are effective
antidotes to the damaging physiological effects of negative emotions (Fredrickson et al., 2000),
increase cognitive flexibility (Fredrickson, 2009), and build durable psychological resources that
enable well-being (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). In addition to impacting psychological factors,
positive emotions reduce blood pressure, basal metabolism, heart rate, respiratory rate, and
muscle tension (Fredrickson et al., 2008).
Tracking shifts in positive emotions or depressive symptoms can provide an alternative meas-
ure of exercise adoption success, and perhaps also create a virtuous cycle. Emotional experi-
ences induced by physical activity can also serve as a mechanism to build psychosocial resources,
whereas sedentary behavior is inversely linked to positive affectivity and psychosocial resources
 Positive Psychology 493
(Hogan et al., 2015). One study found that higher levels of positive affect were associated with
higher levels of habitual physical activity (Pasco et al., 2011). Much in the way many track physi-
ological shifts and consequences of exercise programs, changes in mood, and experienced affect,
along with the practical outcomes of those changes, should be monitored as a measure of change
and progress. For example, one could track shifts in positive emotions and mood that result from
participating in physical activity and exercise. Practitioners could create opportunities and tools
that would help deepen clients’ understanding of the mental health benefits of exercise, and
expand the traditional perspective on the changes that the adoption of regular exercise can bring
to overall health and wellness.
The psychological literature also supports that it is human nature to focus more on the nega-
tive than on the positive; the negative, whether it is our own self-perceptions, events in our lives,
or in the information we see in the world, has a greater valance than the positive (see Baumeister
et al., 2001). Translated to health behaviors, it is easy to see how the focus on the negative can
impact the motivation we are able to maintain on the path toward adopting healthier lifestyles.
If the bad is stronger than the good, then we are likely to spend more time mulling over how we
fell short of a goal, how we missed a workout, or didn’t live up to our own expectations, than
processing what went well. There are several interventions from positive psychology research
designed specifically for helping to savor and offset the negativity bias. One such intervention
is through the cultivation of gratitude (Emmons, 2004; Wood et al., 2010). Gratitude journal
interventions designed to cultivate a sense of gratitude involve creating a daily habit of recording
a good thing or what went well in one’s life and a reflection on why that good thing happened
(Emmons & Stern, 2013). Gratitude has been shown to bring on healing effects both personally
and interpersonally, as well as have a strong connection to mental health, well being, and the
ability to cope with everyday stress (Emmons & Stern, 2013). For those pursuing exercise goals,
gratitude can be cultivated through the use of an adapted journal, instructing users to notice and
record at least one thing that went well during a physical activity session and naming the effort or
behavior-focused strategy or skill that led to the successful outcome. The gratitude journal also
becomes a valuable tool to use to look back on experienced successes, particularly during times
when motivation is flagging.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

This chapter begins to explore a few of the possible ways that positive psychology and applied
exercise psychology can complement and augment each other, both in theory and in practice.
There is a clear need for the interventions reviewed in this chapter to be tested specifically within
the exercise psychology domain, and while many of these interventions have been empirically
tested in other domains, whether they would effectively translate remains to be researched. Col-
laboration between researchers and practitioners in both of these fields would enable greater
understanding of how to bridge positive and exercise psychology to enhance well-being, and
also to understand the limitations each poses in practical applications.
The field of positive psychology can learn how to leverage physical activity as an effective
intervention in creating a good life, and the field of exercise psychology can explore ways to aug-
ment current coaching, training, and consulting practices by using positive psychology concepts
and interventions to aid people in health goal striving and achievement. We hope that one of the
possible outcomes of such collaboration would be in the development of assessments and tools
that would expand the way we conceptualize success related to the adoption and maintenance
of physical activity programs. At the intersection of positive psychology and applied exercise
psychology exists the possibility for new and novel ways to enhance holistic well-being; one
that accounts for both psychological and physiological facets, and enables flourishing and a life
well-lived.
494 Gloria H. M. Park and Ashley Corn
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