English Language Teachers Reflecting

on Reflections: A Malaysian Experience

MUHAMMAD KAMARUL KABILAN
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Penang, Malaysia

Key characteristics of an efficient and effective English language teacher

are fundamental pedagogical knowledge and understanding, awareness
of meaningful classroom practices, linguistic capabilities, and positive
attitudes and skills. Nurturing these traits among preservice teachers is
difficult, especially when preservice teachers are working in a nonnative
English language learning and teaching environment and when they
have insufficient pedagogical and linguistic knowledge. One way of
overcoming these difficulties is by facilitating activities that enable these
future teachers to develop a critical and reflective awareness of their
classroom practices. This article reports the practice of reflecting on
reflections by future English language teachers in the Malaysian con-
text. In the first phase, they (a) self-examine their practices (by writing
their own reflections and reading others’ critiques of their practices)
and (b) examine others’ practices (by critiquing others’ practices and
providing suggestions). These activities have inspired among future
teachers an awareness of their own development and of current pro-
fessional knowledge. Also, participants were able to identify the changes
they need to make to become more effective teachers. In the next
phase, reflecting on their reflections, the teachers were able to inter-
nalize pedagogical knowledge and practices that were useful to them.

n a nonnative English language teaching and learning environment,

I the teacher is responsible for espousing effective teaching practices.
But when the teacher’s own linguistic competency and proficiency are
limited, it undermines the teacher’s efforts to improve learners’ achieve-
ment in English language learning. In Malaysia, for example, the teacher
may be the only source of English language speaking, especially in rural
and remote areas. In a country where the emphases on English as an
academic subject and as a tool for economic attainment are so strong,
Malaysian teachers’ proficiency in the language are constantly and
closely monitored. Occasionally, they are even debated in the parlia-
ment. In his 2001 Malaysian budget speech, Finance Minister of Malaysia
Tun Daim Zainuddin called for Malaysian students to be more proficient

TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 41, No. 4, December 2007 681

in English so that the demands of a knowledge-based society (the k-
economy) can be met (Daim, 2000).
Though the English language is seen as an overarching element in
Malaysia’s ambition as the third world’s economic vanguard, several ma-
jor problems affect the teaching and learning of English. Immediate and
concrete solutions for those problems are seemingly unavailable. One
problem that needs to be stressed is the inadequate supply of quality
English language teachers. Not many Malaysians are interested in be-
coming English language teachers. Furthermore, students with excellent
English capabilities and achievements tend to move into other, higher
paying professions. Some of them go abroad to further their education
in other fields of study. The shortage of qualified English language
teachers has become so acute at some schools that teachers have been
“forced” to teach English (Kabilan, 2001, p. 57).
According to my observation and direct interaction with a cohort of
future teachers, they seem to lack certain important qualities, identified
by many researchers as indispensable factors in becoming an efficient
and effective English language teacher. Some of the identified factors are
fundamental pedagogical knowledge and understanding (Clarridge,
1990), awareness of meaningful classroom practices (Schoenbach &
Greenleaf, 2000), linguistic capabilities (Haja Mohideen, 1995), positive
attitudes (Protherough & Atkinson, 1992; White, 1995), and relevant
skills (Lee, 1996).
The absence of these crucial qualities also explains some of my own
students’ uncritical ideas and uninspiring suggestions offered during
tutorial discussions. More worrying, they seem to be content with their
existing knowledge rather than validating the ideas or generating new
knowledge. Such tendencies might be identified among beginning
teachers as well. Afonso (2001) and Shannon and Crawford (1998) dis-
covered that the beginning teachers they studied preferred to fall back
on preconceived understandings of how they and their pupils should
conduct themselves rather than reflect critically and constructively on
their teaching practices. The beginning teachers felt this way even
though they appreciated the value of reflective practices. Therefore,
merely instilling in teachers the value of reflective practices does not
guarantee that they will change in positive ways.
These observations motivated me to examine how teaching my stu-
dents to engage in more rigorous reflective practice might contribute to
their professionalization. I found from Moore and Ash’s (2002) study
that students were able to “reflect on their reflection” (p. 21). From such
a practice, the students

saw a value in reflecting on practice in both ‘structured’ and ‘unstruc-

tured’, ‘timetabled’ and ‘ad hoc’ ways, and were enthusiastic about de-

682 TESOL QUARTERLY

 veloping this aspect of their professionalism in future years. They were
aware of the impact of previous and on-going life experiences on the
manner and effectiveness of reflection in the professional context. (p. 21)
Hence, I experimented with a pedagogical tool of reflecting on reflec-
tions that consisted of two levels of reflection process (explained thor-
oughly in the Method section). The first level is reflecting on practices,
and the second level is reflecting on the first level of reflections. The
second level would help my students view and understand their own and
others’ abilities, classroom practices, knowledge, limitations, percep-
tions, and beliefs regarding their development as future English lan-
guage teachers. These new understandings may stimulate the students to
develop more meaningful learning and teaching practices.
This article’s main objective is to evaluate the outcomes of reflecting
on reflections and, subsequently, ascertain if the pedagogical tool can
(a) enhance the student teachers’ fundamental pedagogical knowledge
and understanding, (b) heighten their awareness of meaningful and
effective classroom practices, (c) improve their linguistic capabilities, (d)
elevate their readiness to practice positive attitudes toward teaching and
learning, and (e) provide them with relevant skills.

REFLECTIVE PRACTICES AND REFLECTING

ON REFLECTIONS
It is generally accepted that the practice of reflection is deeply rooted in
critical thinking and is connected to external realities, enfolded with the
practitioner’s inner feelings. Bullock and Muschamp’s (2004) model of
teachers’ reflection mirrors “the practice of thinking analytically about
an experience or an activity” (p. 32). This model is shaped by feelings
and understandings that may be tacit. Davis (2005) concurs by specifying
that reflection is not “merely recognizing the linear step” that presents
itself but a conscious practice to open teachers’ “thinking to all possi-
bilities” (p. 9) and to move teachers so that they “step outside of their
own definitions of the world and see new perspectives” (p. 18). Accord-
ing to Newell (1996), “the essence of reflection is the interaction of
experiences with analysis of beliefs about those experiences” that occurs
in a “collegial environment encouraging social responsibility, flexibility,
consciousness, and efficacy” (p. 568).
How do teachers reflect on their practices? Quoting Van Manen
(1995), whose approach is influenced by Dewey (1933), Labercane, Last,
Nichols, & Johnson (1998), identified three steps of reflecting:
1. Perplexity, confusion, doubt due to the nature of the situation in
which one finds oneself.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 683

2. Conjectural anticipation and tentative interpretation of given ele-
ments or meanings of the situation and their possible consequences.
3. Deciding on a plan of action or doing something about a desired
result. (p. 192)

The teachers must learn to practice these steps naturally and success-
fully but within a well-planned framework in an educational system that
is not “culturally resistant to educational change” (Leonard & Gleeson,
1999, p. 63). More specifically, the system must not be antithetical to the
idea that teachers’ professional growth is an important aspect of effective
educational change. It is also imperative that novice and student teachers
understand the significance of this process. As underscored by Penso,
Shoham, and Shiloah (2001), reflective practice would subject them “to
their own critical analysis in order to improve their work and make it
professional” (p. 323). Critical analysis should focus on practical expe-
rience, learning from colleagues, practicing teaching skills, and adopting
useful work habits. Ellis (1993) experimented with a similar procedure
involving in-service English language teachers in Poland. As a result, the
Polish teachers became not only more “‘aware of what they do, but also
why they do it” (p. 112). The teachers benefited from a framework for
reflective practice that was firmly in place and widely used.
Reflection is a subjective yet structured intellectual practice that can
engage teachers’ self-examination and enhance their understanding of
teaching and learning in ways that are fresh, stimulating, and challeng-
ing. Schön (1983) mentions of the need for the process of reflection to
endure a vigorous testing protocol in a socially supportive environment.
The process is upheld through “a dialogue of words or actions with other
participants in the teaching-learning context” (Corcoran & Leahy, 2003,
p. 32). The term dialogue here is not limited to the literal meaning of
conversation or the action of speaking and listening; it connotes com-
munication between two individuals (e.g., a teacher–learner relationship
in a classroom) using words, emotions, and actions in a genuine two-way
relationship in which both parties learn from each other (Freire, 1973).
To draw from Ellis’s (1993) findings, the dialogue must encourage in-
dividuals not only to be aware of what they do but also to be aware of why
they do it.
If reflection is a subjective yet structured intellectual practice, what
does the process of reflecting on reflections entail? Literature indicates
that the practice of reflecting on reflections is very much the same as the
notion of reflection, but it is different in the sense that it gives some
additional insights into the success (or failure), clarity (or uncertainties),
and difficulties, issues, and challenges that are foreseen for future en-
deavors (or faced in the initial reflecting process). Reflecting on reflections
allows the practitioner to internalize the ideas and knowledge that were

684 TESOL QUARTERLY

conceived and constructed in the reflecting process and thus critically
think about its functions for future applications. Ramasamy (2002), for
instance, engages the postsecondary students in his English communi-
cation and academic writing course in reflective dialogues. His reflections
reveal some challenges that are bound to be of paramount concern to
students as well as educators in that course, creating more uncertainties
than concrete solutions:
Such reflective dialogue often takes a back seat when the overriding
concern is to complete the task or assignment, regardless of whether it
entailed reflective thinking and learning. This challenge or dilemma is
further compounded when lecturers deal with learners who are low per-
forming ESL students. . . . When lecturers have to struggle with learners’
language inadequacy and at the same time face the pressure of complet-
ing course content, how does one engage learners in reflective thinking
and learning? Should we be less content driven and go by the dictum that
“less is more”? (p. 3)
Such self-questioning scrutinizes new lines of thought, creating possibili-
ties for constructing new knowledge and reconstructing existing knowl-
edge. Ramasamy undoubtedly intends his reflections on reflective prac-
tices to necessitate further critical thoughts and actions, which aim at
isolating the identified struggles and simultaneously encouraging the
proliferation of new ideas to revitalize the unproductive and unreward-
ing practices. Hammersley-Fletcher and Orsmond (2005) extend their
reflections on reflective practices within peer observation to include
re-examination of existing teaching and learning practices so that the
quality and meaningfulness of the learning environment can be en-
hanced, specifically by the means of widening academic debate and
allowing academics to consider their roles as professional educators.
Likewise, Hunt, Edwards, McKay, and Taylor’s (1994) examination of
self-reflections on establishing a reflective practice tutor group
prompted more confusion than resolution of the issues at hand for the
researchers who were directly involved. Nevertheless, their reflective
practice did help clarify their process of sharing ideas when they became
enmeshed in our own mess of ideas and experiences, and of sometimes
meeting up with others with whom we temporarily became entangled. . . .
At the time of writing we have not resolved this issue but it has made us
sensitive to the differences in our own backgrounds and the impact of
these on the requirements we make of students. We sense, too, that
reflective practices undertaken at individual basis may merely reinforce
habits and prejudices. (p. 5)
Clegg’s (1996) study of using journals as a reflective tool in collaboration
with colleagues is another instance where reflecting on reflections asks
more questions than it provides straightforward answers. She becomes

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 685

“acutely aware that there is a dilemma” (p. 9) in adopting reflective
practice as a model to improve student supervision because no mecha-
nism is available to assess whether reflective practice affects the educa-
tional outcomes.
Though the studies just discussed question the usefulness of reflecting
on reflective practices, Macpherson’s (2005) study of students reflecting
on their reflective writing and their writing process showed that students
achieved definite improvement. In her analysis, she sought to decide
objectively which ideas to adopt in future classes by distinguishing “what
works—and why” (p. 3). In addition, it allowed her to see where perhaps
she needed “to ensure more guidance, or more clearly explain reasons
behind particular tasks” (p. 3). Brown and McCartney (1995) investi-
gated master’s level business administration students’ reflections on
their reflections about articles the students had written during the pre-
vious term. Brown and McCartney identify three theoretical strands that
emerged out of reflecting on reflections: reflecting as an act of medita-
tion, reflecting as mirroring self, and reflecting as a form of assessment
or self-evaluation. They conclude that such explicit practice of reflection
has pedagogical value because it helps “students to get self-knowledge of
themselves and of their practices, and to take an informed position on
knowledge and action” (p. 18).
The literature suggests that sharing is a key element in reflecting on
reflections. According to Irvin (2002), sharing reflections may stir the
persons involved to “reconstitute a more complex and synthetic under-
standing” (p. 9). Pope (1999) calls this process refraction, which describes
a movement beyond reflection where “the same activity is seen but from
a different angle,” and suggests that it is “an added way of seeing” (p.
180). Pope uses the metaphor of multiple mirrors to describe this pro-
cess. Sharing, in Pope’s sense, is also an integral feature of this investi-
gation.

METHOD
The 18 participants in this study were students in the bachelor of
education (TESOL) degree program. The group consisted of preservice
teachers and in-service teachers who were pursuing their first degree. In
the first semester of the 2004–2005 academic year, they were enrolled in
a compulsory course called English Language Teaching Methods I (PPG
215). Focusing on the “range of procedures for planning and executing
classroom instruction,” the PPG 215 course aimed at helping the stu-
dents
understand the fundamental concepts of English language teaching and
be familiar with the principles of teaching English to speakers of other

686 TESOL QUARTERLY

 languages (TESOL) . . . [and] to equip teachers with knowledge and skills
for teaching English to Malaysian students to meet the demands of En-
glish in the local and global context. (School of Educational Studies,
2004, p. 1)
The study was carried out during the tutorials, which ran for 11 weeks. In
the first tutorial, I presented ideas relating to critical reflective practices
and what the concept meant in terms of enhancing one’s awareness.
Based on Duke (1990), I realized that to increase the students’ aware-
ness, the concept of critical reflective practices had to be scaffolded by
the following activities: breaking routines, changing perspectives, and
examining assumptions. In the tutorial, I introduced the writing and
reading of reflective forms as routine-breaking activities, and the stu-
dents’ perspectives were changed with their fresh understanding of the
critical reflective practice (explicated later). As for examining assump-
tions, the students were reminded of the need to be critical of their own
and others’ classroom practices.
The students were asked to embrace Richards and Lockhart’s (1994)
suggestion that “the process of reflecting upon one’s own teaching is . . .
an essential component in developing knowledge and theories of teach-
ing and hence is a key element in one’s professional development” (p.
202). They understood that to be reflective and critical, they need to
monitor, critique, and defend their actions in planning, implementing,
and evaluating the microteaching session (Nunan & Lamb, 1996). The
students were also encouraged to be reflective and critical in examining
the microteaching session as a basis for evaluation and decision making
and as a source of change (Bartlett, 1990; Wallace, 1991).
During each tutorial, a pair of students presented a mock teaching
session, or microteaching, for about 40 minutes. One week prior to their
actual presentations, they met with me to give a summary of their pre-
sentation, particularly their content, teaching strategies adopted, and
their understanding of the requirements of their topic. As a tutor, I
facilitated their understanding and encouraged creativity and critical
thinking but did not interfere with their planned presentation, as long as
their direction was clear and in line with the topic. The topics of pre-
sentation included incorporating listening and speaking, incorporating
speaking and reading, incorporating writing and grammar, incorporat-
ing literature and writing, and incorporating literature and speaking.
Each pair was asked to provide complete notes of their microteaching to
other students. The notes included the microteaching lesson plan, teach-
ing aids and materials used (e.g., handouts, worksheets, etc.), and ref-
erences or citations.
The presentations were followed by a 20-minute question-and-answer
session, during which other students asked questions and commented on
the presentation. This session was structured in a way so that the pre-

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 687

senters would not feel threatened, intimidated, or overwhelmed. I facili-
tated and managed the session by starting with questions regarding as-
pects of the presentations that were not clear to me. Subsequently, I
explicitly encouraged the students to ask similar questions. By this time,
the presenters are at ease and the tension and adrenaline rush of pre-
senting has subsided considerably. Only then were the other students
given the opportunity to critique and give comments, opinions, and
suggestions concerning the presentation and its content. The role of the
tutor was crucial at this stage. Sometimes the discussions were charged,
and when the parties disagreed, I defused the situations by outlining all
the key points made. I wanted to ensure that the students saw all per-
spectives so that they could make an informed decision. At the same
time, I kept my distance by not giving away my own beliefs but encour-
aged the students to formulate their own opinions. When the discussions
began to show signs of saturation, I highlighted key points of the pre-
sentation that the students had not discussed to bring out new issues that
were worth exploring. The question-and-answer session was ended by,
again, highlighting key points that had been discussed and agreed on
and, at the same time, giving credit to the presenters on facets of the
presentations that had contributed to new knowledge and learning ex-
periences for the whole group.1
At the end of each tutorial, students were given a form to encourage
them to use critical reflective practices to think about each microteach-
ing presentation (see Appendix). Using the form, the students were
asked to answer two questions:
1. What interesting concepts or ideas of teaching, learning, or educa-
tion in general have you learnt and internalized? Elaborate why.
2. If you were to present on the same topic as today, would you have
done it similarly or differently? Why?

These two questions helped guide the students, who did not have much
experience in reflective practice and did not fully understand how to
proceed (Corcoran & Leahy, 2003). To give them more time to make
meaningful, critical reflections, the students were asked to reflect on the
presentations as individual assignments outside the tutorial hours. The
forms were then photocopied, compiled, and distributed in the follow-
ing tutorial to all the students, who were then encouraged to read what
others had written and consider whether what they had written corrobo-
rated or contradicted what others had written. At the same time, they

1
Note, this 20-minute session touched on a wide range of matters like body language, eye
contact, class control, language abilities or mistakes, pedagogical implications, time man-
agement, content of the lesson, and even dress code.

688 TESOL QUARTERLY

were also expected to be critical in comprehending, accepting, and
adopting ideas suggested by others.
At the end of the semester, an open-ended questionnaire was distrib-
uted to all the students, requiring them to reflect on the writing of
reflections and reading of others’ reflections. The questionnaire was
designed to elicit the students’ perceptions and beliefs about the effec-
tiveness of reflecting on reflections in terms of their overall awareness,
pedagogical growth, and positive changes in their professional practice.
Figure 1 depicts the entire process of reflecting on reflections.
FIGURE 1
Process of Reflecting on Reflections

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 689

 In the final phase of reflecting on reflections, three open-ended ques-
tions were used to develop insights into the students’ process of reflect-
ing on reflections:
1. What effects did the reflections have on you as a teacher trainee?
2. Has writing the reflections been helpful to you as a future teacher?
How?
3. Has reading the reflections of others helped you in any way as a
future teacher? How?
All the students were coded S1–S18, respectively, and the qualitative data
obtained were coded to enable sorting by topic. For the purpose of this
study, the data were assigned situation codes and activity codes. The situa-
tion codes were assigned to units of data that described how the student
defined and perceived the act of writing and reading reflections and how
he or she connected the reflections to his or her practices as a future
English language teacher. The situation codes were used to identify the
situations of professional practice in which the act of writing and reading
reflections would be important and meaningful for the teachers. The
activity codes were assigned to units of data that described the students’
regularly occurring behavior, such as professional practices and pro-
jected changes, that occurred as a consequence of writing and reading
reflections (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Table 1 shows the schema used to
code and organize the data. Five themes emerged from the data analysis:
1. Fundamental pedagogical knowledge and understanding
2. Awareness of meaningful and effective classroom practices
3. Teachers’ linguistic capabilities
4. Positive attitudes toward teaching and learning
5. Relevant skills

FINDINGS
The findings are presented in the students’ own voices. The outcomes
of the students’ reflections are categorized according to the five themes
(when applicable). Nevertheless, the richness of the data means that
some excerpts may indicate more than one theme or may contain
themes that are intertwined with one another.

Fundamental Pedagogical Knowledge and Understanding

Writing critical reflections of their own practices and reading others’
reflections formed the preservice teachers’ fundamental pedagogical

690 TESOL QUARTERLY

 TABLE 1
Sample Schema to Code and Organize Data According to the Themes

Example excerpts (student) Analyses (Note/comment) Themes

To do the reflective paper, I Students’ awareness and Fundamental
referred quite a lot of books, self-realization for the need Pedagogical
journals. When read to acquire fundamental Knowledge and
through the articles, I pedagogical knowledge and Understanding: A
learned a lot of knowledge I understanding in order to prerequisite to
can’t get if I don’t read become a good teacher is become good
those materials. Through elevated teacher.
reflective article, it helps me
think critically and able to
learn more to become a
good teacher. (S18) [Activity
Code]
. . . make me more careful and The practice of reflecting on Awareness of
alert on what we must and reflections made immediate Meaningful and
must not do. Writing the and ongoing influence in Effectual Classroom
reflection also make me reinforcing and reaffirming Practices: Reinforce
remember all the rules in effective classroom practices and reaffirm effective
teaching and try to be a and the general rule of classroom practices.
good teacher and student in thumb of becoming a good
proper and appropriate way teacher.
as a teacher should be.
(S12) [Situation Code]
. . . the process of writing (the By identifying and Linguistic Capabilities:
reflections) helps me to understanding their Enhance vocabulary
improve and ‘upgrade’ my strengths and weaknesses,
vocabulary as I have to the students can improve
‘search’ for appropriate themselves as teachers in
words to convey my message. terms of their linguistic
(S8) [Activity Code] capabilities.
It was a meaningful moment Sharing trait as one of the key Embrace and Practice
for me because I realized elements of a successful and Positive Attitudes
that all the ideas which I meaningful procedure of toward Teaching and
had I can share with the reflecting on reflections as it Learning: Sharing
others. . . . . (S11) [Situation aided them in exploring trait
Code] new ideas and how those
ideas can be helpful and
meaningful to others too.
I also learnt new techniques The activity of adopting ideas Relevant skills: Creative
and methods that will be by the students is not and critical thinking
very helpful and useful in rampant and senseless, but
future. Even so, some is systematic with
reflections made by peers appropriate and logical
make no sense. I do have to reasoning and judging.
adapt and adjust peer
comment . . . (S17) [Activity
Code].

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 691

knowledge and understanding, which is necessary to “learn the appro-
priate way to teach in future” (S1), particularly in aspects of which they
have little or no knowledge. For instance, S1’s experience with reflecting
on reflections facilitates the gaining of knowledge and ideas from others:
For example, the topic of assessing writing, as I do not have any experi-
ences in testing before, therefore, I do not know the appropriate way to
assess the students’ essay. When I write the reflections, it will encourage
me to think back what it is done and what did I learn from the presen-
tations.2 (S1)
Similarly, S2 points out that by reflecting and reading others’ reflections,
she has “learnt a lot of ways that will help me in expanding my knowledge
of teaching.” Also, she has gained “some useful ideas that will help in my
future teaching in school” (S2). S5 discusses how such practice equips
her with pedagogical knowledge and ideas,
Yes, for example, from today’s group presentation, I learned how to assess
writing. There are criteria what we can follow when grading an essay.
Sometimes, I will rethink of what others have written on reflection forms.
This is because they might think of some concepts of ideas that I’ve never
thought of. It’s fun when seeing all comments using different methods in
teaching. I’ll have to learn from them, equipping myself with various
kinds of methods . . . . at least I can think of other ways that can be done
if I’m given the chance to perform the same task. (S5)
It’s clear that some of the students see fundamental pedagogical knowl-
edge and understanding as a prerequisite to becoming a good teacher.
S18 confirms this view:
To do the reflective paper, I referred quite a lot of books, journals. When
read through the articles, I learned a lot of knowledge I can’t get if I don’t
read those materials. Through reflective paper, it helps me think critically
and able to learn more to become a good teacher. (S18)
The act of reflecting on reflections triggered some of the students’ cre-
ativity—they believe they are now capable of generating new teaching
methods and ideas (S11) based on the pedagogical knowledge they
gained from their own and others’ presentations. The presentations
stimulated their creativity because “all of us have different views about
teaching and learning process” (S11). These new ideas and methods will
be “better and proper” (S16) and “effective” (S2). It is interesting to note
that the students are actively, creatively, and critically thinking about
what others have presented (topics) and thought (in the guise of written

2
All excerpts in this article are quoted as they were written by the students. The data may
feature occasional grammatical errors and/or incomplete sentences because of the infor-
mal nature of expression.

692 TESOL QUARTERLY

reflections). According to S3, the writing of reflections stimulates her “to
think critically about the teaching methods used” by her peers. Such
thinking processes lead the teacher to continuously question the issues
and thereby acquire or reconstruct his or her knowledge and practices,
leading to the reification of new knowledge on teaching practice:
After reading [the reflections of others], I would compare with my own
reflection. I would gain some idea from the reflections about the different
way to teach the different topics. (S1)

Awareness of Meaningful and Effective Classroom Practices

Excerpts dealing with the previous theme show that the teachers have
gained a knowledge of the fundamentals. When they critically think
about the knowledge, scrutinize how they can use that knowledge, and
critically and constantly examine their classroom practices, the students
also attain a critical knowledge:
If I need to write the reflections, it means that I will have to pay attention
thoroughly to every single point that presenters present: the way they
present their particular topics, their presentation contents, the time man-
agement, their English pronunciation, their emotion state, attitude when
they are doing their presentation and so on. If I can notice their strategies
and weaknesses, I will be able to notice mine too. (S13)
I will try to learn the strengths of other presenter. When I find weaknesses
of other presenter, I will take it as an experience, and not repeat the same
mistake. (S6)
I won’t make the same mistakes made by my peers. So it is an advantage
to learn from others’ mistakes. (S17)
Before this, I do not know where are my mistakes when I presenting any
topics. But after my friends gave comments on me, now I know what are
my mistakes. I think same might goes on with my friends (other teacher
trainees). (S15)

This self-examination, as evident in the preceding excerpts, helps stu-

dents improve themselves and encourages them to learn from others. As
another student narrates, it also has immediate and ongoing influence
on her practices, particularly in reaffirming her existing knowledge and
beliefs about good teaching:
[The processes] make me more careful and alert on what we must and
must not do. Writing the reflection also make me remember all the rules
in teaching and try to be a good teacher and student in proper and
appropriate way as a teacher should be. (S12)

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 693

 S1’s, S12’s, and S14’s elaborations are further evidence that the stu-
dents have become very much aware of meaningful and effective class-
room practices as a result of reflecting on reflections.
I did learn the techniques that can be used in the teaching, which will
make the teaching more interesting and more effectively. (S1)
It makes me remember on how to be a good teacher, a good way to teach
and control class. Why? Because as a teacher we sometimes forget that our
students are not the of the same levels in a classroom. (S12)
The reflections given would serve as a guideline in future presentations or
in carrying out activities in the classroom. (S14).

The self-examination, which stems from reflecting on reflections, also

helps the students identify meaningful and effective classroom practices:
Well from my view, reading the reflections of others helped much. As I
had mentioned earlier, we need to share and work as a team. It is not
wrong to hear or read others’ reflections. It is our responsibility to decide
which one should be brought into practice. (S10)
It helps me to identify effective ways and methods for teaching later on.
Besides that, it is useful for me to learn how to assess students appropri-
ately as there are several ways and activities being suggested by the pre-
senters. (S2)

Eventually, the students’ confidence increases as they progress from one

stage to another. They progress from noticing their weaknesses and
strengths to learning from others, and from improving their teaching to
becoming “confident in classroom environment” and “confident in
teaching” (S7).

Teachers’ Linguistic Capabilities

Reflecting on reflections made some of the students realize that they

have greatly enhanced their linguistic capabilities and their skills related
to language learning:
As a teacher trainee, the process of writing helps me to improve and
‘upgrade’ my vocabulary as I have to ‘search’ for appropriate words to
convey my message. (S8)
Writing reflections not only helps the students to respond in writing
which would therefore improve one’s writing skills but also would make
it easier for people who are reluctant to speak openly in the class to voice
their opinions. (S14)

694 TESOL QUARTERLY

Along with improvements in vocabulary and writing skills, students also
mentioned improvement in pronunciation (S13) and assessing and
evaluating writing (S1).

Positive Attitudes Toward Teaching and Learning

Some students identified sharing as one of the key elements of re-
flecting on reflections because it helped them in exploring new ideas.
As for me, writing the reflections really help me to get more ideas which
I can use when I am in school in future. It was a meaningful moment for
me because I realized that all the ideas which I had I can share with the
others. (S11)
Whatever we think relevant should be shared to others. Good thinking
and good learning are linked through our experiences of what we are
doing. Through the reflections we could adjust ourselves. We need to
increase our own knowledge before we increase our students’ knowledge
. . . . It is not wrong to hear or read others’ reflections. It is our respon-
sibility to decide which one should be brought into practice. . . . [We
ought to] share because teachers are the sole model of the future gen-
erations. To adjust teaching to students’, teacher first needs to increase
their knowledge of learners. (S10)
Though S10 implies that sharing reflections is vital, what to share and
with whom to share is equally important so as to ensure that the reflec-
tions can be transferred meaningfully into classroom practice. S10’s ar-
gument that fundamental pedagogical knowledge is not limited to the
actual process of teaching, but that teachers “first need to increase their
knowledge of learners, that is knowledge of students,” demonstrates that
she has developed deep yet fundamental pedagogical understanding of
what constitutes a good teacher. Such a response also shows that she has
embraced a very constructive and positive approach to teaching and
learning.
It is evident that reflecting on reflections actually strengthens the
students’ positive feelings and attitudes toward improving their teaching
and learning. It clarifies their mistakes, which in turn allows them to
rectify the mistakes and improve their practices. The following excerpts
highlight the concepts of learning from strengths and weaknesses, and
learning from one’s own and from others’ mistakes:
When I get comments from the group I would know where I have gone
wrong. The reflections given would serve as a guideline in future presen-
tations or in carrying out activities in the classroom. . . . Reflections writ-
ing is also a way to solve problems in a sense that we take note of our
strengths & weaknesses from time to time. Therefore, this will surely help
everyone to improve oneself. (S14)

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 695

 Reading the reflections of others helped me to realize my mistakes. I also
can learn from mistakes being made by others. Thus, I will not repeat that
particular mistakes again. The most important thing is it let me think
carefully why that mistakes happened and how to solve it. (S3)
By reading through the reflections of others, it helps me always to im-
prove myself in presentation. Always remind myself not to repeat the
same mistakes. Sometimes, it is very interesting to look through others’
might think about us. Therefore, through reading the reflections of oth-
ers, it helps us to improve ourselves and learn from mistakes. (S18)
The reading of reflections spurs S8 to improve herself because it gives
her ideas of “what is expected by others in teaching and learning pro-
cess.” S3’s and S8’s responses indicate an integral element of reflecting
on reflections, that is, thinking about the content and context of the
reflection. S9 explains:
By reading, other people’s weaknesses and strengths indirectly helped me
in choosing which method to use, what kind of mistakes need to be
avoided and also how to bring myself in front of older audience. (S9)

Relevant Skills

Most of the students said that they would improve themselves as teach-
ers by acquiring new skills. The improvements that are highlighted by
the students are “teaching approach” (S7), “teaching skills” (S15),
“teaching technique” (S17), and “presentation” (S18). Some of the im-
provements mentioned have immediate impact on vocabulary, writing
skills, and presentation, while others provide more long-term benefits
that will contribute to the students’ future undertaking as teachers.
One skill that is obvious and profitable from reflecting on reflections
is thinking. Generally, writing and reading reflections enable students to
obtain immediate “feedback from the audience” and simultaneously “im-
prove or increase [their] strength while [they] correct their weaknesses”
(S4). They believe that by reflecting, they “can try to correct it & do it in
another or different way” (S4). Changing their behavior certainly re-
quires the students to creatively and critically think of their practices. S5
and S9 concur and note how the writing of reflections actually gives them
the space and time to carefully analyze others’ practices and relate them
to their own development.
Most of the time, I’ll be “drowning” into their presentation till I don’t
being critical thinking as their activities are all interesting. Somehow,
writing reflections can let me see clearer the weaknesses and strengths of
each presentation and I can learn from them as I’m not experienced in
teaching. (S5)

696 TESOL QUARTERLY

 Yes, definitely it helps a lot, especially in detecting my weaknesses and
strengths . . . by reading, other people’s weaknesses and strengths indi-
rectly helped me in choosing which method to use, what kind of mistakes
need to be avoided. (S9)
S5’s and S9’s comments denote that adapting and adopting ideas are not
random and unsubstantiated acts but are systematic, with appropriate
logical reasoning and the very precise aim of solving problems. Critical
thinking is evident in the following comments:
I also learnt new techniques and methods that will be very helpful and
useful in future. Even so, some reflections made by peers make no sense.
I do have to adapt and adjust peer comment. (S17)
I can really learn strengths and weaknesses from [teaching methods used
by my friends] after thinking carefully . . . The most important thing is it
let me think carefully why that mistake happened and how to solve it. (S1)
This is regarding to the ideas of writing comments which helps me in
critical thinking as I have to be very ‘fair’ in judging. (S8)
All these statements indicate that reflecting on writing and reading re-
flections contributes to the teachers’ ability to think critically when they
are faced with significant issues pertinent to selecting, comprehending,
and reconstructing knowledge for very specific uses—in this case, new
ideas and methods of teaching. The reflective practice permits the stu-
dents to identify their weaknesses and overcome them. Reflecting on her
writing of reflections, S16 notes her ability “to detect, understand and
overcome my weaknesses,” whereas S17, by reflecting on his reading of
reflections, manages “to discover my weaknesses and overcome it.”

DISCUSSION

The students in this study reflect as they write and read about their
reflections. The entire procedure has aroused the students’ awareness of
their own development, of what is happening around them in terms of
specific pedagogical activities, and of the changes the process reveals as
necessary. These changes, they believe, would further strengthen their
abilities as teachers. The students’ analyses confirm that reflecting on
reflections enhances the students’ awareness of fundamental pedagogi-
cal knowledge and their understanding of the knowledge. It also height-
ens their awareness of meaningful and effective classroom practices and
eventually contributes to their confidence as future teachers. Through
reflecting on reflections, the students demonstrate their readiness to
embrace positive attitudes toward teaching and learning. In addition,

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 697

they display creative and critical thinking skills in terms of the content
and context of the reflections. However, in terms of improving linguistic
capabilities, the students did not make great progress, though some did
acknowledge the enrichment of their vocabulary.
The findings imply that observing the strengths and weaknesses of
others and reflecting on them via writing and reading allow the students
to be aware of their own practices, avoid possible mistakes, and, thus,
develop a set of strategies to implant positive classroom changes or prac-
tices. Such learning by observation, as Estebaranz, Mingorance and Mar-
celo (2000) have noted, would enable students to “generate and regulate
patterns of behavior, and thus has a great effect in the practice of teach-
ing” (p. 135). For reflective practice to have any meaningful impact on
the students, it must occur in a learning community and not be carried
out as an individual endeavor. Though reflecting is basically a personal
and individual procedure, when shared with other members of a learn-
ing community, the individual’s thoughts and experiences are collabo-
ratively maximized. According to Putnam and Borko (2000), this sort of
sharing that takes place in a learning community can assist both the
educators and students to “engage in rich discourse about important
ideas” (p. 11). In essence, the students regard the writing and reading of
reflections as tools to discover, understand, and overcome pedagogical
and educational weaknesses and, eventually, solve related problems.
These acts define what critically reflecting teachers do: examine frames
and attempt to solve the dilemmas of classroom practice, and question
the assumptions and values that they bring to teaching (Zeichner &
Liston, 1996).
This study also suggests that sharing of critical reflective practices,
which in this study occurred via the reading of others’ reflections, serves
as a vital link between the students’ theoretical knowledge and their
ability to translate that knowledge into meaningful classroom engage-
ments. In a study of peer coaching, Swafford (2000) found that reflective
support provided to teachers enabled them to focus on the strengths of
their colleagues’ choices of materials and questioning strategies. The
teachers also thought critically of future lessons and the changes they
would make. The current study’s findings, however, add a new dimen-
sion to Swafford’s conclusion. The students explicitly point to the fact
that critical reflective practices not only made them think critically of
their and others’ classroom practices, but also led them to the realization
that such practices are meaningful and, therefore, ought to be shared
with others (as indicated by S10 and S11). This deep insight, if nurtured
appropriately, could lead them to treat critical reflective practice as an
enduring force of amelioration in their development as teachers.
Sharing of knowledge is the key element to becoming a practicing
reflective teacher. Sharing permits teachers to venture into a peer-cum-

698 TESOL QUARTERLY

collaborative initiative to reflect on the knowledge and thus further el-
evate the credibility of the knowledge through a rigorous process of
evaluating and reflecting. This process paves the way for the reconstruc-
tion of knowledge, which subsequently reifies itself into a new shared
knowledge (see Figure 2). This whole process, considered as a profound
engagement of reflective practices, may contribute to the enrichment
and divergence of existing knowledge, if conducted in a climate of hon-
esty (see Kabilan, 2004). In addition to honesty, a reflective teacher
should possess open-mindedness, responsibility, and wholeheartedness
(Dewey, 1933; Zeichner & Liston, 1996).

IMPLICATIONS
This study has three implications for the way we train and educate
future English language teachers. First, critical reflective practices ought
to be integrated into the curriculum, especially in courses that seriously
demand student teachers to observe, inquire, acquire, construct and
reconstruct, and practice critical pedagogical awareness and knowledge.
This recommendation is neither new nor innovative; many researchers
have adopted and recommended it (see Allen & Casbergue, 1997;
Brownlee, Dart, Boulton-Lewis, & McCrindle, 1998; Freese, 1999; Hatton

FIGURE 2
Sharing Practices of a Critical Teacher (Adapted from Kabilan, 2004)

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 699

& Smith, 1995; Mills & Satterthwait, 2000). But, as Swartz (2004) sug-
gests, a conscious focus on critical thinking is necessary to facilitate such
integration. She goes on to identify teacher educators’ effective model-
ing of critical thinking as a powerful and effective method. When teach-
ers have the opportunity to think critically about any pedagogical knowl-
edge, they can develop awareness of meaningful and effective classroom
practices, which eventually leads to innovative ideas that can be benefi-
cial to the learners. So, Swartz contends, the prevalence and incorpora-
tion of critical reflection into teacher education programs ought to be
accompanied by the teacher educators’ competent modeling of creative
and critical thinking to encourage their students to relinquish the “tra-
ditional role of receiving and reiterating the knowledge of others” and
develop into “self-reflective thinkers able to produce knowledge that is
more critical” (p. 59). Inherently, this suggestion implies that teacher
educators should critically question and reflect on whether the programs
offered are
1. based on knowledge and materials that emphasize and facilitate criti-
cal inquiry.
2. practiced and observed in a critical manner.
3. facilitated and navigated by critical personnel.

These criteria would enable preservice teachers to reflect critically on

their own and others’ classroom beliefs, understandings, perceptions,
and practices so that, as future teachers, they would be better prepared
to respond to “unexpected questions, to students’ errors, [and] to learn-
ing opportunities that arise” (Bailey, Curtis, & Nunan, 2001, p. 37).
Second, students ought to have opportunities to share their critical
reflections with other students to help them dissect perceived and exist-
ing knowledge, challenge and question their assumptions about teach-
ing and classroom practices, and reflect on how their thinking about
pedagogy could influence their future classrooms practices. To further
exploit the idea of sharing and move to the stage of peer collaboration,
the initiatives proposed by Kabilan (2004) are complex and would re-
quire collegial participation at every level of the faculty, but the rewards
would be worthwhile. Such initiatives may include interclass or tutorial
peer observation and reflections on microteaching sessions as well as
peer review of teaching journals, and others. These initiatives are part of
the first level of reflecting, which, when reflections are shared, as Mor-
gan (2005) advocates, may later evolve into a process of reflecting on
reflections.
Third, a higher level of reflecting, which is reflecting on the entire
initial reflection program or process, should also be incorporated into
teacher education programs. The second round of reflecting essentially

700 TESOL QUARTERLY

strengthens and improves whatever concepts, opinions, and ideas were
conceived at the first level. Self-realization and self-awareness may also
occur, as two participants in this study recognized and noted that sharing
was also a vital component to their successful and meaningful reflection
procedures. Although sharing was not discussed explicitly during the
first phase of reflection, most participants were literally sharing their
thoughts, views, and ideas with others. Self-realization and self-awareness
of their sharing mannerisms were not palpable until they reflected on
their earlier reflections. These senses of self-realization and self-
awareness contribute more to teachers’ critically refined pedagogical
awareness and knowledge than any other aspects.

CONCLUSION

From my observations and students’ statements, it is clear that my

students have grasped some of the fundamental pedagogical knowledge
and understanding that are required of them as future English language
teachers. Their awareness of some of the important pedagogical con-
cepts and effective classroom practices are also heightened. What im-
pressed me the most, however, was their readiness to embrace and prac-
tice positive attitudes toward teaching and learning, and their keenness
to learn new skills as well as to practice the skills they already have.
Unfortunately, they were unable to expand their linguistic capabilities in
the very limited amount of time we had available. Their responses in the
findings suggest that they need to work harder to improve their linguistic
capabilities. Nevertheless, they are more receptive to ideas and sugges-
tions that would elevate their confidence and motivation in becoming
effective English language teachers. Perhaps this energy and focus can be
channeled toward improving their language competency and profi-
ciency.
Walker and Cheng (1996) stress that before any professional devel-
opment can lead to educational change, the professional development
must “be broad based, more completely understood and conceptualized,
properly supported and be seen as an integral part of the change pro-
cess” (p. 199). Therefore, to further develop this approach, I strongly
feel that other studies are needed to explore its broader applicability, not
limited to a few specific students, courses, conditions, and other deter-
minants. Perhaps the next concentration should be on a comparative
study, which might examine English teachers from different cultural
contexts and backgrounds, and discern where and when they have in-
distinct or distinct practices on reflecting on reflections. Also important
is a study looking into how the students learn to cope with these changes

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 701

and how they perceive those changes in light of their own development
as teachers, functioning in a larger community of practicing teachers. In
addition, the question of the sustainability of those inherent changes
should also be addressed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My sincere gratitude goes to my friend and mentor, Lucy Pickering, for her invalu-
able comments, guidance, and strong encouragement in completing this article.

THE AUTHOR
Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan trains English language teachers at the School of
Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. His research interests include
the use of Internet for English language teaching (ELT), professional development
of English language teachers, and creative and critical thinking in ELT.

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APPENDIX
A SAMPLE OF REFLECTION (S2)
STUDENT 2
DATE 3 September 2004
TOPIC Incorporating Literature and Speaking
PRESENTERS 1. Alita*
2. Kohila*

Based on today’s presentation of micro teaching:

1. What interesting concepts or ideas of teaching or learning or education in general have
you learnt and internalized? Elaborate why.
It is good to get students involved in the discussion. Students are able to give opinions about the
subject matter. In fact, students should be given the opportunities to participate in the process of
teaching and learning. In other words, the learning should be student-centred. Thus I think I have
learnt to try to get students involved more in activity class.
2. If you were to present on the same topic as today, would you have done it similarly or
differently? Why?
I think I will use more methods to carry out the lesson. Besides asking students to give their opinions, I
think I will provide more visuals such as picture for students to have better understanding of the
subject matter. It is because literature is the study of language beyond linguistic aspect. Thus, it has to
be taught by providing students more concrete and clear pictures of what they have to learn.

* Pseudonyms

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS REFLECTING ON REFLECTIONS 705