GAMBELA UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Chapter two
Source of water supply
2.1 Rainwater
In regions where rainfall is abundant and frequent, rainwater can be a good source of water
supply for individual families and for small communities. The storage of rainwater is particularly
important in areas with a long dry season. It can be stored in cisterns or ponds. In some rural
sections of Ethiopia, cistern water is used for all domestic and farm purpose, including drinking.
This is particularly true where groundwater is difficult to obtain or, if obtainable, it is for any
reason of unsatisfactory.

Advantages of Rainwater:
1. It is a reliable source even if it rains once or twice a year only.
2. It is cheap and a safe means of water supply that may not need pipes or pumps and is
available at the doorstep.
3. Its storage needs no fuel, no spare parts, but only very little skill to construct and
maintain.
4. Since the cistern will be in a closed container, it will not permit spreading of diseases
which are often found in an unprotected source such as rivers or ponds.
5. It is a system that can be used even in arid and semi-arid areas.
6. Since rainwater is soft, little soap is needed for laundry purposes.
7. Unpleasant if collected in a dirty surface.

2.1.1 Functional Element of rain water harvesting

A). Catchment area
The success of rain catchment depends on two factors:
1. The amount of rainfall.
2. The area and character of the catchment surface.
3. The type of surface determines both the quality and quantity of water saved.

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Types of catchment area include:

Total runoff areas such as a hard roof surface or a protected paved area, which allows the
collection of nearly all the rain that falls on them. If surface dust and impurities are flushed away
first, the water collected should be good for domestic use.

Partial runoff areas are hard surfaces such as rocky outcrops, roads and pavements, which
allow the collection of up to half the rain falling on the area. Obviously the water will not be as
clean as water from total runoff surfaces but, if stored properly, it should be satisfactory for
livestock requirements. Other surfaces include open land surfaces, road drains and ends of
ridges. Water from these sources is likely to carry a considerable amount of sediment into the
storage, making the water suitable only for crop irrigation. If wells are dug close to surface water
storages, they can provide high quality water.

B). Storage
If a dependable, continuous source of water is available, no storage facilities are required.
However, with an intermittent supply, storage is absolutely essential. The theoretical size of the
storage required is determined by multiplying the total daily needs, for the family, livestock and
irrigation, by the forecast number of days without rain.

selection of tank size

This section describes four methods of rainwater roof tank sizing.
1. Balance method: This method balances the supply of water with the demand at the end of
each month and calculates the storage left in the tank. Assuming that the storage at the end of
each month can never be less than zero, this method can be used to determine the maximum tank
size needed to satisfy the family’s water requirements.
The basic formula (balance equation) is SE = SP + RM – DW
where: SE = Storage at the end of the month
SP = The amount stored at the end of the previous month
RM = Monthly rainfall × roof area × loss factor

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

DW = Amount of water used by a family in a given period

Example-1
Roof area = 75m2
Loss factor = 90%
Amount demanded per month are given in the parenthesis.
Calculate the storage capacity at the end of the month

Using this method, the supply and demand are calculated and the cumulative supply and demand
for each month is also calculated also. The maximum difference between the cumulative supply
and demand is determined either graphically or by calculation. This difference is the optimum
tank size. For the balance method, the optimum tank size is 18,060 liters.

2. Dry-season storage method

This is perhaps the simplest method for determining the size of a roof catchment tank.
First, estimate the longest period during the year without rain. For example:
December, January, February & march constitute the dry period in some parts of Ethiopia. This
is approximately 120 days without rain.

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Secondly, estimate the daily water use.

For example: for a family of eight people demanded 200 l/day the maximum period of dry month
was registered from December, January, February and march determine the size of the tank
required to satisfy the demand.
Tank size = Number of dry days × daily consumption
= 120 days × 200 liters = 24 000liters = (24m3)
If the annual yield is less than the dry-season storage tank size, the tank will have to be reduced
to the value of the annual rainfall yield. For example, if the rainfall is 500 mm per annum and the
effective roof area is 40m2, a maximum yield of 18 m3 (500 mm × 40 m2 × 0.9 = 18m3) is
obtained. This is less than the ideal tank size, so the tank size would be reduced to 18 m3.
3. Collecting and storing all the rainfall
This involves collecting all the rainfall from the roof and storing it until there is an acute
shortage. This implies that the tank size will be equal to the total supply for the year.
Tank size = Annual rainfall × roof area × 90% = 49 34liters (to above table in the column
labelled Rainfall supply,) This method is common in arid and semi-arid land (ASAL) areas,
where it may rain only once a year.

Roof catchment tank

One of the strongest and least expensive tank shapes for a roof catchment is cylindrical, with a
diameter greater than its height. The height is usually determined by the distance between the
surface of the tank foundation and the lowest point of the gutters. The formula for calculating the
volume of a cylindrical tank, using interior dimensions, is as follows:
V × h ×1000
where: V = volume, liter.
r = radius, meters
h = height, meter.
Example: 1 Calculate the volume of the tank shown in Figure bellow

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

V = 3.14 × 2.252 × 2.0 × 1 000 = 31,792.5liters

Catchment tank for the compound
Where a storage tank must be dug into a relatively level area of ground, an approximate half-
sphere shape is easiest. The volume of a half sphere can be found by using its radius in the
following formula:

where: V = volume, cubic meter r = radius of half sphere, meters.

Assume a pond roughly 26 meters in diameter with a uniform depth of 2 meters in the center
covering an area estimated to have a radius of 10 meters. Approximate the volume required
2.1.2 Factor considered during design of rain water storage tank
 The amount and distribution of annual rainfall
 The length of dry season, particularly drought periods
 The size and type of catchment area
 The intended uses of rainwater
 The number of users
 Availability of appropriate technology
 Affordability of the design components
 Life span of the design components
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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

 Ability of the storage tank to prevent contaminant

 Accessibility of storage tank to the user

2.2 surface water source

Surface water is found non-uniformly distributed over the earth’s surface. As the rain reaches the
surface of the earth, it becomes surface water or runoff. Surface water includes
1. rivers,
2. streams,
3. lakes,
4. ponds, etc.
The quantity and quality of surface water depend upon the conditions of the surface or
catchment area over which it flows.

3.3 Ground water

Groundwater is defined as that portion of the total precipitation which has percolated downward
into the porous space in the soil and rock where it remains, or from which it finds its way out to
the surface. Groundwater is by far the most practical and safe in nature. It is the most important
source of supply for most rural communities of the world. Examples of groundwater are wells
and springs.

Advantages of groundwater:
1. It is comparatively likely to be free from disease causing micro-organism
2. It can be used without further treatment if properly protected and treated immediately
after the completion of construction work on the well or other source where groundwater
is available.
3. It is not exposed for evaporation and is used as natural storage in underground.
4. It is most practical and economical to obtain and distribute.
5. Groundwater can be found near a family or a community.

Disadvantages of groundwater
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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

1. It needs pumping unless it comes from a spring

2. It may contain excess amounts of dissolved minerals.
3. It is poor in oxygen content.

Occurrence of groundwater

Groundwater may be found in the form of perched water, free water or confined water.

 Free water: Is groundwater occurring where there is no interruption or confining formation

in the water – bearing stratum. It is free movement of water under the water table, in the
impervious stratum of the soil formation.
 Confined water: Is groundwater located between the overlying (upper) confined stratum and
underlying (lower) confined stratum.
 Perched water: may occur where the water-bearing stratum is blocked by an impervious
barrier or bed, which may itself overlie on another aquifer or stratum.

In terms of depths of occurrence of the water –bearing stratum,

groundwater may be tapped by the following means.

 Shallow wells: Are wells that have been dug into the uppermost permeable stratum. They
have a depth of less than 30 meters. In shallow wells, the water level always stands with in
“sucking” distance of a pump located at the top of the well. (See Fig 3.1) b.
 Deep wells: Are wells that have been sunk through an impermeable formation until they tap
water from a permeable stratum below it. It is sunk with drilling machines designed and
produced for water. They tap water from a minimum depth of around 60 meters. Deep wells
frequently penetrate more than one water bearing stratum; therefore, they may provide a
stronger flow. Also, deep sources are less affected by drought as the water bearing
formations are more likely to be extensive in area.

In some areas deposits of salt, sulphur or other objectionable minerals make it unfit to drill deep
for water. Such conditions can usually be determined by a survey of existing wells in the area.
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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Deep wells are constructed for water supply in large communities. The water table in deep wells
does not rapidly fluctuate, and therefore provides a large and uniform yield. (Fig. 3.1)

Fig.3.1. Shallow well, deep well, shallow spring, deep spring in relation to water bearing strata.

 Artesian wells: are wells in which groundwater gushes out of its own accord above ground
level. In other words, an artesian well can flow naturally, without any artificial efforts. An
artesian well is formed whenever there is a favorable hydraulic gradient for groundwater to
be at sufficient hydrostatic pressure to rise above the zone of saturation (Fig 3.2. a and b). In
general, these wells are not common

Fig. 3.2. a and b, how artesian well are formed

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

 Springs: Are occurrences of groundwater naturally issuing at points where the water table
reaches the surface, or where the top confining layer over the water – bearing strata is
broken. Springs are normally found at the foot of mountains and hills, in lower slopes of
valleys, and near the banks of major rivers. The yield (flow rate) of a spring varies with the
position of the water table, which in turn varies with the rainfall amount at that locality and
season.

Springs may be classified as:

1. Surface, intermittent or seasonal spring: These are springs which outcrop at a point higher
in the groundwater body than the impermeable stratum in the ground formation. These are in
fact seepages from the subsoil or through cracks or faults in the rock formation. These
springs are usually not reliable, drying up during drier seasons and appearing again during or
after the rainy seasons. They should not be developed as water supply sources unless
observed throughout the year for their reliability.
2. Mainsprings: These flow out of the ground after the infiltration water has reached an
impermeable stratum in the rock layers. Such springs are sometimes known as gravity
springs because the force of gravity makes them flows in the direction of the hydraulic
gradient.
3. Thermal or hot springs: Are springs of water which have been heated before they reach the
surface of the ground. There are at least two explanations for the occurrence of thermal
springs:
a. Heat escaping from hot lower levels of the earth’s crust towards ground level may heat
groundwater.
b. The strata of certain regions contain radioactive elements, and heat emitted by this process
may heat groundwater and produce hot springs. Thermal springs are quite common in
various parts of the world.

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

In many parts of the world spring waters are believed to cure certain diseases. In Ethiopia, spring
waters are believed to have a super-natural power to cure all sorts of ailments, and are known as
“Tebel” (holy water).

Wells - It is an artificial hole make into the ground for extracting the underground water. –

The well may be of two types. These are

a) Open well: - It is constructed by digging the earth. - It draws water from the topmost
pervious layer. - The diameter of this well varies from 1m to 2m and the depth varies from
20m to 30m depending upon the nature of soil & the water table.
b) Tube well: - It is constructed by sinking G.I pipes. - It draws water from the deeper most
pervious layer. - The diameter and the depth of this well varying from 37mm to 150 mm and
100m to 200m respectively, depending upon the nature of soil and suitable water bearing
strata.

Determination of yields of an open well

The yields of an open well can be determined by the following two tests Constant level test
(pumping test) In this test, the water level is depressed by some head (H).Then the rate of
pumping is adjusted in such a way that the water level remains constant in the well. At this time,
the rate of pumping is equal to the rate of yield from the well.

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Where Q = Discharge A = Cross-Sectional area of permeable Layer through which water enters
the well I = Hydraulic gradient H = Depression head L = Length of flow path C = Percolation
intensity coefficient

Recuperation Test
In this test, the water from the well is pumped to a depression head H1 and the pumping is
stopped. The water level is rises due to the ground water flow. The rate of yield may be
calculated from the Expression deduced below;

Let H1 = Depression head when pumping was stopped. H2 = Depression head after a certain
period, T = Time taken by the water level to rise from H1 to H2, H = Depression head at time t
H = Decrease in depression head in time t
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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

If it is assumed that for small interval of line t, the volume of water enter the well is V, and
the corresponding rise in water level is H,

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Examples 1) calculate the specific capacity of an open well from the following data: Initial

depression head = 5m

Final depression head = 2m, Time of recuperation = 2 hrs., Diameter of well = 3m Calculate also
the specific yield & yield of the well under head 3m.

Solution
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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Example-2

During a recuperating test, the water level was depressed by pumping by 2.5m and is recuperated
by an amount of 1.5m in 60 minutes.

a) Determine the yield from the well, if the diameter of well is 2.5m and the draw down is
4.0 meters.
b) Also determine the diameter of well to yield 10 lit/see against a draw-down of 2.5m.

Solution

a). H1 = 2.5m, H2 = 2.5 – 1.5 = 1.0m, T = 60min = 3600sec

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

A= D2 =
2.52 = 4.91m2 , therefore k = 0.00125m2/sec

Q = K*H => Q = (1.25*10-3 *4) m*m2/sec = 5 lit/see

b), Q = 0.001m3/se then find the cross sectional area of the well.

Q = KH = k = Q/H & use the formula of k and formula of Ac in a circular section.

Then d = 4.48m

Determination of yield of tube well

There may be two cases

Case I: Yield of tube well in unconfined Aquifer

Let. H = Height of static water level from impervious layer

h = Depth of water in well from max draw down to the top of impervious layer.
S = Draw down
R = Radius of circle of influence
r = radius of well
Q = discharge of well

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

T = A point taken on draw down Curve with co – ordinate (x,y)

O = A point taken as origin.
Consider that a cylindrical surface that passes vertical through the point T (x, y),
The Area of cylindrical surface, A =2πxy

Example-3
A tube well penetrates fully into a confined aquifer. The following data was collected during
observation. Calculate the discharge of the well? If the Radius of tube well = 20 cm -
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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Thickness of confined aquifer = 25m - Drawdown = 4m - Radius of circle of influence =

300m - Coefficient of transmissibility = 125*10-4 m2/sec Find also the Coefficient of
permeability Solution

Example 4
A tube well fully penetrates an unconfined aquifer. Calculate the diameter of the well from the
following data. Required yield = 100lit/sec Radius of circle of influence = 200m Thickness of
confined aquifer = 30m Draw down = 5m Coefficient of permeability = 60m/day.

Solutions

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

Exercise 2)
A gravity (unconfined) well has a diameter of 60cm the depth of water in the well is 40cm
before pumping is started. When pumping is being done at the rate of 2000 liters per minutes.
The drawn down in a well 10m away is 4m and in another well 20m away is 2m.

Determine
(a) radius of zero draw down
(b) Coefficient of permeability
(c) Drawn down in the well

3.4 Ocean Water

Ocean water is unfit for human consumption even though it comprises the largest portion of
water on the earth's surface. It is also too salty for irrigation and for domestic purposes. To make
the ocean water fit for these purposes; it must pass through a process known as desalination (a
process of removal of salt from water). However, it is too expensive to consider.

3.5 Source Selection Criteria

The choice of source of water supply to a town or city depends on the following factors

a) Location: - The source of water should be as near to the town as possible

b) Quantity of water: - The sources of water should have sufficient quantity of water to meet
all the demand of the city throughout the year.
 Source of water should be able to meet the maximum demand in dry season also.

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 GAMBELA UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering & Technology
Department of Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering
Water Supply Engineering Lecture Note

c) Quality of water: - The quality of water should be good which can be easily & cheaply
treated.
 It should not contain disease germ and free from pollution.
d) Cost: - The cost of the water supply project should be minimum (the relative elevation of
the town & sources, the distance b/n the source & the town.)

The selection of the source of water supply is done on the above points and the source w/c will
give good quality & quantity at less cost will be selected.

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