CONSUMER

CHEMISTRY

Anne Cline
BridgeValley Community & Technical
College
BridgeValley Community & Technical
College
Consumer Chemistry

Anne Cline
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Licensing

1: Introduction to Chemistry
1.2: Prelude to Chemistry
1.4: Basic Definitions
1.4.1: Classification and Properties of Matter
1.5: Chemistry as a Science
1.6: The Scientific Method
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method
1.6.2: Using the Scientific Method
1.7: Chemistry in the Environment
1.8: Applying Properties - MSDS
1.8.1: Applying Properties - MSDS
[Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS
[Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS
1.9: Alchemy

2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

2.1: Introduction to Atoms and Molecules
2.2: Basic Atomic Theory
2.3: Atomic Theory
2.4: Indivisible - The Atomic Theory
2.5: Isotopes and Atomic Mass
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table

3: Periodic Table of the Elements

3.1: Elemental Videos
3.1.1: Chemical Properties
[Link]: Boron (Chem Properties)
[Link]: Chlorine (Chem Properties)
[Link]: Group 16 (Chem Properties)
3.1.2: Environmental Properties
[Link]: Chlorine (Env Properties)
3.1.3: Nuclear Properties
[Link]: Chlorine (Nuke Properties)
3.1.4: Overview
[Link]: Beryllium (Overview)
[Link]: Chlorine (Overview)
[Link]: Fluorine (Overview)
[Link]: Group 14 (Overview)

1 [Link]
 [Link]: Group 15 (Overview)
[Link]: Group 17 (Overview)
[Link]: Group 1 (Overview)
[Link]: Group 2 (Overview)
[Link]: Lithium (Overview)
[Link]: Neon (Overview)
[Link]: Nitrogen (Overview)
[Link]: Oxygen (Overview)
[Link]: Sodium (Overview)
3.1.5: Physical Properties
[Link]: Aluminum (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Beryllium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Calcium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Carbon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Chlorine (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Fluorine (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Group 13 (Physical)
[Link]: Group 18 (Physical)
[Link]: Helium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Hydrogen (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Lithium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Magnesium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Neodymium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Neon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Nitrogen (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Oxygen (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Sodium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Vanadium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Argon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Chlorine (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Phosphorus (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Silicon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Sulfur (Phys Properties)

4: Introduction to acids and bases

4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
4.2: The pH Scale
4.3: pH of Chesapeake Bay

5: Solids and Liquids

5.1: Classification of Matter
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and Subliming

6: Radioactivity
6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
6.2: Half-Life
6.3: Unsafe Doses of Radiation

2 [Link]
7: Chemical Bonds
7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
7.3: Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
7.3.1: Ionic Formula Writing
7.4: Chemical Formulas- How to Represent Compounds
7.5: Covalent Bonds
7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
7.6: Naming Molecular Compounds
7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
7.8: Nomenclature Summary

8: Organic Chemistry
8.1: Organic Chemistry
8.2: Structures and Names of Alkanes
8.3: Branched-Chain Alkanes
8.4: Condensed Structural and Line-Angle Formulas
8.4.1: IUPAC Nomenclature
8.5: Prelude to Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
8.5.1: Alkenes- Structures and Names
8.5.2: Alkynes
8.5.3: Aromatic Compounds- Benzene
8.6: Functional Groups
8.7: Narcotics

9: Biochemistry
9.1: Carbohydrates Fundamentals
9.1.1: Introduction to Carbohydrates
9.1.2: Carbohydrate Classification
9.1.3: Carbohydrate Isomers
9.1.4: Carbohydrate Overview
9.1.5: Nonreducing Sugar
9.2: Lipids
9.2.1: Fatty Acids
9.2.2: Steroids
9.3: Amino Acids
9.3.1: Peptide Bonds
9.3.2: Proteins and Amino Acids
9.4: Nucleic Acids
9.4.1: Nucleotides
9.4.2: Nucleic Acid Structure

10: Solids, Liquids, and Gases, Solutions and energy

10.1: Intermolecular Forces
10.2: Solubility and Pollution
10.3: Properties of Liquids

3 [Link]
 10.3.1: Water Cycle
10.3.2: Water Pollution
10.3.3: Biological Contamination of Water
10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water
10.3.5: Water Treatment
10.3.6: PBBs
10.4: Solids
10.4.1: Fats and Lipids in Bioamplification
10.5: Prelude to Gases
10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases
10.6: Prelude to Solutions
10.6.1: Definitions
10.7: Introduction to energy
10.7.1: Energy and Chemical Bonds
10.7.2: Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
10.7.3: Phase Changes
10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
10.S: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Summary)

11: The Chemical Equation

11.1: Introduction
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions
11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions
11.6: Stoichiometry
11.7: The Mole
11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions

Index

Index
Glossary

Detailed Licensing

4 [Link]
Licensing
A detailed breakdown of this resource's licensing can be found in Back Matter/Detailed Licensing.

1 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1: Introduction to Chemistry

Figure 1.1 (Credit: User:Phanton/Wikipedia; Source: [Link] License:

Public Domain)

How does soap relate to chemistry?

Chemistry affects every area of our lives. Here is just one example of chemistry in action – the making of soaps. Soap was once
made by boiling animal fat in ashes – the product was hard on the skin and not very pleasant to use. Today, soap manufacture
involves complicated chemical processes to provide a wide variety of soaps for different skin types. Colors and odors can be
custom-made for that individual experience.
"What is this made of? How can we produce this material quickly and at a low cost? Will this product harm us or help us?"—these
are all questions that can be answered using the science of chemistry.

What is Chemistry?
Science is a general term used to describe the principled, rigorous study of the natural world. Many interconnected disciplines fall
under this broader concept. For example, physics is the study of motion and forces. Biology is the study of living things. Geology
is the study of the Earth and the rocks and minerals of which it is comprised. Chemistry is the study of the composition of matter
and the changes that matter undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Virtually everything around us is
matter, including both living and nonliving things. Chemistry affects nearly everything we see and every action we take. Chemistry
explains why milk that is left in the refrigerator for too long turns sour. Chemistry explains why certain pollutants called
chlorofluorocarbons have done lasting damage to the ozone layer of our planet. Chemistry explains why the leaves of deciduous
trees turn from green in the summer to various shades of red and yellow in the autumn (Figure below).

Figure 1.2: Chemical reactions in the leaves of deciduous trees cause them to change color from green to red, orange, or yellow
before dropping to the ground. (Credit: User:Jongleur100/Wikimedia Commons; Source:
[Link] License: Public Domain)
Chemistry touches every area of our lives. The medicines we take, the food we eat, the clothes we wear—all of these materials and
more are, in some way or another, products of chemistry.

1
 Importance of Chemistry in Life, Everyd…
Everyd…

Chemists look at the world in two ways, often simultaneously. The two worlds of the chemist are the macroscopic world and the
microscopic world. Macroscopic refers to substances and objects that can be seen, touched, and measured directly. Microscopic
refers to the small particles that make up all matter. Chemists must observe matter and do experiments macroscopically; then make
generalizations and propose explanations that are microscopic in nature. For example, anyone can observe the physical change in
appearance that occurs as an iron object, such as a tractor, is left out in the elements and gradually turns to rust. However, a chemist
looking at the rusting tractor considers the individual atoms that make up the iron, and how they are changing as a result of
exposure to oxygen in the air, and water from rain. Throughout the study of chemistry, there is often a switch back and forth
between the macroscopic and microscopic worlds.

Figure 1.3: Rusting artillery shells. (Courtesy of the US Marine Corps, Source: [Link]
[Link]; License: Public Domain)

Summary
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Chemistry considers both macroscopic and microscopic information.

Review
1. Give two examples of chemistry in your everyday life.
2. What is the macroscopic world?
3. What is the microscopic world?

Explore More
1. Read the label on a prepared food product (for example: bread, cereal, dessert). List all of the ingredients in the product. Look
up each ingredient on the Internet and write down what that material is doing in the food product.
2. Select your favorite hobby or activity. List all of the items you use in that activity or hobby. For each item, find out how
chemistry has contributed to the creation or better operation of that item.
1.1: What Is This Made Of?
1.2: Prelude to Chemistry
1.3: What is Chemistry?

2
 1.4: Basic Definitions
1.4.1: Classification and Properties of Matter
1.5: Chemistry as a Science
1.6: The Scientific Method
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method
1.6.2: Using the Scientific Method
1.7: Chemistry in the Environment
1.8: Applying Properties - MSDS
1.8.1: Applying Properties - MSDS
[Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS
[Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS
1.9: Alchemy

1: Introduction to Chemistry is shared under a CC BY-NC license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

3
1.1: What Is This Made Of?
Welcome to Consumer Chemistry. What is this made of? How can we produce this material quicker and at lower cost? Will this
produce harm us or help us? All of these questions can be answered using the science of chemistry.

What is Chemistry?
If we look up the word "chemistry" in the dictionary, we'll find something like this: "The science of the composition, structure,
properties, and reactions of matter, especially of atomic and molecular systems" (Free Online Dictionary). This definition is
certainly accurate, but does not give a good picture of the scope of chemistry or of the many interesting aspects of the field.
Chemistry touches every area of our lives. The medicines we take, the food we eat, the clothes we wear - all these materials and
more are, in some way or another, products of chemistry.

What is the World Made Of?

Questions about matter have been asked for centuries. The ancient Greek philosophers spent a lot of time trying to figure out what
matter was. Different philosophers debated whether matter was earth, water, air, fire, or some combination. They argued, but did
not do any experiments at that time.
It took many centuries for humans to develop a better concept of what matter really is. Even today, we have an incomplete picture
of exactly what this stuff is that we can touch and see. Chemistry involves the study of these substances, both in terms of basic
properties and also learning all the things we can do with matter.
Chemists look at the world in two ways, often simultaneously. The two worlds of the chemist are the macroscopic world and the
microscopic world. Macroscopic refers to substances and objects that can be seen, touched, and measured directly. Microscopic
refers to the small particles that make up all matter. Chemists must observe matter and do experiments macroscopically and then
make generalizations and propose explanations that are microscopic in nature. For example, anyone can observe the physical
change in appearance that occurs as an iron object such as a tractor that is left out in the elements gradually turns to rust. However,
a chemist looks at the rusting tractor and thinks about what is going on with the individual atoms that make up the iron and how
they are changing as a result of exposure to oxygen in the air and water from rain. Throughout your study of chemistry, you will
often switch back and forth between the macroscopic and microscopic worlds.

Figure 1.1.1 : Rusting artillery shells.

Summary
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Chemistry considers both macroscopic and microscopic information.

Explore More
1. Read the label on a prepared food product (for example: bread, cereal, dessert). List all the ingredients in the product. Look up
each ingredient on the Internet and write down what that material is doing in the food product.
2. Select your favorite hobby or activity. List all the items you use in that activity or hobby. For each item, find out how chemistry
has contributed to the creation or better operation of that item.

1.1.1 [Link]
Contributors

1.1: What Is This Made Of? is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

1.1.2 [Link]
1.2: Prelude to Chemistry
If you are reading these words, you are likely starting a chemistry course. Get ready for a fantastic journey through a world of
wonder, delight, and knowledge. One of the themes of this book is "chemistry is everywhere," and indeed it is; you would not be
alive if it were not for chemistry, because your body is a big chemical machine.

Figure 1.2.1 © Thinkstock

6 images showing a volcanic eruption, large dinner spread, explosion, red wine, a pool of large fish, and molecules are laid out
together.
If you do not believe it, do not worry. Every chapter in this book contains examples that will show you how chemistry is, in fact,
everywhere. So enjoy the ride, and enjoy chemistry.

1.2: Prelude to Chemistry is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1.1: Prelude to Chemistry by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

1.2.1 [Link]
1.3: What is Chemistry?
 Learning Objectives
To recognize the breadth, depth, and scope of chemistry.
Define chemistry in relation to other sciences.
Identify the main disciplines of chemistry.
Match a scientific project with the correct type of chemist.

Chemistry is the study of matter—what it consists of, what its properties are, and how it changes. Being able to describe the
ingredients in a cake and how they change when the cake is baked is called chemistry. Matter is anything that has mass and takes
up space—that is, anything that is physically real. Some things are easily identified as matter—this book, for example. Others are
not so obvious. Because we move so easily through the air, we sometimes forget that it, too, is matter.
Chemistry is one branch of science. Science is the process by which we learn about the natural universe by observing, testing, and
then generating models that explain our observations. Because the physical universe is so vast, there are many different branches of
science (Figure 1.3.1). Thus, chemistry is the study of matter, biology is the study of living things, and geology is the study of
rocks and the earth. Mathematics is the language of science, and we will use it to communicate some of the ideas of chemistry.

Figure 1.3.1 : The Relationships between Some of the Major Branches of Science. Chemistry lies more or less in the middle, which
emphasizes its importance to many branches of science.
Although we divide science into different fields, there is much overlap among them. For example, some biologists and chemists
work in both fields so much that their work is called biochemistry. Similarly, geology and chemistry overlap in the field called
geochemistry. Figure 1.3.1 shows how many of the individual fields of science are related.

There are many other fields of science, in addition to the ones (biology, medicine, etc.)
listed

 Alchemy Is in No way Chemistry!

As our understanding of the universe has changed over time, so has the practice of science. Chemistry in its modern form,
based on principles that we consider valid today, was developed in the 1600s and 1700s. Before that, the study of matter was
known as alchemy and was practiced mainly in China, Arabia, Egypt, and Europe.

1.3.1 [Link]
 Alchemy was a somewhat mystical and secretive approach to learning how to manipulate matter. Practitioners, called
alchemists, thought that all matter was composed of different proportions of the four basic elements—fire, water, earth, and air
—and believed that if you changed the relative proportions of these elements in a substance, you could change the substance.
The long-standing attempts to “transmute” common metals into gold represented one goal of alchemy. Alchemy’s other major
goal was to synthesize the philosopher’s stone, a material that could impart long life—even immortality. Alchemists used
symbols to represent substances, some of which are shown in the accompanying figure. This was not done to better
communicate ideas, as chemists do today, but to maintain the secrecy of alchemical knowledge, keeping others from sharing in
it.

The first affinity table. Table of different relations observed in chemistry between different substances; Memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, p. 202-212. Alchemists used symbols like these to represent substances.
In spite of this secrecy, in its time alchemy was respected as a serious, scholarly endeavor. Isaac Newton, the great
mathematician and physicist, was also an alchemist.

 Alchemy and the ACS (American Chemical Society)

While watching the video below and answer the following questions.

How Pee Brought You The Modern Wo…

Wo…

Questions
1. What was the chief goal of an alchemist according to the video?

1.3.2 [Link]
 2. What could the philosopher’s stone do to urine?
3. Is Alchemy a true science?
4. When urine is boiled down to a white paste, what is the name and symbol for the element that was obtained?
5. List some properties of this element that were discussed in the video.
6. Did wealthy people produce more of this element than poorer people?
7. What types of applications (applied science) did this element lead us to?
8. Instead of collecting urine, how can one collect higher concentrations of this element?
9. The video discussed phosphoric acid (formula: H3PO4). Name all the elements in this compound.
10. What were the mentioned applications of phosphoric acid?
11. What are some of the organic and biochemical applications of element 13?

Areas of Chemistry
The study of modern chemistry has many branches, but can generally be broken down into five main disciplines, or areas of study:
Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic properties, atomic properties, and phenomena in chemical
systems. A physical chemist may study such things as the rates of chemical reactions, the energy transfers that occur in
reactions, or the physical structure of materials at the molecular level.
Organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the study of chemicals containing carbon with hydrogen. Carbon is one of the most
abundant elements on Earth and is capable of forming a tremendously vast number of chemicals (over twenty million so far).
Most of the chemicals found in all living organisms are based on carbon.
Inorganic chemistry: Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemicals that do not, in general, contain carbon. Inorganic chemicals
are commonly found in rocks and minerals. One current important area of inorganic chemistry deals with the design and
properties of materials involved in energy and information technology.
Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry is the study of the composition of matter. It focuses on separating, identifying, and
quantifying chemicals in samples of matter. An analytical chemist may use complex instruments to analyze an unknown
material in order to determine its various components.
Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur in living things. Research may cover basic cellular
processes up to understanding disease states so better treatments can be developed.

Figure 1.3.2 : (left) Measurement of trace metals using atomic spectroscopy. (right) Measuring hormone concentrations.
In practice, chemical research is often not limited to just one of the five major disciplines. A particular chemist may use
biochemistry to isolate a particular chemical found in the human body such as hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying component of red
blood cells. He or she may then proceed to analyze the hemoglobin using methods that would pertain to the areas of physical or
analytical chemistry. Many chemists specialize in areas that are combinations of the main disciplines, such as bioorganic chemistry
or physical organic chemistry.

 Chemists at work

The American Chemical Society (ACS) has designed a series of videos illustrating the different fields that a chemist could
pursue. Please watch this 2 minute and 23-second video and answer the questions below:
1. Which type of chemistry does Dr. Jacobs explore (look at the five types of chemists listed above).
2. How do Dr. Jacobs and her research associates apply their chemistry to a real-world problem?
3. What types of professionals does Dr. Jacobs collaborate with?
4. Which are more difficult to characterize and why: proteins or small molecules?

1.3.3 [Link]
Summary
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes and considers both macroscopic and microscopic information.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
The five main disciplines of chemistry are physical chemistry, organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, and
biochemistry.
Many civilizations contributed to the growth of chemistry. A lot of early chemical research focused on practical uses. Basic
chemistry theories were developed during the nineteenth century. New materials and batteries are a few of the products of
modern chemistry.

Contributors and Attributions

Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)

Hayden Cox (Furman University)

This page titled 1.3: What is Chemistry? is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Elizabeth
Gordon.
1.1: What is Chemistry? by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

1.3.4 [Link]
1.4: Basic Definitions
 Learning Objective
Learn the basic terms used to describe matter

The definition of chemistry—the study of the interactions of matter with other matter and with energy—uses some terms that
should also be defined. We start the study of chemistry by defining basic terms.

Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. A book is matter, a computer is matter, food is matter, and dirt in the ground is
matter. Sometimes matter may be difficult to identify. For example, air is matter, but because it is so thin compared to other matter
(e.g., a book, a computer, food, and dirt), we sometimes forget that air has mass and takes up space. Things that are not matter
include thoughts, ideas, emotions, and hopes.

 Example 1.4.1
Which of the following is matter and not matter?
a. a hot dog
b. love
c. a tree

Solution
a. A hot dog has mass and takes up space, so it is matter.
b. Love is an emotion, and emotions are not matter.
c. A tree has mass and takes up space, so it is matter.

 Exercise 1.4.1
Which of the following is matter and not matter?
a. the moon
b. an idea for a new invention

Answer a
The moon is matter.
Answer b
The invention itself may be matter, but the idea for it is not.

To understand matter and how it changes, we need to be able to describe matter. There are two basic ways to describe matter:
physical properties and chemical properties.

Physical properties
Physical properties are characteristics that describe matter as it exists. Some physical characteristics of matter are shape, color, size,
and temperature. An important physical property is the phase (or state) of matter. The three fundamental phases of matter are solid,
liquid, and gas (Figure 1.4.1).

1.4.1 [Link]
 Figure 1.4.1 : The Phases of Matter. Chemistry recognizes three fundamental phases of matter: solid (left), liquid (middle), and gas
(right). (CC BY-SA 3.0; Spirit469)
The solid state depicted is an ice sculpture of an angel, the liquid state is a drop of water, and the gas is clouds made of water vapor.

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are characteristics of matter that describe how matter changes form in the presence of other matter. Does a
sample of matter burn? Burning is a chemical property. Does it behave violently when put in water? This reaction is a chemical
property as well (Figure 1.4.2). In the following chapters, we will see how descriptions of physical and chemical properties are
important aspects of chemistry.

Figure 1.4.2 : Chemical Properties. The fact that this match burns is a chemical property of the match. (Sebastian Ritter
(Rise0011)).

Physical Change
A physical change occurs when a sample of matter changes one or more of its physical properties. For example, a solid may melt
(Figure 1.4.3), or alcohol in a thermometer may change volume as the temperature changes. A physical change does not affect the
chemical composition of matter.

Figure 1.4.2 : Physical Changes: The solid ice melts into liquid water—a physical change. A time-lapse animation of ice cubes
melting in a glass over 50 minutes. (Public Domain; Moussa).

Chemical Change
Chemical change is the process of demonstrating a chemical property, such as the burning match in Figure 1.4.2 "Chemical
Properties". As the matter in the match burns, its chemical composition changes, and new forms of matter with new physical
properties are created. Note that chemical changes are frequently accompanied by physical changes, as the new matter will likely
have different physical properties from the original matter.

1.4.2 [Link]
  Example 1.4.2

Describe each process as a physical change or a chemical change.

a. Water in the air turns into snow.
b. A person's hair is cut.
c. Bread dough becomes fresh bread in an oven.

Solution
a. Because the water is going from a gas phase to a solid phase, this is a physical change.
b. Your long hair is being shortened. This is a physical change.
c. Because of the oven's temperature, chemical changes are occurring in the bread dough to make fresh bread. These are
chemical changes. (In fact, a lot of cooking involves chemical changes.)

 Exercise 1.4.2

Identify each process as a physical change or a chemical change.

a. A fire is raging in a fireplace.
b. Water is warmed to make a cup of coffee.

Answer a
chemical change
Answer b
physical change

Substance
A sample of matter that has the same physical and chemical properties throughout is called a substance. Sometimes the phrase pure
substance is used, but the word pure isn't needed. The definition of the term substance is an example of how chemistry has a
specific definition for a word that is used in everyday language with a different, vaguer definition. Here, we will use the term
substance with its strict chemical definition.

Chemistry recognizes two different types of substances: elements and compounds.

Element
An element is the simplest type of chemical substance; it cannot be broken down into simpler chemical substances by ordinary
chemical means. There are 118 elements known to science, of which 80 are stable. (The other elements are radioactive, a condition
we will consider in Chapter 15.) Each element has its own unique set of physical and chemical properties. Examples of elements
include iron, carbon, and gold.

Compound
A compound is a combination of more than one element. The physical and chemical properties of a compound are different from
the physical and chemical properties of its constituent elements; that is, it behaves as a completely different substance. There are
over 50 million compounds known, and more are being discovered daily. Examples of compounds include water, penicillin, and
sodium chloride (the chemical name for common table salt).

Mixtures
Physical combinations of more than one substance are called mixtures. Elements and compounds are not the only ways in which
matter can be present. We frequently encounter objects that are physical combinations of more than one element or compound—
mixtures. There are two types of mixtures.

1.4.3 [Link]
Heterogeneous Mixture
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture composed of two or more substances. It is easy to tell, sometimes by the naked eye, that
more than one substance is present.

Homogeneous Mixture/ Solution

A homogeneous mixture is a combination of two or more substances that is so intimately mixed, that the mixture behaves as a
single substance. Another word for a homogeneous mixture is a solution. Thus, a combination of salt and steel wool is a
heterogeneous mixture because it is easy to see which particles of the matter are salt crystals and which are steel wool. On the other
hand, if you take salt crystals and dissolve them in water, it is very difficult to tell that you have more than one substance present
just by looking—even if you use a powerful microscope. The salt dissolved in water is a homogeneous mixture, or a solution
(Figure 1.4.3).

Figure 1.4.3 : Types of Mixtures © Thinkstock. On the left, the combination of two substances is a heterogeneous mixture because
the particles of the two components look different. On the right, the salt crystals have dissolved in the water so finely that you
cannot tell that salt is present. The homogeneous mixture appears like a single substance.

 Example 1.4.3

Identify the following combinations as heterogeneous mixtures or homogenous mixtures.

a. soda water (carbon dioxide is dissolved in water)
b. a mixture of iron metal filings and sulfur powder (both iron and sulfur are elements)

Solution
a. Because carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, we can infer from the behavior of salt crystals dissolved in water that carbon
dioxide dissolved in water is (also) a homogeneous mixture.
b. Assuming that the iron and sulfur are simply mixed together, it should be easy to see what is iron and what is sulfur, so this
is a heterogeneous mixture.

 Exercise 1.4.3
a. the human body
b. an amalgam, a combination of some other metals dissolved in a small amount of mercury

Answer a
heterogeneous mixture
Answer b
homogeneous mixture

1.4.4 [Link]
There are other descriptors that we can use to describe matter, especially elements. We can usually divide elements into metals and
nonmetals, and each set shares certain (but not always all) properties.

Metal
A metal is an element that conducts electricity and heat well and is shiny, silvery, solid, ductile, and malleable. At room
temperature, metals are solid (although mercury is a well-known exception). A metal is ductile because it can be drawn into thin
wires (a property called ductility); and malleable because it can be pounded into thin sheets (a property called malleability).

Nonmetal
A non-metal is an element that is brittle when solid, and does not conduct electricity or heat very well. Non-metals cannot be made
into thin sheets or wires (Figure 1.4.4). Nonmetals also exist in a variety of phases and colors at room temperature.

Semi-metals
Some elements have properties of both metals and nonmetals and are called semi-metals (or metalloids). We will see later how
these descriptions can be assigned rather easily to various elements.

Figure 1.4.4 : Semimetals © Thinkstock. On the left is some elemental mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room
temperature. It has all the other expected properties of a metal. On the right, elemental sulfur is a yellow nonmetal that usually is
found as a powder.

Describing Matter Flowchart

"Describing Matter" is a flowchart of the relationships among the different ways of describing matter.

1.4.5 [Link]
 Figure 1.4.5 : Describing Matter. This flowchart shows how matter can be described.
Matter forks into element & compound which fork into 1 substance & more than 1 substance. More than 1 substance is
homogenous or heterogenous.

 Example 1.4.1: Chemistry is Everywhere: In the Morning

Most people have a morning ritual, a process that they go through every morning to get ready for the day. Chemistry appears in
many of these activities.
If you take a shower or bath in the morning, you probably use soap, shampoo, or both. These items contain chemicals that
interact with the oil and dirt on your body and hair to remove them and wash them away. Many of these products also
contain chemicals that make you smell good; they are called fragrances.
When you brush your teeth in the morning, you usually use toothpaste, a form of soap, to clean your teeth. Toothpastes
typically contain tiny, hard particles called abrasives that physically scrub your teeth. Many toothpastes also contain
fluoride, a substance that chemically interacts with the surface of the teeth to help prevent cavities.
Perhaps you take vitamins, supplements, or medicines every morning. Vitamins and other supplements contain chemicals
your body needs in small amounts to function properly. Medicines are chemicals that help combat diseases and promote
health.
Perhaps you make some fried eggs for breakfast. Frying eggs involves heating them enough so that a chemical reaction
occurs to cook the eggs.
After you eat, the food in your stomach is chemically reacted so that the body (mostly the intestines) can absorb food,
water, and other nutrients.
If you drive or take the bus to school or work, you are using a vehicle that probably burns gasoline, a material that burns
fairly easily and provides energy to power the vehicle. Recall that burning is a chemical change.
These are just a few examples of how chemistry impacts your everyday life. And we haven't even made it to lunch yet!

1.4.6 [Link]
 Figure 1.4.6 : Chemistry in Real Life © Thinkstock. Examples of chemistry can be found everywhere—in personal hygiene
products, food, and motor vehicles.
Personal hygiene products (left), food (middle), and motor vehicles (right) images next to one another.

Key Takeaways
Chemistry is the study of matter and its interactions with other matter and energy.
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Matter can be described in terms of physical properties and chemical properties.
Physical properties and chemical properties of matter can change.
Matter is composed of elements and compounds.
Combinations of different substances are called mixtures.
Elements can be described as metals, nonmetals, and semi-metals.

1.4: Basic Definitions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1.2: Basic Definitions by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]
chemistry.

1.4.7 [Link]
1.4.1: Classification and Properties of Matter
 Learning Objectives
Use physical and chemical properties, including phase, to describe matter.
Distinguish between physical and chemical changes.
Identify a sample of matter as an element, a compound, or a mixture (homogeneous/heterogeneous).
Distinguish between organic and inorganic chemicals.
Label all atoms within an organic or inorganic compound.
Recognize physical methods used to separate mixtures.

Physical and Chemical Properties

The properties that chemists use to describe matter fall into two general categories. Physical properties are characteristics that
describe matter. They include characteristics such as size, shape, color, and mass. Many of these properties can be quantitative in
nature. For example, quantitative physical properties of water would be the boiling point (100 °C / 212 °F) and melting point (0°C /
32 °F).

Figure [Link] : Physical Properties. (Copyright;[Link]

Chemical properties are characteristics that describe how matter changes its chemical structure or composition. An example of a
chemical property is flammability—a material’s ability to burn—because burning (also known as combustion) changes the
chemical composition of a material. Oxidation, rusting, decomposition, and inertness are chemical properties as well. Click on this
video and record the physical and chemical properties of the element sodium.

Figure [Link] : Port Royal, South Carolina oxidation of iron. Image courtesy of Elizabeth R. Gordon.

Elements and Compounds

Any sample of matter that has the same physical and chemical properties throughout the sample is called a substance. There are
two types of substances. A substance that cannot be broken down into chemically simpler components is an element. Aluminum,
which is used in soda cans, is an element. A substance that can be broken down into chemically simpler components (because it has

[Link] [Link]
more than one element) is a compound (Figure [Link]). Water is a compound composed of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Today, there are 118 elements in the known universe. In contrast, scientists have identified tens of millions of different compounds
to date.

Figure [Link] : To a chemist, the pure substance water is a compound (it contains two kinds of atoms bound to one another in just
one kind of molecule). An environmentalist might consider water "pure" even if it contains the normal amount of dissolved oxygen
and carbon dioxide, but no other "pollutants". To a chemist, water containing oxygen is no longer a pure substance, but a mixture.
In pure water, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms is always 2:1.

Sometimes the word pure is added to a substance, but this is not absolutely necessary. By definition, any single substance is
pure.

The smallest part of an element that maintains the identity of that element is called an atom. Atoms are extremely tiny; to make a
line 1 inch long, you would need 217 million iron atoms. The smallest part of a compound that maintains the identity of that
compound is called a molecule. Molecules are composed of atoms that are attached together and behave as a unit. Scientists usually
work with millions and millions of atoms and molecules at a time. When a scientist is working with large numbers of atoms or
molecules at a time, the scientist is studying the macroscopic view of the universe.

Figure [Link] : Appreciating elements, molecules and compounds.

Inorganic and Organic Compounds

Compounds can be further classified as being inorganic or organic. Organic compounds contain carbon, hydrogen, and usually
another element from the right side of the periodic table. Be careful when thinking about organic chemicals. In the real world, the
term "organic" is typically used to describe products that have natural ingredients. In the world of science, the word "organic" is
used to denote compounds that have carbon and hydrogen connections. Look at some of the structures below to get an appreciation
of organic chemical structures.

[Link] [Link]
  Organic structures

The two molecules shown below are heavily used in the pharmaceutical industry. The compound on the left is known as
hydrocodone. This is an opioid painkiller that is extremely addictive. It is regularly dispensed for surgical and chronic pain.
The compound on the right is Adderall. This medication is used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy. Both of these medications are
controlled by the DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency) and are illegal to possess unless you have a valid prescription.

Mixtures
A material composed of two or more substances is a mixture. In a mixture, the individual substances maintain their chemical
identities. Many mixtures are obvious combinations of two or more substances, such as a mixture of sand and water. Such mixtures
are called heterogeneous mixtures. In some mixtures, the components are so intimately combined that they act like a single
substance (even though they are not). Mixtures with a consistent composition throughout are called homogeneous mixtures (or
solutions). Sugar dissolved in water is an example of a solution. A metal alloy, such as steel, is an example of a solid solution. Air,
a mixture of mainly nitrogen and oxygen, is a gaseous solution.

 Exercise [Link]

How would a chemist categorize each example of matter?

a. saltwater
b. soil
c. water
d. oxygen

Solution
a. Saltwater acts as if it were a single substance even though it contains two substances—salt and water. Saltwater is a
homogeneous mixture, or a solution.
b. Soil is composed of small pieces of a variety of materials, so it is a heterogeneous mixture.
c. Water is a substance; more specifically, because water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, it is a compound.
d. Oxygen, a substance, is an element.

 Exercise [Link]

How would a chemist categorize each example of matter?

a. coffee
b. hydrogen
c. an egg

Answer a
Coffee could be a heterogeneous or homogeneous mixture. If insoluble parts are able to be identified, then it would be
classified as being heterogeneous. If not, then coffee would be a homogeneous mixture or a solution.
Answer b

[Link] [Link]
 Hydrogen is an element. It can be located on the periodic table.
Answer c
An egg (assume raw) would be a heterogeneous mixture. The yolk and egg white are two different substances that can be
easily seen.

Phases
Another way to classify matter is to describe it as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, which was done in the examples of solutions. These
three descriptions, each implying that the matter has certain physical properties, represent the three phases of matter. A solid has a
definite shape and a definite volume. Liquids ordinarily have a definite volume but not a definite shape; they take the shape of their
containers. Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume, and they expand to fill their containers. We encounter matter
in each phase every day; in fact, we regularly encounter water in all three phases: ice (solid), water (liquid), and steam (gas).

Video1.4.1.35 : Sublimation and deposition of Iodine.

We know from our experience with water that substances can change from one phase to another if the conditions are right.
Typically, varying the temperature of a substance (and, less commonly, the pressure exerted on it) can cause a phase change, a
physical process in which a substance goes from one phase to another (Figure [Link]). Phase changes have particular names
depending on what phases are involved, as summarized in Table [Link].
Table [Link] : Phase Changes
Change Name

solid to liquid melting, fusion

solid to gas sublimation

liquid to gas boiling, evaporation

liquid to solid solidification, freezing

gas to liquid condensation

gas to solid deposition

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : The Classification of Matter. Matter can be classified in a variety of ways, depending on its properties. (Cc BY-NC-
SA; anonymous)

 Exercise [Link]
a. Classify each as being element, compound, heterogeneous mixture, or homogeneous mixture (solution): air at Furman
University, Furman Lake water, copper wire, and Furman tap water.
b. What is the difference between a heterogeneous mixture and a homogeneous mixture? Give an example of each.
c. Which is/are physical change(s): burning of fuel, digestion of food, salt dissolving in water, copper conducting electricity,
and water boiling.

Answer a
Hopefully, Furman air is a homogenous mixture (solution). If there is no burning or dust build-up in the area, this is safe to
assume. Furman Lake is definitely a heterogeneous mixture (in some areas it can get a bit swampy). Copper wire is an
element. There are very few elements in nature. Lastly, Furman tap water is usually a homogeneous mixture. Natural and
man-made chemicals are in our tap water (trust me, you want the chlorine). Our toilets do use greywater which can look
heterogeneous (ok for sewer but not to drink).
Answer b
A heterogeneous mixture is obviously a mixture, such as dirt; a homogeneous mixture behaves like a single substance, such
as saltwater.
Answer c
The physical changes are salt dissolving water, copper conducting, and water boiling. If composition is not changed, then
this is a physical change. If there is a method to physically separate the components (like boiling, evaporation, distillation,
magnetism, or filtration), then a physical change has occurred.

[Link] [Link]
Contributors and Attributions
Anonymous
Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)
Hayden Cox (Furman University)

This page titled 1.4.1: Classification and Properties of Matter is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Elizabeth Gordon.
1.4: Classification and Properties of Matter by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
1.5: Chemistry as a Science
 Learning Objective
Learn what science is and how it works.

Chemistry is a branch of science. Although science itself is difficult to define exactly, the following definition can serve as a
starting point. Science is the process of knowing about the natural universe through observation and experiment. Science is not the
only process of knowing (e.g., the ancient Greeks simply sat and thought), but it has evolved over more than 350 years into the best
process that humanity has devised, to date, to learn about the universe around us.
The process of science is usually stated as the scientific method, which is rather naively described as follows:
1. state a hypothesis,
2. test the hypothesis, and
3. refine the hypothesis
In actuality, the process is not that simple. (For example, a scientist does not go into their lab every day and exclaim, "I am going to
state a hypothesis today and spend the day testing it!") The process is not that simple because science and scientists have a body of
knowledge that has already been identified as coming from the highest level of understanding, and most scientists build from that
body of knowledge.
An educated guess about how the natural universe works is called a hypothesis. A scientist who is familiar with how part of the
natural universe works—say, a chemist—is interested in furthering that knowledge. That person makes a reasonable guess—a
hypothesis—that is designed to see if the universe works in a new way as well. Here's an example of a hypothesis: "if I mix one
part of hydrogen with one part of oxygen, I can make a substance that contains both elements."

For a hypothesis to be termed a scientific hypothesis, it has to be something that can be

supported or refuted through carefully crafted experimentation or observation.
Most good hypotheses are grounded in previously understood knowledge and represent a testable extension of that knowledge. The
scientist then devises ways to test if that hypothesis is correct or not. That is, the scientist plans experiments. Experiments are
tests of the natural universe to see if a guess (hypothesis) is correct. An experiment to test our previous hypothesis would be to
actually mix hydrogen and oxygen and see what happens. Most experiments include observations of small, well-defined parts of
the natural universe designed to see results of the experiments.

 A Scientific Hypothesis
A hypothesis is often written in the form of an if/then statement that gives a possibility (if) and explains what may happen
because of the possibility (then). For example, if eating elemental sulfur repels ticks, then someone that is eating sulfur every
day will not get ticks.

Why do we have to do experiments? Why do we have to test? Because the natural universe is not always so obvious, experiments
are necessary. For example, it is fairly obvious that if you drop an object from a height, it will fall. Several hundred years ago
(coincidentally, near the inception of modern science), the concept of gravity explained that test. However, is it obvious that the
entire natural universe is composed of only about 115 fundamental chemical building blocks called elements? This wouldn't seem

1.5.1 [Link]
true if you looked at the world around you and saw all the different forms matter can take. In fact, the concept of the element is
only about 200 years old, and the last naturally occurring element was identified about 80 years ago. It took decades of tests and
millions of experiments to establish what the elements actually are. These are just two examples; a myriad of such examples exists
in chemistry and science in general.
When enough evidence has been collected to establish a general principle of how the natural universe works, the evidence is
summarized in a theory. A theory is a general statement that explains a large number of observations. "All matter is composed of
atoms" is a general statement, a theory, that explains many observations in chemistry. A theory is a very powerful statement in
science. There are many statements referred to as "the theory of _______" or the "______ theory" in science (where the blanks
represent a word or concept). When written in this way, theories indicate that science has an overwhelming amount of evidence of
its correctness. We will see several theories in the course of this text.
A specific statement that is thought to never be violated by the entire natural universe is called a law. A scientific law is the highest
understanding of the natural universe that science has and is thought to be inviolate. The fact that all matter attracts all other matter
—the law of gravitation—is one such law. Note that the terms theory and law used in science have slightly different meanings from
those in common usage; where theory is often used to mean hypothesis ("I have a theory…"), and a law is an arbitrary limitation
that can be broken but with potential consequences (such as speed limits). Here again, science uses these terms differently, and it is
important to apply their proper definitions when you use these words in science. (Figure 1.5.1)

Figure 1.5.1 : Defining a law. Does this graffiti mean "law" the way science defines "law"? (CC BY-SA-NC-ND; Koppenbadger).
There is an additional phrase in our definition of science: "the natural universe." Science is concerned only with the natural
universe. What is the natural universe? It's anything that occurs around us, well, naturally. Stars, planets, the appearance of life on
earth; as well as how animals, plants, and other matter function are all part of the natural universe. Science is concerned with that—
and only that.
Of course, there are other things that concern us. For example, is the English language part of science? Most of us can easily
answer no; English is not science. English is certainly worth knowing (at least for people in predominantly English-speaking
countries), but why isn't it science? English, or any human language, is not science because ultimately it is contrived; it is made up.
Think of it: the word spelled b-l-u-e represents a certain color, and we all agree what color that is. But what if we used the word h-
a-r-d to describe that color? (Figure 1.5.2) That would be fine—as long as everyone agreed. Anyone who has learned a second
language must initially wonder why a certain word is used to describe a certain concept; ultimately, the speakers of that language
agreed that a particular word would represent a particular concept. It was contrived.
That doesn't mean language isn't worth knowing. It is very important in society. But it's not science. Science deals only with what
occurs naturally.

1.5.2 [Link]
 Figure 1.5.2 : English Is Not Science. How would you describe this color? Blue or hard? Either way, you're not doing science.

 Example 1.5.1: Identifying Science

Which of the following fields would be considered science?

a. geology, the study of the earth
b. ethics, the study of morality
c. political science, the study of governance
d. biology, the study of living organisms

Solution
a. Because the earth is a natural object, the study of it is indeed considered part of science.
b. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with right and wrong. Although these are useful concepts, they are not science.
c. There are many forms of government, but all are created by humans. Despite the fact that the word science appears in its
name, political science is not true science.
d. Living organisms are part of the natural universe, so the study of them is part of science.

 Exercise 1.5.1

Which is part of science, and which is not?

a. dynamics, the study of systems that change over time
b. aesthetics, the concept of beauty

Answer A
science
Answer B
not science

The field of science has gotten so big that it is common to separate it into more specific fields. First, there is mathematics, the
language of science. All scientific fields use mathematics to express themselves—some more than others. Physics and astronomy
are scientific fields concerned with the fundamental interactions between matter and energy. Chemistry, as defined previously, is
the study of the interactions of matter with other matter and with energy. Biology is the study of living organisms, while geology is
the study of the earth. Other sciences can be named as well. Understand that these fields are not always completely separate; the
boundaries between scientific fields are not always readily apparent. A scientist may be labeled a biochemist if he or she studies the
chemistry of biological organisms.
Finally, understand that science can be either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative implies a description of the quality of an
object. For example, physical properties are generally qualitative descriptions: sulfur is yellow, your math book is heavy, or that
statue is pretty. A quantitative description represents the specific amount of something; it means knowing how much of something
is present, usually by counting or measuring it. Some quantitative descriptions include: 25 students in a class, 650 pages in a book,
or a velocity of 66 miles per hour. Quantitative expressions are very important in science; they are also very important in chemistry.

1.5.3 [Link]
 Example 1.5.2: qualitative vs. quantitative Descriptions
Identify each statement as either a qualitative description or a quantitative description.
a. Gold metal is yellow.
b. A ream of paper has 500 sheets in it.
c. The weather outside is snowy.
d. The temperature outside is 24 degrees Fahrenheit.
Solution
a. Because we are describing a physical property of gold, this statement is qualitative.
b. This statement mentions a specific amount, so it is quantitative.
c. The word snowy is a description of how the day is; therefore, it is a qualitative statement.
d. In this case, the weather is described with a specific quantity—the temperature. Therefore, it is quantitative.

 Exercise 1.5.2

Are these qualitative or quantitative statements?

a. Roses are red, and violets are blue.
b. Four score and seven years ago….

Answer A
qualitative
Answer B
quantitative

 Food and Drink Application: Carbonated Beverages

Some of the simple chemical principles discussed in this chapter can be illustrated with carbonated beverages: sodas, beer, and
sparkling wines. Each product is produced in a different way, but they all have one thing in common: they are solutions of
carbon dioxide dissolved in water.
Carbon dioxide is a compound composed of carbon and oxygen. Under normal conditions, it is a gas. If you cool it down
enough, it becomes a solid known as dry ice. Carbon dioxide is an important compound in the cycle of life on earth.
Even though it is a gas, carbon dioxide can dissolve in water, just like sugar or salt can dissolve in water. When that occurs, we
have a homogeneous mixture, or a solution, of carbon dioxide in water. However, very little carbon dioxide can dissolve in
water. If the atmosphere were pure carbon dioxide, the solution would be only about 0.07% carbon dioxide. In reality, the air is
only about 0.03% carbon dioxide, so the amount of carbon dioxide in water is reduced proportionally.
However, when soda and beer are made, manufacturers do two important things: they use pure carbon dioxide gas, and they
use it at very high pressures. With higher pressures, more carbon dioxide can dissolve in the water. When the soda or beer
container is sealed, the high pressure of carbon dioxide gas remains inside the package. (Of course, there are more ingredients
in soda and beer besides carbon dioxide and water.)
When you open a container of soda or beer, you hear a distinctive hiss as the excess carbon dioxide gas escapes. But something
else happens as well. The carbon dioxide in the solution comes out of solution as a bunch of tiny bubbles. These bubbles
impart a pleasing sensation in the mouth, so much so that the soda industry sold over 225 billion servings of soda in the United
States alone in 2009.
Some sparkling wines are made in the same way—by forcing carbon dioxide into regular wine. Some sparkling wines
(including champagne) are made by sealing a bottle of wine with some yeast in it. The yeast ferments, a process by which the
yeast converts sugars into energy and excess carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide produced by the yeast dissolves in the wine.
Then, when the champagne bottle is opened, the increased pressure of carbon dioxide is released, and the drink bubbles just
like an expensive glass of soda.

1.5.4 [Link]
 Figure 1.5.3 : Carbonated Beverages © Thinkstock. Soda, beer, and sparkling wine take advantage of the properties of a
solution of carbon dioxide in water.
Soda (left), beer (middle) and sparkling wine (right) images next to one another.

Key Takeaways
Science is a process of knowing about the natural universe through observation and experiment.
Scientists go through a rigorous process to determine new knowledge about the universe; this process is generally referred to as
the scientific method.
Science is broken down into various fields, of which chemistry is one.
Science, including chemistry, is both qualitative and quantitative.

1.5: Chemistry as a Science is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1.3: Chemistry as a Science by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

1.5.5 [Link]
1.6: The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method is simply a framework for the systematic exploration of patterns in our world. It just so happens that this
framework is extremely useful for the examination of chemistry and its many questions. The scientific process, an iterative process,
uses the repeated acquisition and testing of data through experimental procedures to disprove hypotheses. A hypothesis is a
proposed explanation of natural phenomena, and after a hypothesis has survived many rounds of testing, it may be accepted as a
theory and used to explain the phenomena in question. Thus, the scientific method is not a linear process of steps, but a method of
inductive reasoning.

Contributors and Attributions

Harley Brinkman (UCD)

1.6: The Scientific Method is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
The Scientific Method is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

1.6.1 [Link]
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method
 Learning Objectives
To understand the limitations in the scientific method, one must become familiar with the scientific method and its
components.

Pseudo-science, basically "fake"-science," consists of scientific claims which are made to appear factual when they are actually
false. Many people question whether Pseudo-science should even contain the word "science" as Pseudo-science isn't really even an
imitation of science; it pretty much disregards the scientific method all together. Also known as alternative or fringe-science,
Pseudo-science relies on invalid arguments called sophisms, a word Webster dictionary defines as "an argument apparently correct
in form but actually invalid; especially : such an argument used to deceive". Pseudo-science usually lacks supporting evidence and
does not abide by the scientific method. That is, pseudo-theories fail to use carefully cultivated and controlled experiments to test a
hypothesis. A scientific hypothesis must include observable, empirical and testable data, and must allow other experts to test the
hypothesis. Pseudo-science does not accomplish these goals. Several examples of Pseudo-Science include phrenology, astrology,
homeopathy, reflexology and iridology.

Distinguishing Pseudo-Science
In order to distinguish a pseudoscience, one must look at the definition of science, and the aspects that make science what it is.
Science is a process based on observations, conjectures, and assessments to provide better understanding of the natural phenomena
of the world. Science generally always follows a formal system of inquiry which consists of observations, explanations,
experiments, and lastly, hypothesis and predictions. Scientific theories are always challenged by experts and revised to fit new
theories. Pseudo-science, however, is mostly based on beliefs and it greatly opposes contradictions. Their hypothesis are never
revised to fit new data or information. Scientist continually disprove ideas to achieve a better understanding of the physical world,
whereas pseudo-scienctists focus on proving theories to make their claims seem plausible. For example, science text books come
out with new editions every couple of years to correct typos, update information, add new illustrations, etc. However, it has been
observed that pseudo-science textbooks only come out with one edition, and is never updated or revised even if their theory has
been proven to be false.
Pseudo-science beliefs often tend to be greatly exaggerated and very vague. Complicated technical language is often used to sound
impressive but it is usually meaningless. For example, a phrase like "energy vibrations" is used to sound remarkable but a phrase
like this is insignificant and doesn't really explain anything. Furthermore, Pseudo-science often consists of outrageous, yet
unprovable claims. Thus, pseudo-scientists tend to focus on confirming their ideas, rather than finding evidence that refutes them.
The following dialogue contains the thought-processes behind Pseudo-Science.
1. My friend and I think unicorns exist
2. Science has no evidence about unicorns.
3. Science therefore cannot prove if unicorns do or do not exist.
4. One day my friend, a very trustworthy person, said she saw a unicorn in the field by her house. There is no other evidence,
other than the fact that my friend saw it.
5. Unicorns exist and any scientist who tries to deny the existence of unicorns is a fun-sucking, hostile human being.
The dialogue above features many key characteristics of Pseudo-Science. The speaker makes his or her point valid though the two
facts alone that her friend had a personal experience and that science has no proof to prove the theory wrong. Finally, the speaker
insults anyone who would challenge the theory. In science, challenges to a theory are accepted as everyone has the same common
goal of improving the understanding of the natural word. Below is a table that lays out the key characteristics of Science and
Pseudo-Science

SCIENCE PSEUDO-SCIENCE

Science never proves anything. Pseudoscience aimes to prove an idea.

Self-correcting methodology which involves critical thinking. Starts with a conculsion and gives easy answers to complex problems.

An on-going process to develop a better understanding of the physical

Often driven by social, political or commercial goals.
world by testing all possible hypotheses.

[Link] [Link]
 SCIENCE PSEUDO-SCIENCE

A field has not evolved a lot since the beginning. If any research is
Involves a continual expansion of knowledge due to intense research.
done, it is done to justify the claims, rather that expand them.
An attempt to disprove the beliefs is considered hostile and
Scientists constantly attempt to refute other scientists' works.
unacceptable.

When results or observations are not consistent with a scientific Results or observations that are not consistent with current beliefs are
understanding, intense research follows. ignored.

Remains questionable at any time. There are two types of theories:

Beliefs of the field can not usually be tested empirically so will likely
those that have been proven wrong by experimentation and data, and
not ever be proven wrong; Thus, Pseudo-scientists believe that they are
every other theory. Thus, no theory can be proven correct; every theory
right just because no one can prove them wrong.
is also subject to being refuted.

Pseudo-Scientists are often not in touch with main-stream science and

are often driven by the egos of the "scientists". Furthermore, famous
Concepts are based on previous understandings or knowledge.
names and testimonials are often used for support rather than scientific
evidence.

Findings must be stated in unambiguous, clear language. Pseudoscience often uses very vague, yet seemingly technical terms.

Phrenology
Phrenology, also known as craniology, was a "science" popular during the early 1800s that was centered
around the idea that the brain was an organ of the mind. During this time, most people believed that the
brain was divided into distinct sections that all controlled different parts of a person's personality or
intelligence. The basis of phrenology revolves around the concept that the brain mirrors a muscle and
those parts of the brain which are "exercised" the most, will be proportionally larger than those parts of the
brain that aren't often used. Thus, the scientists pictured the brain as a bumpy surface, with the make-up of
the surface differing for every person depending on their personality and intelligence. By the mid 19th
century, automated phrenology machines existed, which was basically a set of spring loaded probes that
were placed on the head to measure the topography of one's skull. The machine then gave an automated reading about a person's
characteristics based on this.
Let's consider some of the key characteristics of pseudo-science from our chart, and see how they apply to phrenology.
Pseudo-Scientists are often not in touch with main-stream science: Scientific research has since the 1800s shown how though
the brain is indeed divided into sections, each section does not determine a characteristic or personality trait, but instead
controls a specific function such as memory or motor skills. Likewise, it has been concluded that the brain conforms to the
shape of the skull , rather than the skull conforming to the shape of the brain (meaning the bumps of a persons skull have
nothing to do with the shape of the brain). Back in the 1800s, little knowledge existed about the realities of brain structure and
function, so the concept wasn't as reflexive of pseudo-science as it is today. However, some doctors and scientist still believe in
the basic tenets of phrenology. Phrenology today exists as a classic form of pseudo-science as it goes against the common
understanding about how the brain functions.
Often driven by social, political or commercial goals- Indeed, the main goal of phrenology was a political and social one: to
prove the dominance of the white race over other races. "Scientists" measured the brains of both races and concluded that the
brains of white people were larger then that of people of African descent. Therefore, they concluded, they were smarter and
superior. It was later revealed that the scientists were biased while conducting the experiment and that they were previously
aware of what race each brain belonged to. The experiment was repeated and this time the scientists were not aware of the race
and they concluded that the brains were of equal size. The second experiment better conforms to the scientific method, as in this
case the scientists objectively measured the brains, while in the first case the bias of the scientists lead to their conclusions.
Thus, this situation demonstrates a two-fold level of defective science because not only was the idea of measuring the brains to
determine personality and intelligence not correct all together, but the methods in which the scientists were doing this was also
flawed. Phrenology was also commercially driven, since phrenology parlors where very wide spread and many devices were on
the market to be used to measure.
Pseudo-Scientists are often driven by the egos of the "scientists"- In the book Phrenology and the origins of Victorian Scientific
Naturalism by John Van Whye, Van Whye quotes about the main discoverer of Phrenology Franz Joseph Gall, that " the

[Link] [Link]
 peculiar incentive behind Gall's fascination with explaining individuals' differences may have lain in his hubris" (Van Whye
18). Of the 12 children in his family, Gall was the sharpest and brightest and naturally interested in distinguishing factors
between children. Even as a young school boy, Gall noticed that the other children who were just as good at memorization as he
was all had protruding eyes, which lead him to the idea of the basis of phrenology, that the characteristics of one's head
indicates his or her intelligence.

Reflexology
Reflexology is a way of treatment that involves physically applying pressure to the feet or hands with the belief that each are
divided up into different zones that are "connected" to other parts of the body. Thus, reflexologists assert that they can make
physical changes throughout the body simply by rubbing ones hands or feet. Like we did with phrenology, lets go through some of
the main characteristics of Pseudo-Science and see how they apply to reflexology.
Pseudo-Scientists are often not in touch with main-stream science: No Scientific research has proven the validity of reflexology
and how in fact it would actually work. In 2009, the Australian Medical Journal conducted an extensive study on reflexology
and concluded "The best evidence available to date does not demonstrate convincingly that reflexology is an effective treatment
for any medical condition". However, despite this lack of evidence, Reflexology continues.
Pseudoscience often uses very vague, yet seemingly technical terms terms A main focus of reflexology is that the pressure on
the foot removes any blockage of Qi, the "life energy force" and restores balance to lead to better health. Terms like "vital
energy" or "energy blockage" which are used to talk about reflexology are classic pseudo-science terms; they sound impressive
yet have no meaning to us
Furthermore, famous names and testimonials are often used for support rather than scientific evidence. Because pseudo-science
beliefs do not use scientific data for support, they must rely on individual circumstances when their product, idea, etc. appeared
to have worked. For example, on the home page of well-known reflexologist Laura Norman's home page, she has a quote of
Regis Philben (past host of Who Wants to be a Millionaire?) saying "Laura Norman's Reflexology spared me from a kidney
stone operation and saved my life.", opposed to a quote from say, a medical journal, that would cite how many studies say
reflexology is an extremely effective form of treatment.

Distinguishing Pseudo-Science from other types of invalid science

An important distinction should be made between Pseudo-science and other types of defective science. Take for example, the
"discovery" of N-rays. While attempting to polarize X-rays, physicist René Prosper Blondlot claimed to have discovered a new
type of radiation he called N-rays. After Blondlot shared with others his exciting discovery, many other scientists confirmed his
beliefs by saying they too had saw the N-rays. Though he claimed N-rays contained impossible properties, Blondlot asserted when
he put a hot wire in an iron tube, he was able to detect the N-rays when he used a thread of calcium sulfite that glowed slightly
when the rays were sent through a prism of aluminum. Blondlot claimed that all substances except some treated metals and green
wood emit N-rays. However, Nature magazine was skeptical of Blondlot and sent physicist Robert Wood to investigate. Before
Blondlot was about to show Wood the rays, Wood removed the aluminum prism from the machine without telling Blondlot.
Without the prism, the rays would be impossible to detect. However, Blondlot claimed to still see the N-rays, demonstrating how
the N-rays did not exist; Blondlot just wanted them to exist. This is an example of Pathological science, a phenomenon which
occurs when scientists practice wishful data interpretation and come up with results they want to see. This case of Pathological
science and Pseudo-science differ. For one, Blondlot asked for a confirmation by other experts, something Pseudo-science usually
lacks. More importantly, in pathological science, a scientist starts by following the scientific method; Blondlot was indeed doing an
experiment when he made his discovery and proceeded to experiment when he found the substances that did not emit the rays.
However, Pseudo-science usually includes a complete disregard of the scientific method, while Pathological scientists includes
following the scientific method but seeing the results you wish to see.
Another type of invalid science, called hoax science occurred in 1999 when a team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
claimed to have discovered elements 116 and 118 when they bombarded Lead with Krypton particles. However, by 2002 it had
been discovered that physicist Victor Ninov had intentionally fudged the data to get the ideal results. Thus, the concept of hoax
science, which occurs when the data is intentionally falsified, differs both from pathological and pseudo science. In pathological
science, scientists wishfully interpret the data and legitimately think they see what they want to see. However, in Hoax science,
scientists know they don't see what they want to see, but just say they did. Finally, in Pseudo-Science, scientists don't consider the
scientific method at all as they don't use valid experiments to back up their data in the first place.

[Link] [Link]
From Pseudo-Science to Science
There have been incidents where what was once considered pseudo-science became a respectable theory. In 1911, German
astronomer and meteorologist Alfred Wegener first began developing the idea of Continental Drift. The observation that the
coastlines of African and South American seemed to fit together was not a new observation: scientists just couldn't believe that the
continents could have drifted so far to cross the 5,000 mile Atlantic Ocean. At the time, it was a common theory that a land bridge
had existed between Africa and Brazil. However, one day in the library Wegener read a study about a certain species that could not
have crossed the ocean, yet had fossils appeared on both sides of the supposed land bridge. This piece of evidence lead Wegener to
believe that our world had once been one piece, and had since drifted apart. However, Wegener's theory encountered much hostility
and disbelief. In this time, it was the norm for scientists to stay within the scopes of their fields, meaning biologists did not study
physics, chemists did not study oceanology and of course, meteorologists/astronomers like Wegener did not study geology. Thus,
Wegener's theory faced much criticism just due to the fact that he was not a geologist. Also, Wegener could not explain why the
continents moved, just that they did. This lack of reasoning lead to more skepticism about the theory and all these factors combined
lead to the viewing of continental drift as Pseudo-Science. However, today much evidence exists that shows that Continental Drift
is a perfectly acceptable scientific theory. Today, the modern ideas of plate tectonics can help explain Continental Drift, as the Plate
Tectonic Theory presents the idea that the earth's surface is made up of several large plates that often move up to a few inches every
year. Also, the development of paleomagnetism, which allows us to determine the earth's magnetic poles at the time a rock formed,
suggests that the earth's magnetic poles have changed many times in the last 175 million years and that at one time South America
and Africa were connected.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

Due to the need to have completely controlled experiments to test a hypothesis, science can not prove everything. For example,
ideas about God and other supernatural beings can never be confirmed or denied, as no experiment exists that could test their
presence. Supporters of Intelligent Design attempt to convey their beliefs as scientific, but nonetheless the scientific method can
never prove this. Science is meant to give us a better understanding of the mysteries of the the natural world, by refuting previous
hypotheses, and the existence of supernatural beings lies outside of science all together. Another limitation of the scientific method
is when it comes making judgements about whether certain scientific phenomenons are "good" or "bad". For example, the scientific
method cannot alone say that global warming is bad or harmful to the world, as it can only study the objective causes and
consequences. Furthermore, science cannot answer questions about morality, as scientific results lay out of the scope of cultural,
religious and social influences.

Concept Assessment
Determine if each statement is true or false (see answers at bottom of the page)
1. What is considered Pseudo-Science today will always be considered Pseudo-Science
2. A person has a cold and decides to seek reflexology treatment. The next day, the person gets better. This means reflexology is a
valid scientific theory
3. Just because "science" is immoral or defective does not necessarily mean it is Pseudo-Science
4. Famous people are used in advertisements for products such as gatorade. This means these products are Pseudo-Science
5. Medically based Pseudo-Science such as homeopathy, reflexology or acupuncture have absolutely no benefits to people

References
1. Ernst, Ezard. "Is Reflexology an Effective Intervention? A Systematic Review of Randomised Controlled Trials." The Medical
Journal of Australia 191.5 (2009): 263-66. Print.
2. Van, Wyhe John. Phrenology and the Origins of Victorian Scientific Naturalism. Aldershot, Hanst, England: Ashgate, 2004.
Print.
3. Yount, Lisa. Alfred Wegener: Creator of the Continental Drift Theory. New York: Chelsea House, 2009. Print.

Answers to concept assessment

1. False- just because something is considered pseudo-science today, does not mean it will always be. Take for example, our
discussion about Continental Drift. Continental Drift used to be considered Pseudo-Science, but now since there is scientific
evidence to prove it, the theory is considered a product of science.

[Link] [Link]
 2. False- Just because a person got better after having reflexology treatment does not mean the treatment, which has no scientific
evidence behind it, is the sole reason for a person's recovery. Many other factors could have lead to a person's healing, such as
medication or time to let the body fight by itself so it would be impossible to determine that reflexology caused a person to get
over a cold
3. True- Pseudo-Science is a specific type of defective. See the discussion about pathological and hoax science to learn how to
distinguish Pseudo-Science from other types of invalid Science.
4. False- The common characteristic of relying on testimonials or celebrity support of Pseudo-Science is just one of the many
characteristics on Pseudo-Science. Before declaring something as Pseudo-Science or science, it is important to consider various
characteristics of both and focus on whether or not the ideas have experimentally determined data to support them. There has
indeed been Scientific Data to support the use of Gatorade.
5. False- though there is little scientific evidence to support these types of medical treatment, it does not mean that they have no
value. The Placebo effect may be relevant here, as people may believe that the methods are working, which may trigger the
body to actually feel better.

1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Limitations of the Scientific Method by Stephen Lower is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
[Link]

[Link] [Link]
1.6.2: Using the Scientific Method
 Learning Objectives
To identify the components of the scientific method
Classify measurements as being quantitative or qualitative.
Evaluate science in the media.

The Scientific Method

Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called the scientific method. This
procedure consists of making observations, formulating hypotheses, and designing experiments, which in turn lead to additional
observations, hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles (Figure [Link]).

Figure [Link] : The Steps in the Scientific Method. (CC BY-SA-NC; anonymous).

Step 1: Make observations

Observations can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative observations describe properties or occurrences in ways that do not
rely on numbers. Examples of qualitative observations include the following: the outside air temperature is cooler during the winter
season, table salt is a crystalline solid, sulfur crystals are yellow, and dissolving a penny in dilute nitric acid forms a blue solution
and a brown gas. Quantitative observations are measurements, which by definition consist of both a number and a unit. Examples
of quantitative observations include the following: the melting point of crystalline sulfur is 115.21° Celsius, and 35.9 grams of table
salt—whose chemical name is sodium chloride—dissolves in 100 grams of water at 20° Celsius. For the question of the dinosaurs’
extinction, the initial observation was quantitative: iridium concentrations in sediments dating to 66 million years ago were 20–160
times higher than normal.

Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis

After deciding to learn more about an observation or a set of observations, scientists generally begin an investigation by forming a
hypothesis, a tentative explanation for the observation(s). The hypothesis may not be correct, but it puts the scientist’s
understanding of the system being studied into a form that can be tested. For example, the observation that we experience
alternating periods of light and darkness corresponding to observed movements of the sun, moon, clouds, and shadows is consistent
with either of two hypotheses:
a. Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, alternately exposing one side to the sun, or
b. the sun revolves around Earth every 24 hours.

[Link] [Link]
Suitable experiments can be designed to choose between these two alternatives. For the disappearance of the dinosaurs, the
hypothesis was that the impact of a large extraterrestrial object caused their extinction. Unfortunately (or perhaps, fortunately), this
hypothesis does not lend itself to direct testing by any obvious experiment, but scientists can collect additional data that either
support or refute it.

Step 3: Design and perform experiments

After a hypothesis has been formed, scientists conduct experiments to test its validity. Experiments are systematic observations or
measurements, preferably made under controlled conditions—that is, under conditions in which a single variable changes.

Step 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis

A properly designed and executed experiment enables a scientist to determine whether the original hypothesis is valid. In which
case he can proceed to step 5. In other cases, experiments often demonstrate that the hypothesis is incorrect or that it must be
modified thus requiring further experimentation.

Step 5: Development into law and/or theory

More experimental data are then collected and analyzed, at which point a scientist may begin to think that the results are
sufficiently reproducible (i.e., dependable) to merit being summarized in law, a verbal or mathematical description of a
phenomenon that allows for general predictions. A law simply says what happens; it does not address the question of why.
One example of a law, the law of definite proportions, which was discovered by the French scientist Joseph Proust (1754–1826),
states that a chemical substance always contains the same proportions of elements by mass. Thus, sodium chloride (table salt)
always contains the same proportion by mass of sodium to chlorine, in this case, 39.34% sodium and 60.66% chlorine by mass, and
sucrose (table sugar) is always 42.11% carbon, 6.48% hydrogen, and 51.41% oxygen by mass.
Whereas a law states only what happens, a theory attempts to explain why nature behaves as it does. Laws are unlikely to change
greatly over time unless a major experimental error is discovered. In contrast, a theory, by definition, is incomplete and imperfect,
evolving with time to explain new facts as they are discovered.
Because scientists can enter the cycle shown in Figure [Link] at any point, the actual application of the scientific method to
different topics can take many different forms. For example, a scientist may start with a hypothesis formed by reading about work
done by others in the field, rather than by making direct observations.

 A Real-World Application of the Scientific Method

In 2007, my husband and I journeyed to China to adopt our daughter. Upon arrival in Beijing, I became violently ill. Due to her
visa paperwork, my husband, daughter, and I were required to stay in China for two weeks. Unfortunately, I was ill the entire
time. Once the two-week period was up, the three of us flew back to the United States where I continued to be sick. For the
next year, I remained ill and lost a total of 30 pounds. The picture below shows me holding my daughter eight months after we
returned home from China.

I would like you to attempt to perform the scientific method on my situation described above. List the steps of the scientific
method along with some plausible explanations. * Please have this ready to discuss in class.*

[Link] [Link]
 Exercise [Link]

Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, a qualitative observation, or a quantitative observation.
a. Ice always floats on liquid water.
b. Birds evolved from dinosaurs.
c. According to Albert Einstein, mass X speed of light = energy
d. When 10 g of ice was added to 100 mL of water at 25°C, the temperature of the water decreased to 15.5°C after the ice
melted.
e. The ingredients of Ivory soap were analyzed to see whether it really is 99.44% pure, as advertised.

Solution
a. This is a general statement of a relationship between the properties of liquid and solid water, so it is a law.
b. This is an educated guess regarding the origin of birds, so it is a hypothesis.
c. This is a theory that explains an explanation of events and can be disproven at any time.
d. The temperature is measured before and after a change is made in a system, so these are quantitative observations.
e. This is an analysis designed to test a hypothesis (in this case, the manufacturer’s claim of purity), so it is an experiment.

 Exercise [Link]

Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, a qualitative observation, or a quantitative observation.
a. Measured amounts of acid were added to a Rolaids tablet to see whether it really “consumes 47 times its weight in excess
stomach acid.”
b. Heat always flows from hot objects to cooler ones, not in the opposite direction.
c. The universe was formed by a massive explosion that propelled matter into a vacuum.
d. Michael Jordan is the greatest pure shooter ever to play professional basketball.
e. Limestone is relatively insoluble in water but dissolves readily in dilute acid with the evolution of a gas.
f. Gas mixtures that contain more than 4% hydrogen in air are potentially explosive.

Answer a
experiment
Answer b
law
Answer c
theory
Answer d
hypothesis
Answer e
qualitative observation
Answer f
quantitative observation

Evaluating Science in the Media

[Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link]
Contributors and Attributions

Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)

Hayden Cox (Furman University)

This page titled 1.6.2: Using the Scientific Method is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Elizabeth Gordon.
1.2: Using the Scientific Method by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
1.7: Chemistry in the Environment
Chemistry has been definced as the science that is concerned with the composition, properties, and structure of matter and with the
ways in which substances can change from one form to another. But this definition is too broad to be useful. Chemistry isn't the
only science that deals with the composition and transformations of matter. Matter in the environment is composed of clouds,
whose transformations into rain snow are studied by meteorologists; it is composed of lakes studied by limnologists, or of trees
which transform by processes studied by forresters. Chemists are unique because they understand or explain everything, even the
subjects studied by all the scientists mentioned above, in terms of the properties of just over 100 kinds of atoms found in all matter,
and the amazing variety of molecules that are created by forming and breaking bonds between atoms. So chemistry is defined by its
approach, not its subject matter. Chemistry explains or understands any subject in terms of the properties of atoms and molecules.
Exactly what we mean by a “chemical” needs to be explored, because environmentalists are often opposed to using "chemical"
fertilizers, or "chemical" approaches to solving problems. If chemistry explains things in terms of atomic or molecular properties, a
chemical must be something that is understood that way. In other words, we might call a glass of water a nonchemical if we just
drink it, or a chemical if we drop a lump of sodium in it and want to explain the incredible reactivity of water, producing in this
case hydrogen which may explode.

Water is not a chemical

Water is a Chemical
So laypeople who talk of “chemical free” natural foods, for example, are not necessarily at odds with chemists who claim
“everything is made of chemicals”. When people speak of "chemical free" products, they usually mean that the material is found in
nature and so did not require chemical knowledge to design or understand it. The very same molecule might be called a chemical
under some circumstances. Chemists often say 'everything is a chemical" because it is possible to understand everything in terms of
molecular properties, but of course anyone who pays attention to common language knows that that is not a meaningful thing to
say. Very dangerous "chemicals" are made by natural processes (the strongest poisons known, and by understanding their molecular
properties, chemists can learn how to control or destroy them. For example, aflatoxins found naturally in peanuts and other grains
are possibly the strongest carcinogen known. Aflatoxin-producing members of Aspergillus are common and widespread in nature.
They can colonize and contaminate grain before harvest or during storage [1].

A Natural Chemical Toxin

A chemical is generally a pure substance, comprised of just one kind of molecule (or atom), because the properties and behavior of
the pure substance can be understood in terms of the properties of that molecule. But molecules identical to those found in all of
nature can be synthesized in a laboratory, and they are identical in all respects to natural ones.
From ChemPRIME: 1.0: Prelude to Chemistry

1.7.1 [Link]
References
1. ↑ [Link]/wiki/Aflatoxin

Contributors and Attributions

Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of
Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.

This page titled 1.7: Chemistry in the Environment is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Ed Vitz,
John W. Moore, Justin Shorb, Xavier Prat-Resina, Tim Wendorff, & Adam Hahn.

1.7.2 [Link]
1.8: Applying Properties - MSDS
This page was auto-generated because a user created a sub-page to this page.

1.8: Applying Properties - MSDS is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

1.8.1 [Link]
1.8.1: Applying Properties - MSDS
This page was auto-generated because a user created a sub-page to this page.

1.8.1: Applying Properties - MSDS is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

[Link] [Link]
[Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS
This page was auto-generated because a user created a sub-page to this page.

[Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

[Link].1 [Link]
[Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS
 Learning Objectives
Review physical and chemical properties.
Know the purpose of a MSDS/SDS.
Explain the bolded words on this page.

What is a MSDS/SDS?
A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or Safety Data Sheet (SDS) is designed to provide both workers and emergency personnel
with the proper procedures for handling or working with a particular substance. MSDS's include information such as physical data
(melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid, reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment,
and spill/leak procedures. These are of particular use if a spill or other accident occurs.
The MSDS's are available from many sources such as the chemistry store, health and safety offices, material producing companies,
etc. Any business or industry that has chemicals on site is required to have access to MSDS files for employers to be able to access
at any time. If an employee is concerned about their exposure to chemicals, they can peruse an MSDS to obtain helpful
information. Likewise, one could research household chemicals that could be dangerous to humans and animals. Many substances
found around the home (pesticides, fuels, and cleaners) can be hazardous or harmless.

[Link].1 [Link]
 Figure [Link].1 : Categories of a MSDS/SDS document.

Other Terms Used in MSDS/SDS

Aspects of toxicity and how chemicals will affect a body can also be found in this resource. Along with physical and chemical
properties, you should be familiar with the terms below that could also be found in an MSDS/SDS document.
Mutagen: able to alter DNA and could result in carcinogenesis (a chemical example would be nitrosamine)
Carcinogen: able to cause cancer (this can get complicated, animal and human carcinogens both exist). There are very few
chemicals classified as being human carcinogens. (benzene, radon, asbestos)
Neurotoxin: affects the nervous system (chemical examples include lead and mercury)

[Link].2 [Link]
 Figure [Link].2 : Symptoms of lead poisoning. (Public Domain; Mikael
Häggström).

Teratogen: affects developing fetus or embryo (pharmaceutical examples would be thalidomide and Accutane)
Corrosive: can chemically destroy things easily (acids/bases are examples)
Flammable/Combustible: able to catch on fire (examples would include gasoline and acetone)
Volatile: a liquid that can transform into gas easily (examples would include gasoline and acetone)
MSDS/SDS's can be several pages long. A complete MSDS/SDS guide for acetic acid (also known as vinegar) can be viewed by
clicking on this here. Although this chemical might appear dangerous, it used in the production of vinegar, ketchup, and barbeque
sauce. After looking over vinegar's entire MSDS/SDS sheet, write down any questions for your instructor regarding unfamiliar
terminology.

 Exercise [Link].1

After looking at the MSDS for acetic acid, answer the questions below:
a. Is this chemical a carcinogen?
b. Does acetic acid react with metals?
c. What odor does acetic acid produce?
d. If this chemical is ingested, should you induce vomiting to remove it from the body?
e. Does this chemical have a color?

Answer a
Acetic acid is not a carcinogen. It will not alter cause cancer.
Answer b
Acetic acid reacts with metals. This is a chemical property of this substance.
Answer c
Acetic acid smells like vinegar.
Answer d
Acetic acid is very corrosive and will eat biological tissues. If swallowed, vomiting should not be induced.
Answer e

[Link].3 [Link]
 This chemical is colorless

Contributors and Attributions

Chung (Peter) Chieh (Professor Emeritus, Chemistry @ University of Waterloo)
Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)
Hayden Cox (Furman University)

This page titled [Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Elizabeth Gordon.
1.5: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link].4 [Link]
1.9: Alchemy
A common area of technology to societies of the past was metallurgy. Useful tools could be made with metallurgy that would last
for a long time. Weapons could stay sharp longer with improved metals. Precious metals, such as gold and silver, could be refined
and used for jewelry or for money. Because it was fairly rare, gold was considered to be very valuable, and became a common
means of paying for goods and services.
However, mining for gold is a slow, dirty, and dangerous process. Not everyone owns a gold mine—in both the ancient Egyptian
society and during the Roman Empire, the gold mines were the property of the state, not an individual or group. There were few
ways for most people to legally get any gold for themselves.

Alchemy
Chemistry is a subject that has its roots in the ancient tradition known as alchemy, from which it derives its name. Alchemy was a
combination of philosophy and science that had both practical and mystical aspects. The goals of alchemy were varied and difficult
to summarize. In many ways, the alchemists sought to achieve perfection, through such actions as the pursuit of the philosopher’s
stone and the elixir of life (Figure below). The philosopher’s stone, it was believed, was a substance that was capable of being used
to turn base metals (such as lead) into gold. It was also believed that it could be used to achieve rejuvenation and perhaps
immortality. While alchemists did not ultimately succeed in these quests, their work provided the foundation for the modern study
of chemistry.

Figure 1.9.1 : This painting by Joseph Wright (1771) is titled “The Alchymist, In Search of the Philosopher’s
Stone.” (Credit: Joseph Wright of Derby / Derby Museum and Art Gallery; Source:
[Link] in new window); License: Public
Domain)
Many of the specific approaches that alchemists used when they tried changing lead into gold are vague and unclear. Each
alchemist had their own code for recording data. The processes were kept secret so that others could not profit from them. Different
scholars developed their own set of symbols as they recorded the information they came up with. Many alchemists were not very
honest, and sometimes took advantage of noblemen by taking money and claiming to be able to make gold from lead, then
left town in the middle of the night. On occasion, the nobleman would detect the fraud and have the alchemist hung. By the 1300s,
several European rules had declared alchemy to be illegal, and set out strict punishments for those practicing the alchemical arts.

Figure 1.9.2 : Alchemist recipe. (Credit: Kenelm Digby;

Source: [Link] in new window); License: Public
Domain)

1.9.1 [Link]
Alchemist Contributions to Chemistry
Alchemists laid the groundwork for many chemical processes, such as the refining of ores, the production of gunpowder, the
manufacture of glass and ceramics, leather tanning, and the production of inks, dyes, and paints. Alchemists also made the first
attempts at organizing and classifying substances so that they could better understand their reactions and be able to predict the
products of their experiments. This eventually led to the modern periodic table, which you will learn about in a later chapter.
Alchemy began to fully evolve into chemistry in the 17th century, with a greater emphasis on rational thought and experimentation
and less emphasis on spirituality and mysticism.
The alchemists were never successful in changing lead into gold, but modern nuclear physics can accomplish this task. Lead is
subjected to nuclear bombardment in a particle accelerator. A small amount of gold can be obtained by this process. However, the
cost of the procedure is far more than that of the amount of gold obtained. So, the dream of the alchemists has never (and will
never) come true.

The Science Of Alchemy | Future5

Summary
Gold has been considered valuable by all civilizations.
The alchemists tried to find the philosopher's stone that would allow them to make gold from lead.
The alchemists did not successfully transform lead into gold.
The alchemists laid the ground work for many advances to the new science of chemistry.

Review
1. Why is gold considered to be valuable?
2. Who owned the gold mines during the ancient Egyptian and Roman civilizations?
3. What is the elixir of life?
4. What contributions to modern chemistry were made by the alchemists?

1.9: Alchemy is shared under a CC BY-NC license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1.3: Alchemy by CK-12 Foundation is licensed CK-12. Original source: [Link]

1.9.2 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Although not an SI unit, the angstrom (Å) is a useful unit of length. It is one ten-billionth of a meter, or 10−10 m. Why is it a useful
unit? The ultimate particles that compose all matter are about 10−10 m in size, or about 1 Å. This makes the angstrom a natural—
though not approved—unit for describing these particles.
The angstrom unit is named after Anders Jonas Ångström, a nineteenth-century Swedish physicist. Ångström's research dealt with
light being emitted by glowing objects, including the sun. Ångström studied the brightness of the different colors of light that the
sun emitted and was able to deduce that the sun is composed of the same kinds of matter that are present on the earth. By extension,
we now know that all matter throughout the universe is similar to the matter that exists on our own planet.

Anders Jonas Ångstrom, a Swedish physicist, studied the light coming from the sun.
His contributions to science were sufficient to have a tiny unit of length named after
him, the angstrom, which is one ten-billionth of a meter.
Source: Photo of the sun courtesy of NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory.
2.1: Introduction to Atoms and Molecules
2.2: Basic Atomic Theory
2.3: Atomic Theory
2.4: Indivisible - The Atomic Theory
2.5: Isotopes and Atomic Mass
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table

2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

1
2.1: Introduction to Atoms and Molecules
Although not an SI unit, the angstrom (Å) is a useful unit of length. It is one ten-billionth of a meter, or 10−10 m. Why is it a useful
unit? The ultimate particles that compose all matter are about 10−10 m in size, or about 1 Å. This makes the angstrom a natural-
though not approved-unit for describing these particles.
The angstrom unit is named after Anders Jonas Ångström, a nineteenth-century Swedish physicist. Ångström's research dealt with
light being emitted by glowing objects, including the sun. Ångström studied the brightness of the different colors of light that the
sun emitted and was able to deduce that the sun is composed of the same kinds of matter that are present on the earth. By extension,
we now know that all matter throughout the universe is similar to the matter that exists on our own planet.

Anders Jonas Ångstrom, a Swedish physicist, studied the light coming from the sun. His contributions to science were sufficient to
have a tiny unit of length named after him, the angstrom, which is one ten-billionth of a meter.
Source: Photo of the sun courtesy of NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory,

2.1: Introduction to Atoms and Molecules is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

2.1.1 [Link]
2.2: Basic Atomic Theory
 Learning Objectives
Give a short history of the concept of the atom.
Describe the contributions of Democritus and Dalton to atomic theory.
Summarize Dalton's atomic theory and explain its historical development.

Democritus and the Greek Philosophers

Around 2,500 years ago, early Greek philosophers believed the entire universe was a single, huge, entity. In other words,
"everything was one." They believed that all objects, all matter, and all substances were connected as a single, big, unchangeable
"thing." Democritus was one of the first people to propose the term "atoms." As an alternative to the beliefs of the Greek
philosophers, he suggested that atomos, or atomon - tiny, indivisible, solid objects - make up all matter in the universe.

Figure 2.2.1 : Democritus by Hendrick ter Brugghen, 1628. Democritus was known as the "laughing philosopher." It was a good
thing he liked to laugh, because most other philosophers were laughing at his theories.
Early Greek philosophers tried to understand the nature of the world through reason and logic, not through experiment and
observation. As a result, they had some very interesting ideas, but they felt no need to justify their ideas based on life experiences.
In many ways, you can think of the Greek philosophers as being "all thought and no action." It's truly amazing how much they
achieved using their minds, but because they never performed any experiments, they missed or rejected many discoveries that they
could have made otherwise. Greek philosophers dismissed Democritus' theory entirely. Unfortunately, it took over two millennia
before the theory of atomos (or "atoms," as they're known today) was fully accepted.

How Can You See an Atom?

Video 2.2.1 : Since ancient Greek times, philosophers and scientists have tried to figure out what an atom looks like. For a couple
thousand years, humans could only speculate on the structure and other properties of the smallest unit of matter. It wasn't until the
1980s that chemists could see individual atoms. Bestselling author Sam Kean takes us through the nearly 2,400-year quest to see
the atom in a new episode of the "Legends of Chemistry" series.
While it must be assumed that many more scientists, philosophers, and others studied composition of matter after Democritus, a
major leap forward in our understanding of the composition of matter took place in the 1800's with the work of the British
scientists John Dalton. He started teaching school at age twelve, and was primarily known as a teacher. In his twenties, he moved to

2.2.1 [Link]
the growing city of Manchester, where he was able to pursue some scientific studies. His work in several areas of science brought
him a number of honors. When he died, over 40,000 people in Manchester marched at his funeral.

Figure 2.2.3 : British physicist and chemist John Dalton (1766-1844). Unlike the greek philosophers, John Dalton believed in both
logical thinking and experimentation.
Dalton studied the weights of various elements and compounds. He noticed that matter always combined in fixed ratios based on
weight, or volume in the case of gases. Chemical compounds always contain the same proportion of elements by mass, regardless
of amount, which provided further support for Proust's law of definite proportions. Dalton also observed that there could be more
than one combination of two elements.
From his experiments and observations, as well as the work from peers of his time, Dalton proposed a new theory of the atom
(1803). This later became known as Dalton's atomic theory. The published (1808) tenets of this theory were as follows:
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and
other properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.

 Dalton's Eyes

As a scientist, John Dalton was also interested in colorblindness. Both he and his brother suffered from red/green
colorblindness. At this time (1794), no other scientist had explored this medical issue. He devised theories (although not
correct) as to why he could not differentiate between red and green. In addition, he named this medical condition "Daltonism."
Upon his death (1844), he donated his eyes to a medical research facility in Manchester, England. Today, his eyes are still on
display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester, England.

2.2.2 [Link]
 Figure 2.2.3 : Image taken from: [Link]

The evidence for atoms is so great that few doubt their existence. In fact, individual atoms are now routinely observed with state-
of-the art technologies. Moreover, atoms can even be used for making pretty images or as IBM research demonstrate in Video
2.2.2, control of individual atoms can be use used create animations. A Boy and His Atom is a 2012 stop-motion animated short

film released by IBM Research. The movie tells the story of a boy and a wayward atom who meet and become friends. It depicts a
boy playing with an atom that takes various forms. It was made by moving carbon monoxide molecules viewed with a scanning
tunneling microscope, a device that magnifies them 100 million times. These molecules were moved to create images, which were
then saved as individual frames to make the film.

A Boy And His Atom: The World's Small…

Small…

Video 2.2.2 : A Boy And His Atom: The World's Smallest Movie

2.2.3 [Link]
  Dalton was not completely correct
Dalton's atomic theory has been largely accepted by the scientific community, with the exception of three changes. We know
now that:
1. An atom is composed of smaller particles (electrons, protons, and neutrons).
2. All atoms of an element are not identical. The existence of isotopes illustrates this phenomena.
3. Through the use of nuclear reactions, atoms of one element can be changed into atoms of another element.
The first two will be be discussed later in this chapter, while the last requires introducing "nuclear chemistry" and will be
discussed in a different chapter.

References
1. [Link]

Contributors and Attributions

This page titled 2.2: Basic Atomic Theory is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Elizabeth
Gordon.
3.1: Basic Atomic Theory by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

2.2.4 [Link]
2.3: Atomic Theory
 Learning Objectives
State the modern atomic theory.
Learn how atoms are constructed.

The smallest piece of an element that maintains the identity of that element is called an atom. Individual atoms are extremely small.
It would take about fifty million atoms in a row to make a line that is 1 cm long. The period at the end of a printed sentence has
several million atoms in it. Atoms are so small that it is difficult to believe that all matter is made from atoms—but it is.
The concept that atoms play a fundamental role in chemistry is formalized by the modern atomic theory, first stated by John
Dalton, an English scientist, in 1808. It consists of three parts:
1. All matter is composed of atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are the same; atoms of different elements are different.
3. Atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.
These concepts form the basis of chemistry. Although the word atom comes from a Greek word that means "indivisible," we
understand now that atoms themselves are composed of smaller parts called subatomic particles. The first part to be discovered was
the electron, a tiny subatomic particle with a negative charge. It is often represented as e−, with the right superscript showing the
negative charge. Later, two larger particles were discovered. The proton is a more massive (but still tiny) subatomic particle with a
positive charge, represented as p+. The neutron is a subatomic particle with about the same mass as a proton, but no charge. It is
represented as either n or n0. We now know that all atoms of all elements are composed of electrons, protons, and (with one
exception) neutrons. Table 2.3.1 summarizes the properties of these three subatomic particles.
Table 2.3.1 : Properties of the Three Subatomic Particles
Name Symbol Mass (approx.; kg) Charge

Proton p+ 1.6 × 10−27 1+

Neutron n, n0 1.6 × 10−27 none

Electron e− 9.1 × 10−31 1−

How are these particles arranged in atoms? They are not arranged at random. Experiments by Ernest Rutherford in England in the
1910s pointed to a nuclear model with atoms that has the protons and neutrons in a central nucleus with the electrons in orbit about
the nucleus. The relatively massive protons and neutrons are collected in the center of an atom, in a region called the nucleus of the
atom (plural nuclei). The electrons are outside the nucleus and spend their time orbiting in space about the nucleus. (Figure 2.3.1).

Figure 2.3.1 : The Structure of the Atom. Atoms have protons and neutrons in the center, making the nucleus, while the electrons
orbit the nucleus.
The modern atomic theory states that atoms of one element are the same, while atoms of different elements are different. What
makes atoms of different elements different? The fundamental characteristic that all atoms of the same element share is the number
of protons. All atoms of hydrogen have one and only one proton in the nucleus; all atoms of iron have 26 protons in the nucleus.

2.3.1 [Link]
This number of protons is so important to the identity of an atom that it is called the atomic number. The number of protons in an
atom is the atomic number of the element. Thus, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1, while iron has an atomic number of 26. Each
element has its own characteristic atomic number.
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons, however. Atoms of the same element (i.e., atoms with the same
number of protons) with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Most naturally occurring elements exist as isotopes. For
example, most hydrogen atoms have a single proton in their nucleus. However, a small number (about one in a million) of
hydrogen atoms have a proton and a neutron in their nuclei. This particular isotope of hydrogen is called deuterium. A very rare
form of hydrogen has one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus; this isotope of hydrogen is called tritium. The sum of the number
of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called the mass number of the isotope.
Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons as they have protons, so their overall charge is zero. However, as we shall see
later, this will not always be the case.

 Example 2.3.1
a. The most common carbon atoms have six protons and six neutrons in their nuclei. What are the atomic number and the
mass number of these carbon atoms?
b. An isotope of uranium has an atomic number of 92 and a mass number of 235. What are the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of this atom?

Solution
a. If a carbon atom has six protons in its nucleus, its atomic number is 6. If it also has six neutrons in the nucleus, then the
mass number is 6 + 6, or 12.
b. If the atomic number of uranium is 92, then that is the number of protons in the nucleus. Because the mass number is 235,
then the number of neutrons in the nucleus is 235 − 92, or 143.

 Exercise 2.3.1

The number of protons in the nucleus of a tin atom is 50, while the number of neutrons in the nucleus is 68. What are the
atomic number and the mass number of this isotope?

Answer
Atomic number = 50, mass number = 118

When referring to an atom, we simply use the element's name: the term sodium refers to the element as well as an atom of sodium.
But it can be unwieldy to use the name of elements all the time. Instead, chemistry defines a symbol for each element. The atomic
symbol is a one- or two-letter representation of the name of an element. By convention, the first letter of an element's symbol is
always capitalized, while the second letter (if present) is lowercase. Thus, the symbol for hydrogen is H, the symbol for sodium is
Na, and the symbol for nickel is Ni. Most symbols come from the English name of the element, although some symbols come from
an element's Latin name. (The symbol for sodium, Na, comes from its Latin name, natrium.) Table 2.3.2 lists some common
elements and their symbols. You should memorize the symbols in Table 2.3.2, as this is how we will be representing elements
throughout chemistry.
Table 2.3.2 : Names and Symbols of Common Elements
Element Name Symbol Element Name Symbol

Aluminum Al Mercury Hg

Argon Ar Molybdenum Mo

Arsenic As Neon Ne

Barium Ba Nickel Ni

Beryllium Be Nitrogen N

2.3.2 [Link]
 Element Name Symbol Element Name Symbol

Bismuth Bi Oxygen O

Boron B Palladium Pd

Bromine Br Phosphorus P

Calcium Ca Platinum Pt

Carbon C Potassium K

Chlorine Cl Radium Ra

Chromium Cr Radon Rn

Cobalt Co Rubidium Rb

Copper Cu Scandium Sc

Fluorine F Selenium Se

Gallium Ga Silicon Si

Germanium Ge Silver Ag

Gold Au Sodium Na

Helium He Strontium Sr

Hydrogen H Sulfur S

Iodine I Tantalum Ta

Iridium Ir Tin Sn

Iron Fe Titanium Ti

Krypton Kr Tungsten W

Lead Pb Uranium U

Lithium Li Xenon Xe

Magnesium Mg Zinc Zn

Manganese Mn Zirconium Zr

The elements are grouped together in a special chart called the periodic table of all the elements. A simple periodic table is shown
in Figure 2.3.2, while one may view a more extensive periodic table from another source. The elements on the periodic table are
listed in order of ascending atomic number. The periodic table has a special shape that will become important to us when we
consider the organization of electrons in atoms (Chapter 8). One immediate use of the periodic table helps us identify metals and
nonmetals. Nonmetals are in the upper right-hand corner of the periodic table, on one side of the heavy line splitting the right-side
part of the chart. All other elements are metals.

2.3.3 [Link]
 Figure 2.3.1 : A Simple Periodic Table
There is an easy way to represent isotopes using the atomic symbols. We use the construction:
A
Z
X

where X is the symbol of the element, A is the mass number, and Z is the atomic number. Thus, for the isotope of carbon that has
6 protons and 6 neutrons, the symbol is:
12
C
6

where C is the symbol for the element, 6 represents the atomic number, and 12 represents the mass number.

 Example 2.3.2
a. What is the symbol for an isotope of uranium that has an atomic number of 92 and a mass number of 235?
b. How many protons and neutrons are in Fe
56
26

Solution
a. The symbol for this isotope is U235
92

b. This iron atom has 26 protons and 56 − 26 = 30 neutrons.

 Exercise 2.3.2

How many protons are in 23

11
Na

Answer
11 protons

It is also common to state the mass number after the name of an element to indicate a particular isotope. Carbon-12 represents an
isotope of carbon with 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while uranium-238 is an isotope of uranium that has 146 neutrons.

2.3.4 [Link]
Key Takeaways
Chemistry is based on the modern atomic theory, which states that all matter is composed of atoms.
Atoms themselves are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Each element has its own atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus.
Isotopes of an element contain different numbers of neutrons.
Elements are represented by an atomic symbol.
The periodic table is a chart that organizes all the elements.

2.3: Atomic Theory is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
3.2: Atomic Theory by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]
chemistry.

2.3.5 [Link]
2.4: Indivisible - The Atomic Theory
 Learning Objectives
Give a short history of the concept of the atom.
Describe the contributions of Democritus and Dalton to atomic theory.
Summarize Dalton's atomic theory and explain its historical development.

You learned earlier that all matter in the universe is made out of tiny building blocks called atoms. All modern scientists accept the
concept of the atom, but when the concept of the atom was first proposed about 2,500 years ago, ancient philosophers laughed at
the idea. It has always been difficult to convince people of the existence of things that are too small to see. We will spend some
time considering the evidence (observations) that convince scientists of the existence of atoms.

Democritus and the Greek Philosophers

About 2,500 years ago, early Greek philosophers believed the entire universe was a single, huge, entity. In other words, "everything
was one." They believed that all objects, all matter, and all substances were connected as a single, big, unchangeable "thing." One
of the first people to propose "atoms" was a man known as Democritus. As an alternative to the beliefs of the Greek philosophers,
he suggested that atomos, or atomon—tiny, indivisible, solid objects—make up all matter in the universe.

Figure 2.4.1 : (left) Democritus by Hendrick ter Brugghen, 1628. Democritus was known as the "laughing philosopher." It was a
good thing he liked to laugh, because most other philosophers were laughing at his theories. (right) British physicist and chemist
John Dalton (1766-1844). Unlike the Greek philosophers, John Dalton believed in both logical thinking and experimentation.
Democritus then reasoned that changes occur when the many atomos in an object were reconnected or recombined in different
ways. Democritus even extended this theory, suggesting that there were different varieties of atomos with different shapes, sizes,
and masses. He thought, however, that shape, size, and mass were the only properties differentiating the different types of atomos.
According to Democritus, other characteristics, like color and taste, did not reflect properties of the atomos themselves, but rather,
resulted from the different ways in which the atomos were combined and connected to one another.
The early Greek philosophers tried to understand the nature of the world through reason and logic, but not through experiment and
observation. As a result, they had some very interesting ideas, but they felt no need to justify their ideas based on life experiences.
In a lot of ways, you can think of the Greek philosophers as being "all thought and no action." It's truly amazing how much they
achieved using their minds, but because they never performed any experiments, they missed or rejected a lot of discoveries that
they could have made otherwise. Greek philosophers dismissed Democritus' theory entirely. Sadly, it took over two millennia
before the theory of atomos (or "atoms," as they are known today) was fully appreciated.

 Greeks: "All Thought and No Action"

Greek philosophers were "all thought and no action" and did not feel the need to test their theories with reality. In contrast,
Dalton's efforts were based on experimentation and testing ideas against reality.

While it must be assumed that many more scientists, philosophers, and others studied composition of matter after Democritus, a
major leap forward in our understanding of the composition of matter took place in the 1800's with the work of the British
scientists John Dalton. He started teaching school at age twelve, and was primarily known as a teacher. In his twenties, he moved to

2.4.1 [Link]
the growing city of Manchester, where he was able to pursue some scientific studies. His work in several areas of science brought
him a number of honors. When he died, over 40,000 people in Manchester marched at his funeral.
The modern atomic theory, proposed about 1803 by the English chemist John Dalton (Figure 2.4.1), is a fundamental concept that
states that all elements are composed of atoms. Previously, we defined an atom as the smallest part of an element that maintains the
identity of that element. Individual atoms are extremely small; even the largest atom has an approximate diameter of only 5.4 ×
10−10 m. With that size, it takes over 18 million of these atoms, lined up side by side, to equal the width of your little finger (about
1 cm).
Dalton studied the weights of various elements and compounds. He noticed that matter always combined in fixed ratios based on
weight, or volume in the case of gases. Chemical compounds always contain the same proportion of elements by mass, regardless
of amount, which provided further support for Proust's law of definite proportions. Dalton also observed that there could be more
than one combination of two elements.
From his experiments and observations, as well as the work from peers of his time, Dalton proposed a new theory of the atom. This
later became known as Dalton's atomic theory. The general tenets of this theory were as follows:
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and
other properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Dalton's atomic theory has been largely accepted by the scientific community, with the exception of three changes. We know now
that (1) an atom can be further subdivided, (2) all atoms of an element are not identical in mass, and (3) using nuclear fission and
fusion techniques, we can create or destroy atoms by changing them into other atoms.

Figure 2.4.2 : Dalton's symbols from his text "A New System of Chemical Philosophy."
The evidence for atoms is so great that few doubt their existence. In fact, individual atoms are now routinely observed with state-
of-the art technologies. Moreover, they can even be used for making pretty images; or as IBM research demonstrates in Video
2.4.1, control of individual atoms can be use used create animations.

2.4.2 [Link]
 A Boy And His Atom: The World's Small…
Small…

Video 2.4.1 : A Boy And His Atom: The World's Smallest Movie.
A Boy and His Atom is a 2012 stop-motion animated short film released by IBM Research. The movie tells the story of a boy and a
wayward atom who meet and become friends. It depicts a boy playing with an atom that takes various forms. It was made by
moving carbon monoxide molecules viewed with a scanning tunneling microscope, a device that magnifies them 100 million times.
These molecules were moved to create images, which were then saved as individual frames to make the film.

Summary
2,500 years ago, Democritus suggested that all matter in the universe was made up of tiny, indivisible, solid objects he called
"atomos." However, other Greek philosophers disliked Democritus' "atomos" theory because they felt it was illogical.
Dalton's Atomic Theory is the first scientific theory to relate chemical changes to the structure, properties, and behavior of the
atom. The general tenets of this theory are:
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass,
and other properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.

2.4: Indivisible - The Atomic Theory is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
4.2: Indivisible - The Atomic Theory by Henry Agnew, Marisa Alviar-Agnew is licensed CK-12. Original source:
[Link]

2.4.3 [Link]
2.5: Isotopes and Atomic Mass
Learning Outcomes
Define atomic and mass numbers.
Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom.
Identify the charge and relative mass of subatomic particles.
Label the location of subatomic particles in the atom.
Define isotope.
Write the isotopic symbol of an atom.
Explain the concept of average atomic mass.

Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of all matter and are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Because atoms are
electrically neutral, the number of positively charged protons must be equal to the number of negatively charged electrons. Since
neutrons do not affect the charge, the number of neutrons is not dependent on the number of protons and will vary even among
atoms of the same element.

Atomic Number
The atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of that element. An atom can be
classified as a particular element based solely on its atomic number. For example, any atom with an atomic number of 8 (its nucleus
contains 8 protons) is an oxygen atom, and any atom with a different number of protons would be a different element. The periodic
table (see figure below) displays all of the known elements and is arranged in order of increasing atomic number. In this table, an
element's atomic number is indicated above the elemental symbol. Hydrogen, at the upper left of the table, has an atomic number of
1. Every hydrogen atom has one proton in its nucleus. Next on the table is helium, whose atoms have two protons in the nucleus.
Lithium atoms have three protons, beryllium atoms have four, and so on.
Since atoms are neutral, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons. Hydrogen atoms all have one
electron occupying the space outside of the nucleus. Helium, with two protons, will have two electrons.

Figure 2.5.1 : The periodic table of the elements.

Mass Number
Experimental data showed that the vast majority of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus, which is composed of
protons and neutrons. The mass number is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Consider the table
below, which shows data from the first six elements of the periodic table.
Table 2.5.1 : Atoms of the First Six Elements
Name Symbol Atomic Number Protons Neutrons Electrons Mass Number

hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1

2.5.1 [Link]
 Name Symbol Atomic Number Protons Neutrons Electrons Mass Number

helium He 2 2 2 2 4

lithium Li 3 3 4 3 7

beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 9

boron B 5 5 6 5 11

carbon C 6 6 6 6 12

View animations showing the atomic structure of the first 11 elements on the periodic table at
[Link]
Consider the element helium. Its atomic number is 2, so it has two protons in its nucleus. Its nucleus also contains two neutrons.
Since 2 + 2 = 4 , we know that the mass number of the helium atom is 4. Finally, the helium atom also contains two electrons,
since the number of electrons must equal the number of protons. This example may lead you to believe that atoms have the same
number of protons and neutrons, but a further examination of the table above will show that this is not the case. Lithium, for
example, has three protons and four neutrons, giving it a mass number of 7.
Knowing the mass number and the atomic number of an atom allows you to determine the number of neutrons present in that atom
by subtraction.
Number of neutrons = mass number − atomic number (2.5.1)

Atoms of the element chromium (Cr) have an atomic number of 24 and a mass number of 52. How many neutrons are in the
nucleus of a chromium atom? To determine this, you would subtract as shown:
52 − 24 = 28 neutrons in a chromium atom (2.5.2)

The composition of any atom can be illustrated with a shorthand notation using the atomic number and the mass number. Both are
written before the chemical symbol, with the mass number written as a superscript and the atomic number written as a subscript.
The chromium atom discussed above would be written as:
52
24
Cr (2.5.3)

Another way to refer to a specific atom is to write the mass number of the atom after the name, separated by a hyphen. The above
atom would be written as chromium-52, with the mass number written after the name. The atomic number does not have to be
included because all atoms of chromium have the same number of protons but can vary in the atomic mass.

Isotopes
As stated earlier, not all atoms of a given element are identical. Specifically, the number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary for
many elements. As an example, naturally occurring carbon exists in three forms, which are illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 2.5.2 : Nuclei of the three isotopes of carbon. Almost 99% of naturally occurring carbon is carbon-12, whose nucleus
consists of six protons and six neutrons. Carbon-13 and carbon-14, with seven or eight neutrons, respectively, have a much lower
nuclei abundance.
Each carbon atom has the same number of protons (6), which is equal to its atomic number. Each carbon atom also contains six
electrons, allowing the atom to remain electrically neutral. However, the number of neutrons varies from six to eight. Isotopes are
atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers due to a change in the number of neutrons. The three isotopes
of carbon can be referred to as carbon-12 ( C), carbon-13 ( C), and carbon-14 ( C). Naturally occurring samples of most
12
6
13
6
14
6

elements are mixtures of isotopes. Carbon has only three natural isotopes, but some heavier elements have many more. Tin has ten

2.5.2 [Link]
stable isotopes, which is the most of any known element. The nucleus of a given carbon atom will be one of the three possible
isotopes discussed above.
While the presence of isotopes affects the mass of an atom, it does not affect its chemical reactivity. Chemical behavior is governed
by the number of electrons and the number of protons. Carbon-13 behaves chemically in exactly the same way as the more plentiful
carbon-12.

Size of Atoms
The graphite in your pencil is composed of the element carbon, a nonmetal. Imagine taking a small piece of carbon and grinding it
until it is a fine dust. Each speck of carbon would still have all of the physical and chemical properties of carbon. Now imagine that
you could somehow keep dividing the speck of carbon into smaller and smaller pieces. Eventually, you would reach a point where
your carbon sample is as small as it could possibly be. This final particle is called an atom.
Atoms, as you probably know, are extremely small. In fact, the graphite in an ordinary pencil contains about 5 × 10 atoms of20

carbon. This is an almost incomprehensibly large number. The population of the entire Earth is about 7 × 10 people, meaning that
9

there are about 7 × 10 times as many carbon atoms in your pencil as there are people on Earth! For this to be true, atoms must be
10

extremely small. We can only see atoms with a modern instrument called a scanning tunneling microscope.
([Link]/educationa...opes/scanning/)

Atomic Mass
The masses of individual atoms are very, very small. However, using a modern device called a mass spectrometer, it is possible to
measure such miniscule masses. An atom of oxygen-16, for example, has a mass of 2.66 × 10 g . While comparisons of masses
−23

measured in grams would have some usefulness, it is far more practical to have a system that will allow us to more easily compare
relative atomic masses. Scientists decided on using the carbon-12 nuclide as the reference standard by which all other masses
would be compared. By definition, one atom of carbon-12 is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu). An atomic
mass unit is defined as a mass equal to one twelfth of an atom of carbon-12. The mass of any isotope of any element is expressed
in relation to the carbon-12 standard. For example, one atom of helium-4 has a mass of 4.0026 amu. An atom of sulfur-32 has a
mass of 31.972 amu.
The carbon-12 atom has six protons and six neutrons in its nucleus for a mass number of 12. Since the nucleus accounts for nearly
all of the mass of the atom, a single proton or single neutron has a mass of approximately 1 amu. However, as seen by the helium
and sulfur examples, the masses of individual atoms are not quite whole numbers. This is because an atom's mass is affected very
slightly by the interactions of the various particles within the nucleus and also includes the small mass added by each electron.
As stated in the section on isotopes, most elements occur naturally as a mixture of two or more isotopes. Listed below (see table
below) are the naturally occurring isotopes of several elements along with the percent natural abundance of each.
Table 2.5.2 : Atomic Masses and Percent Abundances of Some Natural Isotopes
Percent Natural Average atomic mass
Element Isotope (Symbol) Atomic mass (amu)
Abundance (amu)

1
1H 99.985 1.0078

Hydrogen 2
1H 0.015 2.0141 1.0079
3
1
H negligible 3.0160
12
6C 98.89 12.000

Carbon 13
6C 1.11 13.003 12.011
14
6C trace 14.003
16
8O 99.759 15.995

Oxygen 17
8O 0.037 16.995 15.999
18
8O 0.204 17.999
35
17 Cl 75.77 34.969
Chlorine 35.453
37
17 Cl 24.23 36.966

2.5.3 [Link]
 Percent Natural Average atomic mass
Element Isotope (Symbol) Atomic mass (amu)
Abundance (amu)

63
29 Cu 69.17 62.930
Copper 63.546
65
29 Cu 30.83 64.928

For some elements, one particular isotope is much more abundant than any other isotopes. For example, naturally occurring
hydrogen is nearly all hydrogen-1, and naturally occurring oxygen is nearly all oxygen-16. For many other elements, however,
more than one isotope may exist in substantial quantities. Chlorine (atomic number 17) is yellowish-green toxic gas. About three
quarters of all chlorine atoms have 18 neutrons, giving those atoms a mass number of 35. About one quarter of all chlorine atoms
have 20 neutrons, giving those atoms a mass number of 37. Were you to simply calculate the arithmetic average of the precise
atomic masses, you would get approximately 36.
34.969 + 36.966
= 35.968 (2.5.4)
2

As you can see, the average atomic mass given in the last column of the table above is significantly lower. Why? The reason is that
we need to take into account the natural abundance percentages of each isotope in order to calculate what is called the weighted
average. The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of that
element. The average atomic masses are the values we see on the periodic table.
0.7577 (34.969) + 0.2423 (36.966) = 35.453 (2.5.5)

The weighted average is determined by multiplying the percent of natural abundance by the actual mass of the isotope. This is
repeated until there is a term for each isotope. For chlorine, there are only two naturally occurring isotopes so there are only two
terms.

Supplemental Resources
Elements and Atoms: [Link]
Introduction to the Atom: [Link]
Atomic History - A Brief Discovery: [Link]
All About Atoms: [Link]
Build and Atom: [Link]
Molecular Workbench - Atomic Structure: [Link]
See Inside a Diamond: [Link]
Isotopes and Atomic Mass: [Link]
Atomic Structure: [Link]/flashFiles/[Link]
Atom Builder: [Link]/flashFiles/[Link]
Tennis Ball Isotopes: [Link]
Element Math Game: [Link]
Atoms and Matter Crossword Puzzle: [Link]
Atomic Number Review #1: [Link]/Chemistry...[Link]
Atomic Number Review #2: [Link]/Chemistry...[Link]
Atomic Structure: [Link]/Chemistry...omicStructure/

Contributors and Attributions

Allison Soult, Ph.D. (Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky)

This page titled 2.5: Isotopes and Atomic Mass is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Allison Soult.

2.5.4 [Link]
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
 Learning Objectives
Explain what spectra are.
Learn the quantum numbers that are assigned to electrons.

There are two fundamental ways of generating light: either heat an object up to be so hot that it glows, or pass an electrical current
through a sample of matter (usually a gas). Incandescent lights and fluorescent lights generate light via these two methods,
respectively.
A hot object gives off a continuum of light. We notice this when the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is passed
through a prism: the prism separates light into its constituent colors, and all colors are present in a continuous rainbow (Figure
2.6.1a - Prisms and Light). This image is known as a continuous spectrum. However, when electricity is passed through a gas and

light is emitted and this light is passed though a prism, we see only certain lines of light in the image (Figure 2.6.1b). This image is
called a line spectrum. It turns out that every element has its own unique, characteristic line spectrum.

Figure 2.6.1 : Prisms and Light. (a) A glowing object gives off a full rainbow of colors, which are noticed only when light is passed
through a prism to make a continuous spectrum. (b) However, when electricity is passed through a gas, only certain colors of light
are emitted. Here are the colors of light in the line spectrum of Hg.
Why does the light emitted from an electrically excited gas have only certain colors, while light given off by hot objects has a
continuous spectrum? For a long time, it was not well explained. Particularly simple was the spectrum of hydrogen gas, which
could be described easily by an equation; no other element has a spectrum that is so predictable (Figure 2.6.2 - Hydrogen
Spectrum). Late nineteenth century scientists found that the positions of the lines obeyed a pattern given by the equation
1 1 1
−1
= (109, 700c m )( − )
2
λ 4 n

where n = 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. However, they could not explain why this was so.

Figure 2.6.2 : Hydrogen Spectrum. The spectrum of hydrogen was particularly simple and could be predicted by a simple
mathematical expression.
In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr suggested a reason why the hydrogen atom spectrum looked this way. He suggested that
the electron in a hydrogen atom could not have any random energy, having only certain fixed values of energy that were indexed by
the number n (the same n in the equation above and now called a quantum number). Quantities that have certain specific values
are quantized values. Bohr suggested that the energy of the electron in hydrogen was quantized because it was in a specific orbit.
Because the energies of the electron can have only certain values, the changes in energies can have only certain values (somewhat
similar to a staircase—not only are the stair steps set at specific heights, but the height between steps is fixed). Finally, Bohr
suggested that the energy of light emitted from electrified hydrogen gas was equal to the energy difference of the electron's energy
states:

Elight = hν = ΔEelectron

2.6.1 [Link]
This means that only certain frequencies (and thus, certain wavelengths) of light are emitted. Figure 2.6.3 - Bohr's Model of the
Hydrogen Atom, shows a model of the hydrogen atom based on Bohr's ideas.

Figure 2.6.3 : Bohr's Model of the Hydrogen Atom. Bohr's description of the hydrogen atom had specific orbits for the electron,
which had quantized energies.
Bohr's ideas were useful, but were applicable only to the hydrogen atom. However, later researchers generalized Bohr's ideas into a
new theory called quantum mechanics, which explains the behavior of electrons as if they were acting as a wave, not as particles.
Quantum mechanics predicts two major things: quantized energies for electrons of all atoms (not just hydrogen) and an
organization of electrons within atoms. Electrons are no longer thought of as being randomly distributed around a nucleus or
restricted to certain orbits (in that regard, Bohr was wrong). Instead, electrons are collected into groups and subgroups that explain
much about the chemical behavior of the atom.
In the quantum-mechanical model of an atom, the state of an electron is described by four quantum numbers, not just the one
predicted by Bohr. The first quantum number is called the principal quantum number(n). The principal quantum number largely
determines the energy of an electron. Electrons in the same atom that have the same principal quantum number are said to occupy
an electron shell of the atom. The principal quantum number can be any nonzero positive integer: 1, 2, 3, 4,….
Within a shell, there may be multiple possible values of the next quantum number, the angular momentum quantum number (ℓ).
The ℓ quantum number has a minor effect on the energy of the electron but also affects the spatial distribution of the electron in
three-dimensional space—that is, the shape of an electron's distribution in space. The value of the ℓ quantum number can be any
integer between 0 and n − 1: ℓ = 0, 1, 2,…, n − 1.
Thus, for a given value of n, there are different possible values of ℓ:
Table with two columns and four rows. The first (left) column is labeled "If n equals" and the second (right) column is labeled "ℓ can be”.
Underneath the columns in the rows are different values. All of the rows have numerical values.
If n equals ℓ can be

1 0

2 0 or 1

3 0, 1, or 2

4 0, 1, 2, or 3

and so forth. Electrons within a shell that have the same value of ℓ are said to occupy a subshell in the atom. Commonly, instead of
referring to the numerical value of ℓ, a letter represents the value of ℓ (to help distinguish it from the principal quantum number):
Table with two columns and four rows. The first (left) column is labeled "If ℓ equals" and the second (right) column is labeled "The letter is”.
The rows underneath the left column are numbers and the rows underneath the right column are letters.
If ℓ equals The letter is

0 s

1 p

2 d

2.6.2 [Link]
 If ℓ equals The letter is

3 f

The next quantum number is called the magnetic quantum number (m ℓ ). For any value of ℓ, there are 2ℓ + 1 possible values of
mℓ, ranging from −ℓ to ℓ:

−ℓ < mℓ < ℓ

or

| mℓ | < ℓ

The following explicitly lists the possible values of mℓ for the possible values of ℓ:
Table with two columns and four rows. The first (left) column is labeled "If ℓ equals" and the second (right) column is labeled "The mℓ
values can be”. The rows underneath the left column are positive numbers and the rows underneath the right column are negative numbers.
If ℓ equals The mℓ values can be

0 0

1 −1, 0, or 1

2 −2, −1, 0, 1, or 2

3 −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, or 3

The particular value of m ℓ dictates the orientation of an electron's distribution in space. When ℓ is zero, m ℓ can be only zero, so
there is only one possible orientation. When ℓ is 1, there are three possible orientations for an electron's distribution. When ℓ is 2,
there are five possible orientations of electron distribution. This goes on and on for other values of ℓ, but we need not consider any
higher values of ℓ here. Each value of mℓ designates a certain orbital. Thus, there is only one orbital when ℓ is zero, three orbitals
when ℓ is 1, five orbitals when ℓ is 2, and so forth. The m ℓ quantum number has no effect on the energy of an electron unless the
electrons are subjected to a magnetic field—hence its name.
The ℓ quantum number dictates the general shape of electron distribution in space (Figure 2.6.4 - Electron Orbitals). Any s orbital
is spherically symmetric (Figure 2.6.4a - Electron Orbitals), and there is only one orbital in any s subshell. Any p orbital has a two-
lobed, dumbbell-like shape (Figure 2.6.4b - Electron Orbitals); because there are three of them, we normally represent them as
pointing along the x-, y-, and z-axes of Cartesian space. The d orbitals are four-lobed rosettes (Figure 2.6.4c - Electron Orbitals)
and they are oriented differently in space (the one labeled d Unknown
has two
Unknown node lobes
node type:
type: strong
sub and a torus instead of four lobes, but it is equivalent to
the other orbitals). When there is more than one possible value of m ℓ , each orbital is labeled with one of the possible values. It
should be noted that the diagrams in Figure 2.6.4 are estimates of the electron distribution in space, not surfaces electrons are fixed
on.

2.6.3 [Link]
 Figure 2.6.4 : Electron Orbitals. (a) The lone s orbital is spherical in distribution. (b) The three p orbitals are shaped like dumbbells,
and each one points in a different direction. (c) The five d orbitals are rosette in shape, except for the dz2 orbital, which is a
"dumbbell + torus" combination. They are all oriented in different directions.
The final quantum number is the spin quantum number (ms). Electrons and other subatomic particles behave as if they are
spinning (we cannot tell if they really are, but they behave as if they are). Electrons themselves have two possible spin states, and
because of mathematics, they are assigned the quantum numbers +1/2 and −1/2. These are the only two possible choices for the
spin quantum number of an electron.

 Example 2.6.1

Of the set of quantum numbers {n, ℓ, mℓ, ms}, which are possible and which are not allowed?
a. {3, 2, 1, +1/2}
b. {2, 2, 0, −1/2}
c. {3, −1, 0, +1/2}

Solution
a. The principal quantum number n must be an integer, as it is here. The quantum number ℓ must be less than n, which it is.
The mℓ quantum number must be between −ℓ and ℓ, which it is. The spin quantum number is +1/2, which is allowed.
Because this set of quantum numbers follows all restrictions, it is possible.
b. The quantum number n is an integer, but the quantum number ℓ must be less than n, which it is not. Thus, this is not an
allowed set of quantum numbers.
c. The principal quantum number n is an integer, but ℓ is not allowed to be negative. Therefore, this is not an allowed set of
quantum numbers.

 Exercise 2.6.1

Of the set of quantum numbers {n, ℓ, mℓ, ms}, which are possible and which are not allowed?
a. {4, 2, −2, 1}
b. {3, 1, 0, −1/2}

Answers
a. Spin must be either +1/2 or −1/2, so this set of quantum number is not allowed.
b. allowed

2.6.4 [Link]
  Chemistry is Everywhere: Neon Lights

A neon light is basically an electrified tube with a small amount of gas in it. Electricity excites electrons in the gas atoms,
which then give off light as the electrons go back into a lower energy state. However, many so-called "neon" lights do not
contain neon!
Although we know now that a gas discharge gives off only certain colors of light, without a prism or other component to
separate the individual light colors, we see a composite of all the colors emitted. It is not unusual for a certain color to
predominate. True neon lights, with neon gas in them, have a reddish-orange light due to the large amount of red-, orange-, and
yellow-colored light emitted. However, if krypton is used instead of neon, a whitish light is emitted, while using argon yields a
blue-purple light. A light filled with nitrogen gas glows purple, as does a helium lamp. Other gases—and mixtures of gases—
emit other colors of light. Ironically, despite its importance in the development of modern electronic theory, hydrogen lamps
emit little visible light and are rarely used for illumination purposes.

The Human/Need/Desire statue consists of purple "NEED", orange "HUMAN", green "HUMAN", pink "DESIRE", red
"HOPE", and blue "DREAM".

Neon lights. The different colors of these "neon" lights are caused by gases other than neon in
the discharge tubes. Human/Need/Desire. Neon sculpture by Bruce Nauman (1983), who has
been characterized as a conceptual artist. (CC BY-SA 3.0; eschipul).

Key Takeaways
Electrons in atoms have quantized energies. The state of electrons in atoms is described by four quantum numbers.

2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
8.3: Quantum Numbers for Electrons by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

2.6.5 [Link]
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms
 Learning Objectives
Learn how electrons are organized within atoms.
Represent the organization of electrons by an electron configuration.

Now that you know that electrons have quantum numbers, how are they arranged in atoms? The key to understanding electronic
arrangement is summarized in the Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers. This dramatically limits the number of electrons that can exist in a shell or a subshell.
Electrons are typically organized around an atom by starting at the lowest possible quantum numbers first, which are the shells-
subshells with lower energies. Consider H, an atom with a single electron only. Under normal conditions, the single electron would
go into the n = 1 shell, which has only a single s subshell with one orbital (because mℓ can equal only 0). The convention is to label
the shell-subshell combination with the number of the shell and the letter that represents the subshell. Thus, the electron goes in the
1s shell-subshell combination. It is usually not necessary to specify the m ℓ or ms quantum numbers, but for the H atom, the
electron has mℓ = 0 (the only possible value) and an ms of either +1/2 or −1/2.
The He atom has two electrons. The second electron can also go into the 1s shell-subshell combination, but only if its spin quantum
number is different from the first electron's spin quantum number. Thus, the sets of quantum numbers for the two electrons are {1,
0, 0, +1/2} and {1, 0, 0, −1/2}. Notice that the overall set is different for the two electrons, as required by the Pauli exclusion
principle.
The next atom is Li, with three electrons. However, now the Pauli exclusion principle implies that we cannot put that electron in the
1s shell-subshell because no matter how we try, this third electron would have the same set of four quantum numbers as one of the
first two electrons. So this third electron must be assigned to a different shell-subshell combination. However, the n = 1 shell
doesn't have another subshell; it is restricted to having just ℓ = 0, or an s subshell. Therefore, this third electron has to be assigned
to the n = 2 shell, which has an s (ℓ = 0) subshell and a p (ℓ = 1) subshell. Again, we usually start with the lowest quantum number,
so this third electron is assigned to the 2s shell-subshell combination of quantum numbers.
The Pauli exclusion principle has the net effect of limiting the number of electrons that can be assigned a shell-subshell
combination of quantum numbers. For example, in any s subshell, no matter what the shell number, there can be a maximum of
only two electrons. Once the s subshell is filled up, any additional electrons must go to another subshell in the shell (if it exists), or
to a higher-numbered shell. A similar analysis shows that a p subshell can hold a maximum of six electrons. A d subshell can hold
a maximum of 10 electrons, while an f subshell can have a maximum of 14 electrons. By limiting subshells to these maxima, we
can distribute the available electrons to their shells and subshells.

 Example 2.7.1: Carbon Atoms

How would the six electrons for C be assigned to the n and ℓ quantum numbers?

Solution
The first two electrons go into the 1s shell-subshell combination. Two additional electrons can go into the 2s shell-subshell, but
now this subshell is filled with the maximum number of electrons. The n = 2 shell also has a p subshell, so the remaining two
electrons can go into the 2p subshell. The 2p subshell is not completely full because it can hold a maximum of six electrons.

 Exercise 2.7.1: Sodium Atoms

How would the 11 electrons for Na be assigned to the n and ℓ quantum numbers?

Answer
two 1s electrons, two 2s electrons, six 2p electrons, and one 3s electron

2.7.1 [Link]
Now that we see how electrons are partitioned among the shells and subshells, we need a more concise way of communicating this
partitioning. Chemists use an electron configuration to represent the organization of electrons in shells and subshells in an atom.
An electron configuration simply lists the shell and subshell labels, with a right superscript giving the number of electrons in that
subshell. The shells and subshells are listed in the order of filling.
For example, an H atom has a single electron in the 1s subshell. Its electron configuration is
H: 1s1
The He atom has two electrons in the 1s subshell. Its electron configuration is
He: 1s2
The three electrons for Li are arranged in the 1s subshell (two electrons) and the 2s subshell (one electron). The electron
configuration of Li is
Li: 1s22s1
The Be atom has four electrons, two in the 1s subshell and two in the 2s subshell. Its electron configuration is
Be: 1s22s2
Now that the 2s subshell is filled, electrons in larger atoms must go into the 2p subshell, which can hold a maximum of six
electrons. The next six elements progressively fill up the 2p subshell:
B: 1s22s22p1
C: 1s22s22p2
N: 1s22s22p3
O: 1s22s22p4
F: 1s22s22p5
Ne: 1s22s22p6
Now that the 2p subshell is filled (all possible subshells in the n = 2 shell), the next electron for the next-larger atom must go into
the n = 3 shell, s subshell.

 Example 2.7.2: Sodium

What is the electron configuration for Na, which has 11 electrons?

Solution
The first two electrons occupy the 1s subshell. The next two occupy the 2s subshell, while the next six electrons occupy the 2p
subshell. This gives us 10 electrons so far, with 1 electron left. This last electron goes into the n = 3 shell, s subshell. Thus, the
electron configuration of Na is 1s22s22p63s1.

 Exercise 2.7.2: Magnesium

What is the electron configuration for Mg, which has 12 electrons?

Answer
1s22s22p63s2

For larger atoms, the electron arrangement becomes more complicated. This is because after the 3p subshell is filled, filling the 4s
subshell first actually leads to a lesser overall energy than filling the 3d subshell. Recall that while the principal quantum number
largely dictates the energy of an electron, the angular momentum quantum number also has an impact on energy; by the time we
get to the 3d and 4s subshells, we see overlap in the filling of the shells. Thus, after the 3p subshell is completely filled (which
occurs for Ar), the next electron for K occupies the 4s subshell, not the 3d subshell:
K: 1s22s22p63s23p64s1,

2.7.2 [Link]
not
K: 1s22s22p63s23p63d1
For larger and larger atoms, the order of filling the shells and subshells seems to become even more complicated. There are some
useful ways to remember the order, like that shown in Figure 2.7.1. If you follow the arrows in order, they pass through the
subshells in the order that they are filled with electrons in larger atoms. Initially, the order is the same as the expected shell-subshell
order, but for larger atoms, there is some shifting around of the principal quantum numbers. However, Figure 2.7.1 gives a valid
ordering of filling subshells with electrons for most atoms.

Figure 2.7.1 Electron Shell Filling Order. Starting with the top arrow, follow each arrow. The subshells you reach along each arrow
give the ordering of filling of subshells in larger atoms. The n = 5 and higher shells have more subshells, but only those subshells
that are needed to accommodate the electrons of the known elements are given.
The electron shell filling order goes as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, then 8s.

 Example 2.7.3: Tin

What is the predicted electron configuration for Sn, which has 50 electrons?

Solution
We will follow the chart in Figure 8.4., until we can accommodate 50 electrons in the subshells in the proper order: Sn:
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p2
Verify by adding the superscripts, which indicate the number of electrons: 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 2 = 50, so
we have placed all 50 electrons in subshells in the proper order.

 Exercise 2.7.3: Barium

What is the electron configuration for Ba, which has 56 electrons?

Answer
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s2

As the previous example demonstrated, electron configurations can get fairly long. An abbreviated electron configuration uses
one of the elements from the last column of the periodic table, which contains the noble gases, to represent the core of electrons up
to that element. Then, the remaining electrons are listed explicitly. For example, the abbreviated electron configuration for Li,
which has three electrons, would be
Li: [He]2s1

2.7.3 [Link]
where [He] represents the two-electron core that is equivalent to He's electron configuration. The square brackets represent the
electron configuration of a noble gas. This is not much of an abbreviation. However, consider the abbreviated electron
configuration for W, which has 74 electrons:
W: [Xe]6s24f145d4
This is a significant simplification over an explicit listing of all 74 electrons. So for larger elements, the abbreviated electron
configuration can be a very useful shorthand.

 Example 2.7.4: Phosphorus

What is the abbreviated electron configuration for P, which has 15 electrons?

Solution
With 15 electrons, the electron configuration of P is
P: 1s22s22p63s23p3
The first immediate noble gas is Ne, which has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p6. Using the electron configuration of Ne
to represent the first 10 electrons, the abbreviated electron configuration of P is
P: [Ne]3s23p3

 Exercise 2.7.4: Rubidium

What is the abbreviated electron configuration for Rb, which has 37 electrons?

Answer
[Kr]5s1

There are some exceptions to the rigorous filling of subshells by electrons. In many cases, an electron goes from a higher-numbered
shell to a lower-numbered, but later-filled, subshell to fill the later-filled subshell. One example is Ag. With 47 electrons, its
electron configuration is predicted to be
Ag: [Kr]5s24d9
However, experiments have shown that the electron configuration is actually
Ag: [Kr]5s14d10
This, then, qualifies as an exception to our expectations. At this point, you do not need to memorize the exceptions; but if you come
across one, understand that it is an exception to the normal rules of filling subshells with electrons, which can happen.

Summary
The Pauli exclusion principle limits the number of electrons in the subshells and shells. Electrons in larger atoms fill shells and
subshells in a regular pattern that can be followed. Electron configurations are a shorthand method of indicating what subshells
electrons occupy in atoms. Abbreviated electron configurations are a simpler way of representing electron configurations for larger
atoms. Exceptions to the strict filling of subshells with electrons do occur.

2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
8.4: Organization of Electrons in Atoms by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

2.7.4 [Link]
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century
 Learning Objectives
Compare different theories regarding electron arrangement within the atom.
Understand the concept of quantized energy.
Draw modified Bohr models for every element up through atomic number 20.
Identify the valence electrons in a Bohr model.
Realize the Roman numeral group numbers on the periodic table represent valence electrons.

Plum Pudding and Bohr Models

In the early twentieth century, scientists attempted to construct plausible models of the atom. One of first theories was proposed by
J.J. Thomson, the physicist who discovered the electron. Thomson believed that the atom contained both positive and negative
charges. He was not aware of the existence of a third neutrally charged particle (neutron). Using a plum pudding (today's
comparison could be chocolate chip cookie dough) dessert for a visual representation, Thomson stated that the positive mass could
be represented by the actual pudding component of the dessert. The negative species inside each atom would be scattered randomly
like the plums in pudding (or chocolate chips in cookie dough).
Figure [Link] : Plum pudding Figure [Link]: Thomson's depiction of a plum pudding atom.
By 1911, Ernest Rutherford discovered a centrally located positive core of the atom. Rutherford's nucleus would house the positive
protons while the negative electrons would remain outside this core. Chemists and physicists immediately abandoned the plum
pudding model and looked to describe electron placement in more detail. In 1915, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed a new
model of the atom that involved electrons orbiting the nucleus. Stationary states or energy levels would be fixed distances from the
nucleus (see below). In this model, these energy levels or shells would be represented by the letter "n."
Figure [Link] : The Bohr model of the atom illustrating levels of electrons.
This planetary model of the atom was attractive to scientists because it was similar to something with which they were already
familiar, namely the solar system. Unfortunately, there was a serious flaw in the planetary model. It was already known that when a
charged particle (such as an electron) moves in a curved path, it gives off some form of light and loses energy in doing so. This is,
after all, how we produce TV signals. If the electron circling the nucleus in an atom loses energy, it would necessarily have to move
closer to the nucleus as it loses energy and would eventually crash into the nucleus. These difficulties cast a shadow on the
planetary model and indicated that, eventually, it would have to be replaced.

Figure [Link] : Scientists who attended the 1927 Fifth Solvay International Conference on Electrons and Photons. Niels Bohr is
seated in the second row on the far right. Image taken from: [Link]

Energy Levels
Bohr's electrons reside in energy levels or shells. These levels are denoted with the letter "n" and are associated with a precise
energy value (units would be in Joules). Shells (or levels) closer to the nucleus would require smaller amounts of energy for an

[Link] [Link]
electron while orbits farther from the nucleus would require the electrons to have a greater amount of energy.
Bohr hypothesized that the only way electrons could gain or lose energy would be to move from one energy level to another, thus
gaining or losing precise amounts of energy. The energy levels are quantized, meaning that only specific amounts are possible. To
imagine this phenomenon, note the ladder in the image below. Ladders contain rungs that are spaced at specified distances from the
ground. On the ladder, an individual must remain on one of the rungs. He or she cannot step between the rungs and remain on the
ladder successfully. The lowest rung required the least amount of energy for a person to exert. Moving to higher levels on the
ladder would involve inputting more energy or effort.

Figure [Link] : The concept of energy levels can be view within the context of a ladder. Each allowed electronic state has an
energy. For an atom, the rungs are not equally spaced.
In the Bohr atom, the rungs represent energy levels. Electrons remain in these levels until they absorb or emit a quantum of energy.
When an electron gains energy, then it will move further away from the nucleus to a higher energy level. Upon emission of energy
(see the red arrow in the image below), the electron will fall back to a lower energy level. The energy absorbed or emitted during
these transitions is quantized.

Figure [Link] : In Bohr's Model of the atom, electrons absorb energy to move to a higher level and release energy to move to lower
levels. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Kurzon).

Drawing Bohr Models

Although not completely correct, the Bohr model can give us a visual representation of electronic levels in atoms. Bohr used the
formula 2n2 to calculate maximum number of electrons that could be housed in an energy level or shell. In this formula, "n"
represents the particular energy level. When substituting an integer above the number zero, one can obtain maximum electrons for
each shell. For example, the first energy level would be n =1 and this level could hold 2(1)2 = 2 maximum electrons. The second

[Link] [Link]
energy level could accommodate 2(2)2 = 8 electrons. In drawing Bohr diagrams, different amounts of shells are required to store a
specific atom's electrons. Looking at a Bohr diagram for the carbon atom, one can see that two energy levels/shells are required for
its six electrons.

Figure [Link] : Electron shell diagram for carbon, the 6th element in the periodic table of elements. (CC BY-SA 2.0(UK); Pumbaa)
Bohr diagrams for a variety of elements are illustrated in chart below . When determining the number of electrons of an atom,
remember to refer to the atomic number (the whole number) on the periodic table.

Figure [Link] : Bohr models of different groups/families of elements from the periodic table.
In this course, we will be using a modified Bohr model. In other words, we will limit each shell after n=1 to a maximum of eight
total electrons. We will also be limited in drawing Bohr diagrams of only the first twenty elements on the periodic table. This
process will allow us to identify the valence or active electrons of these particular elements. Watch this video of your professor
drawing Bohr models and identifying valence electrons.

 Example [Link]: Drawing BOhr Diagrams

Draw modified Bohr diagrams for

a. nitrogen
b. calcium
c. sulfur

Feb 18, 2018, 6:12 PM

[Link]/wiki/E...-_no_label.svg

Answer a

[Link] [Link]
 Bohr model of nitrogen: (CC BY-SA 2.0 uk; Greg Robson);
Answer b

Bohr model of calcium: (CC BY-SA 2.0 uk;Greg Robson):

Answer b

Bohr model of sulfur: (CC BY-SA 2.0 uk; Greg Robson).

Valence electrons are located in the highest energy level of an atom. When drawing a Bohr diagram, the valence electrons would be
present in the outermost electronic level/shell (furthest away from the nucleus). An atom can have from one to eight valence
electrons. In the bonding process, atoms will either gain, lose, or share valence electrons to become more stable. A quick method of
checking valence electrons is to refer to an element's group number (in Roman numerals) on the periodic table. Even if you cannot
draw a Bohr diagram (Bohr's are limited to elements with atomic numbers (Z)< 21), you can still determine valence electrons by
looking to the group number.

 Example [Link]: Identifying Valence Electrons

From the Bohr Diagrams constructed in Example [Link], how many valence electrons are on each atom.

Answer a
Five.
Answer b
Two
Answer c
Six

[Link] [Link]
  Quantum Theory

The Bohr Theory failed to explain why the electron did not spiral into the nucleus after a certain amount of revolutions around
the nucleus. In addition, this theory had difficulty diagramming multi-electron systems (atoms or ions with more than one
electron). For these reasons, scientists turned to the quantum mechanical theory. Since 1927, this has been the working theory
that most chemistry courses use (we will not use this theory in our course). For a more detailed explanation of quantum
mechanics, click here.

Summary
The Bohr model postulates that electrons orbit the nucleus at fixed energy levels.
Orbits further from the nucleus exist at higher energy levels.
When electrons return to a lower energy level, they emit energy in the form of light.
Bohr's model suggests each atom has a set of unchangeable energy levels and electrons in the electron cloud of that atom must
be in one of those energy levels..

Vocabulary
Energy levels: Possible orbits that an electron can have in the electron cloud of an atom.
Quantized: requiring or possessing specific amounts of energy.

Contributors and Attributions

Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)

Isabella Quiros (Furman University)

This page titled 2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Elizabeth Gordon.
4.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table
 Learning Objectives
Relate the electron configurations of the elements to the shape of the periodic table.
Determine the expected electron configuration of an element by its place on the periodic table.

In Chapter 3, we introduced the periodic table as a tool for organizing the known chemical elements. A periodic table is shown in
Figure 2.8.1. The elements are listed by atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), and elements with similar chemical
properties are grouped together in columns.

Figure 2.8.1 : The Periodic Table

Why does the periodic table have the structure it does? The answer is rather simple, if you understand electron configurations, the
shape of the periodic table mimics the filling of the subshells with electrons.

The shape of the periodic table mimics the filling of the subshells with electrons.
Let us start with H and He. Their electron configurations are 1s1 and 1s2, respectively; with He, the n = 1 shell is filled. These two
elements make up the first row of the periodic table (Figure 2.8.2)

2.8.1 [Link]
 Figure 2.8.2 : The 1s Subshell. H and He represent the filling of the 1s subshell.
The next two electrons, for Li and Be, would go into the 2s subshell. Figure 2.8.3 shows that these two elements are adjacent on
the periodic table.

Figure 2.8.3 : The 2s Subshell. In Li and Be, the 2s subshell is being filled.
For the next six elements, the 2p subshell is being occupied with electrons. On the right side of the periodic table, these six
elements (B through Ne) are grouped together (Figure 2.8.4).

2.8.2 [Link]
 Figure 2.8.4 : The 2p Subshell. For B through Ne, the 2p subshell is being occupied.
The next subshell to be filled is the 3s subshell. The elements coinciding this subshell being filled, Na and Mg, are back on the left
side of the periodic table (Figure 2.8.5).

Figure 2.8.5 : The 3s Subshell. Now the 3s subshell is being occupied.

Next, the 3p subshell is filled with the next six elements (Figure 2.8.6).

2.8.3 [Link]
 Figure8.5.6: The 3p Subshell. Next, the 3p subshell is filled with electrons.
Instead of filling the 3d subshell next, electrons go into the 4s subshell (Figure 2.8.7).

Figure 2.8.7 : The 4s Subshell. The 4s subshell is filled before the 3d subshell. This is reflected in the structure of the periodic table.
After the 4s subshell is filled, the 3d subshell is filled with up to 10 electrons. This explains the section of 10 elements in the
middle of the periodic table (Figure 2.8.8).

2.8.4 [Link]
 Figure 2.8.8 : The 3d Subshell. The 3d subshell is filled in the middle section of the periodic table.
And so forth. As we go across the columns of the periodic table, the overall shape of the table outlines how the electrons are
occupying the shells and subshells.
The first two columns on the left side of the periodic table are where the s subshells are being occupied. Because of this, the first
two rows of the periodic table are labeled the s block. Similarly, the p block is the right-most six columns of the periodic table, the
d block is the middle 10 columns of the periodic table, while the f block is the 14-column section that is normally depicted as
detached from the main body of the periodic table. It could be part of the main body, but then the periodic table would be rather
long and cumbersome. Figure 2.8.9 shows the blocks of the periodic table.

Figure 2.8.9 : Blocks on the Periodic Table. The periodic table is separated into blocks depending on which subshell is being filled
for the atoms that belong in that section.
Empty periodic table, separated into 4 different colored blocks. S block is blue, d block is green, p block is red and f block is
orange.
The electrons in the highest-numbered shell, plus any electrons in the last unfilled subshell, are called valence electrons; the
highest-numbered shell is called the valence shell. (The inner electrons are called core electrons.) The valence electrons largely
control the chemistry of an atom. If we look at just the valence shell's electron configuration, we find that in each column, the
valence shell's electron configuration is the same. For example, take the elements in the first column of the periodic table: H, Li,

2.8.5 [Link]
Na, K, Rb, and Cs. Their electron configurations (abbreviated for the larger atoms) are as follows, with the valence shell electron
configuration highlighted:
Table with two columns and 6 rows. The first column on the left has various elements in the rows underneath. The second column on the
right has the different corresponding electron configurations for the specified element in the rows underneath.
H: 1s1

Li: 1s22s1

Na: [Ne]3s1

K: [Ar]4s1

Rb: [Kr]5s1

Cs: [Xe]6s1

They all have a similar electron configuration in their valence shells: a single s electron. Because much of the chemistry of an
element is influenced by valence electrons, we would expect that these elements would have similar chemistry—and they do. The
organization of electrons in atoms explains not only the shape of the periodic table, but also the fact that elements in the same
column of the periodic table have similar chemistry.
The same concept applies to the other columns of the periodic table. Elements in each column have the same valence shell electron
configurations, and the elements have some similar chemical properties. This is strictly true for all elements in the s and p blocks.
In the d and f blocks, because there are exceptions to the order of filling of subshells with electrons, similar valence shells are not
absolute in these blocks. However, many similarities do exist in these blocks, so a similarity in chemical properties is expected.
Similarity of valence shell electron configuration implies that we can determine the electron configuration of an atom solely by its
position on the periodic table. Consider Se, as shown in Figure 2.8.10. It is in the fourth column of the p block. This means that its
electron configuration should end in a p4 electron configuration. Indeed, the electron configuration of Se is [Ar]4s23d104p4, as
expected.

Figure 2.8.10 : Selenium on the Periodic Table

 Example 2.8.1
From the element's position on the periodic table, predict the valence shell electron configuration for each atom (Figure
2.8.11).

2.8.6 [Link]
 Figure 2.8.11 : Various Elements on the Periodic Table
1. Ca
2. Sn

Solution
1. Ca is located in the second column of the s block. We would expect that its electron configuration should end with s2.
Calcium's electron configuration is [Ar]4s2.
2. Sn is located in the second column of the p block, so we expect that its electron configuration would end in p2. Tin's
electron configuration is [Kr]5s24d105p2.

 Exercise 2.8.1

From the element's position on the periodic table, predict the valence shell electron configuration for each atom. Figure 2.8.11.
a. Ti
b. Cl

Answer a
[Ar]4s23d2
Answer b
[Ne]3s23p5

 Food and Drink Application: Artificial Colors

The color of objects comes from a different mechanism than the colors of neon and other discharge lights. Although colored
lights produce their colors, objects are colored because they preferentially reflect a certain color from the white light that shines
on them. A red tomato, for example, is bright red because it reflects red light while absorbing all the other colors of the
rainbow.
Many foods, such as tomatoes, are highly colored; in fact, the common statement "you eat with your eyes first" is an implicit
recognition that the visual appeal of food is just as important as its taste. But what about processed foods?
Many processed foods have food colorings added to them. There are two types of food colorings: natural and artificial. Natural
food colorings include caramelized sugar for brown; annatto, turmeric, and saffron for various shades of orange or yellow;

2.8.7 [Link]
 betanin from beets for purple; and even carmine, a deep red dye that is extracted from the cochineal, a small insect that is a
parasite on cacti in Central and South America. (That's right—you may be eating bug juice!)
Some colorings are artificial. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration currently approves only seven
compounds as artificial colorings in food, beverages, and cosmetics:
FD&C Blue #1: Brilliant Blue FCF
FD&C Blue #2: Indigotine
FD&C Green #3: Fast Green FCF
RD&C Red #3: Erythrosine
FD&C Red #40: Allura Red AC
FD&C Yellow #5: Tartrazine
FD&C Yellow #6: Sunset Yellow FCF
Lower-numbered colors are no longer on the market or have been removed for various reasons. Typically, these artificial
colorings are large molecules that absorb certain colors of light very strongly, making them useful even at very low
concentrations in foods and cosmetics. Even at such low amounts, some critics claim that a small portion of the population
(especially children) is sensitive to artificial colorings and urge that their use be curtailed or halted. However, formal studies of
artificial colorings and their effects on behavior have been inconclusive or contradictory. Many people continue to enjoy
processed foods with artificial coloring (like those shown in the accompanying figure).

Artificial food colorings. Artificial food colorings are found in a variety of food products, such as processed foods, candies,
and egg dyes. Even pet foods have artificial food coloring in them. (CC by 2.0, Matthew Bland via Flickr.)

Summary
The arrangement of electrons in atoms is responsible for the shape of the periodic table. Electron configurations can be
predicted by the position of an atom on the periodic table.
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
8.5: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

2.8.8 [Link]
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

3: Periodic Table of the Elements

PUBCHEM PERIODIC TABLE

Periodic Table of Elements

1 18

1 2
1
H He
2 13 14 15 16 17

3 4 17 Atomic Number
5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be Cl Symbol B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

3.1: Elemental Videos

3.1.1: Chemical Properties

3.1 [Link]
 [Link]: Boron (Chem Properties)
[Link]: Chlorine (Chem Properties)
[Link]: Group 16 (Chem Properties)
3.1.2: Environmental Properties
[Link]: Chlorine (Env Properties)
3.1.3: Nuclear Properties
[Link]: Chlorine (Nuke Properties)
3.1.4: Overview
[Link]: Beryllium (Overview)
[Link]: Chlorine (Overview)
[Link]: Fluorine (Overview)
[Link]: Group 14 (Overview)
[Link]: Group 15 (Overview)
[Link]: Group 17 (Overview)
[Link]: Group 1 (Overview)
[Link]: Group 2 (Overview)
[Link]: Lithium (Overview)
[Link]: Neon (Overview)
[Link]: Nitrogen (Overview)
[Link]: Oxygen (Overview)
[Link]: Sodium (Overview)
3.1.5: Physical Properties
[Link]: Aluminum (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Beryllium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Calcium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Carbon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Chlorine (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Fluorine (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Group 13 (Physical)
[Link]: Group 18 (Physical)
[Link]: Helium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Hydrogen (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Lithium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Magnesium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Neodymium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Neon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Nitrogen (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Oxygen (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Sodium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Vanadium (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Argon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Chlorine (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Phosphorus (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Silicon (Phys Properties)
[Link]: Sulfur (Phys Properties)

3.2 [Link]
3: Periodic Table of the Elements is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

3.3 [Link]
3.1: Elemental Videos

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3.1.1: Chemical Properties

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[Link] [Link]
[Link]: Boron (Chem Properties)

[Link]: Boron (Chem Properties) is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

[Link].1 [Link]
[Link]: Chlorine (Chem Properties)

[Link]: Chlorine (Chem Properties) is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

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[Link]: Group 16 (Chem Properties)

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[Link].1 [Link]
 SECTION OVERVIEW

3.1.2: Environmental Properties

Topic hierarchy

[Link]: Chlorine (Env Properties)

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[Link] [Link]
[Link]: Chlorine (Env Properties)

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3.1.3: Nuclear Properties

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[Link] [Link]
[Link]: Chlorine (Nuke Properties)

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3.1.4: Overview

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[Link] [Link]
[Link]: Beryllium (Overview)

[Link]: Beryllium (Overview) is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

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[Link]: Chlorine (Overview)

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[Link]: Fluorine (Overview)

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[Link]: Group 14 (Overview)

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[Link]: Group 15 (Overview)

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[Link]: Group 17 (Overview)

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[Link]: Group 1 (Overview)

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[Link]: Group 2 (Overview)

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[Link]: Lithium (Overview)

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[Link]: Neon (Overview)

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[Link].1 [Link]
[Link]: Nitrogen (Overview)

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[Link].1 [Link]
[Link]: Oxygen (Overview)

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[Link]: Sodium (Overview)

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3.1.5: Physical Properties

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[Link]: Aluminum (Phys Properties)

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[Link]: Beryllium (Phys Properties)

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[Link]: Calcium (Phys Properties)

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[Link]: Carbon (Phys Properties)

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[Link]: Chlorine (Phys Properties)
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[Link]: Fluorine (Phys Properties)

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[Link]: Group 13 (Physical)

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[Link]: Group 18 (Physical)

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[Link]: Helium (Phys Properties)

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[Link]: Hydrogen (Phys Properties)

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

4: Introduction to acids and bases

Certain household chemicals, such as some brands of cleanser, can be very concentrated bases, which makes them among the most
potentially hazardous substances found around the home; if spilled on the skin, the strong caustic compound can immediately
remove H+ ions from the flesh, resulting in chemical burns. Compare that to the fact that we occasionally purposefully ingest
substances such as citrus fruits, vinegar, and wine-all of which contain acids.
Formerly there were rather campy science-fiction television shows in which the hero was always being threatened with death by
being plunged into a vat of boiling acid: "Mwa ha ha, Buck Rogers [or whatever the hero's name was], prepare to meet your doom
by being dropped into a vat of boiling acid!" (The hero always escapes, of course.) This may have been interesting drama, but not
very good chemistry. If the villain knew his/her/its science, the hero would have been dropped into a vat of boiling base.
Recall that the active component of a classic acid is the H+ ion, while the active part of a classic base is the OH− ion. Both ions are
related to water in that all H+ ion needs to become a water molecule is an OH− ion, while all an OH− ion needs to become water is
an H+ ion. Consider the relative masses involved: an ion of mass 1 needs an ion of mass 17 to make water, while an ion of mass 17
needs an ion of mass 1 to make water. Which process do you think will be easier?
In fact, bases are more potentially dangerous than acids because it is much easier for an OH− ion to rip off an H+ ion from
surrounding matter than it is for an H+ ion to rip off an OH− ion. Certain household chemicals, such as some brands of cleaner, can
be very concentrated bases, which makes them among the most potentially hazardous substances found around the home. If spilled
on the skin, these strong caustic compounds can immediately remove H+ ions from the flesh, resulting in chemical burns. Compare
this to the fact that we occasionally purposefully ingest substances such as citrus fruits, vinegar, and wine—all of which contain
acids. (Of course, some parts of the body, such as the eyes, are extremely sensitive to acids as well as bases.) It seems that our
bodies are more capable of dealing with acids than with bases.

Figure 4.1 Household chemicals © Thinkstock. On the left is a common acid, and on the right is a common base. Which one is
more potentially hazardous?
A note to all of the villains out there...get your chemistry right if you want to be successful!
4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
4.2: The pH Scale
4.3: pH of Chesapeake Bay

4: Introduction to acids and bases is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

1
4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
 Learning Objectives
Identify a Brønsted-Lowry acid and a Brønsted-Lowry base.
Identify conjugate acid-base pairs in an acid-base reaction.

The Arrhenius definition of acid and base is limited to aqueous (that is, water) solutions. Although this is useful because water is a
common solvent, it is limited to the relationship between the H+ ion and the OH− ion. What would be useful is a general definition
more applicable to other chemical reactions and, importantly, independent of H2O.
In 1923, Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted and English chemist Thomas Lowry independently proposed new definitions for acids
and bases, ones that focus on proton transfer. A Brønsted-Lowry acid is any species that can donate a proton (H+) to another
molecule. A Brønsted-Lowry base is any species that can accept a proton from another molecule. In short, a Brønsted-Lowry acid
is a proton donor (PD), while a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor (PA).
It is easy to see that the Brønsted-Lowry definition covers the Arrhenius definition of acids and bases. Consider the prototypical
Arrhenius acid-base reaction:
+ −
H (aq) + OH (aq) → H2 O (l)
acid base

Acid species and base species are marked. The proton, however, is (by definition) a proton donor (labeled PD), while the OH− ion
is acting as the proton acceptor (labeled PA):
+ −
H (aq) + OH (aq) → H2 O (l)
PD PA

The proton donor is a Brønsted-Lowry acid, and the proton acceptor is the Brønsted-Lowry base:
+ −
H (aq) + OH (aq) → H2 O (l)
BL acid BL base

Thus H+ is an acid by both definitions, and OH− is a base by both definitions.

Ammonia (NH3) is a base even though it does not contain OH− ions in its formula. Instead, it generates OH− ions as the product of
a proton-transfer reaction with H2O molecules; NH3 acts like a Brønsted-Lowry base, and H2O acts like a Brønsted-Lowry acid:

A reaction with water is called hydrolysis; we say that NH3 hydrolyzes to make NH4+ ions and OH− ions.
Even the dissolving of an Arrhenius acid in water can be considered a Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reaction. Consider the process of
dissolving HCl(g) in water to make an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. The process can be written as follows:
+ −
HCl(g) + H O(ℓ) → H O (aq) + Cl (aq)
2 3

HCl(g) is the proton donor and therefore a Brønsted-Lowry acid, while H2O is the proton acceptor and a Brønsted-Lowry base.
These two examples show that H2O can act as both a proton donor and a proton acceptor, depending on what other substance is in
the chemical reaction. A substance that can act as a proton donor or a proton acceptor is called amphiprotic. Water is probably the
most common amphiprotic substance we will encounter, but other substances are also amphiprotic.

 Example 4.1.1

Identify the Brønsted-Lowry acid and the Brønsted-Lowry base in this chemical equation.
− −
C H OH + NH ⟶ C H O + NH
6 5 2 6 5 3

4.1.1 [Link]
 Solution
The C6H5OH molecule is losing an H+; it is the proton donor and the Brønsted-Lowry acid. The NH2− ion (called the amide
ion) is accepting the H+ ion to become NH3, so it is the Brønsted-Lowry base.

 Exercise 4.1.1: Aluminum Ions in Solution

Identify the Brønsted-Lowry acid and the Brønsted-Lowry base in this chemical equation.
3 + 2 + +
Al (H O) + H O ⟶ Al (H O) (OH) +H O
2 6 2 2 5 3

Answer
Brønsted-Lowry acid: Al(H2O)63+; Brønsted-Lowry base: H2O

In the reaction between NH3 and H2O,

the chemical reaction does not go to completion; rather, the reverse process occurs as well, and eventually the two processes cancel
out any additional change. At this point, we say the chemical reaction is at equilibrium. Both processes still occur, but any net
change by one process is countered by the same net change of the other process; it is a dynamic, rather than a static, equilibrium.
Because both reactions are occurring, it makes sense to use a double arrow instead of a single arrow:

What do you notice about the reverse reaction? The NH4+ ion is donating a proton to the OH− ion, which is accepting it. This
means that the NH4+ ion is acting as the proton donor, or Brønsted-Lowry acid, while the OH− ion, the proton acceptor, is acting
as a Brønsted-Lowry base. The reverse reaction is also a Brønsted-Lowry acid base reaction:
BL bases. NH4+ and H2O are the BL acids. lt-chem-64081" style="width: 750px; height: 173px;" width="750px" height="173px"
src="/@api/deki/files/92035/[Link]" data-quail-id="174">
This means that both reactions are acid-base reactions by the Brønsted-Lowry definition. If you consider the species in this
chemical reaction, two sets of similar species exist on both sides. Within each set, the two species differ by a proton in their
formulas, and one member of the set is a Brønsted-Lowry acid, while the other member is a Brønsted-Lowry base. These sets are
marked here:

The two sets—NH3/NH4+ and H2O/OH−—are called conjugate acid-base pairs. We say that NH4+ is the conjugate acid of
NH3, OH− is the conjugate base of H2O, and so forth. Every Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reaction can be labeled with two conjugate
acid-base pairs.

4.1.2 [Link]
 Example 4.1.2

Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in this equilibrium.

+ −
(C H3 )3 N + H2 O ⇌ (C H3 )3 N H + OH

Solution
One pair is H2O and OH−, where H2O has one more H+ and is the conjugate acid, while OH− has one less H+ and is the
conjugate base. The other pair consists of (CH3)3N and (CH3)3NH+, where (CH3)3NH+ is the conjugate acid (it has an
additional proton) and (CH3)3N is the conjugate base.

 Exercise 4.1.2

Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in this equilibrium.

− −
NH + H2 O ⇌ N H3 + OH
2

Answer
H2O (acid) and OH− (base); NH2− (base) and NH3 (acid)

 Chemistry is Everywhere: Household Acids and Bases

Many household products are acids or bases. For example, the owner of a swimming pool may use muriatic acid to clean the
pool. Muriatic acid is another name for HCl(aq). In Section 4.6, vinegar was mentioned as a dilute solution of acetic acid
[HC2H3O2(aq)]. In a medicine chest, one may find a bottle of vitamin C tablets; the chemical name of vitamin C is ascorbic
acid (HC6H7O6).
One of the more familiar household bases is NH3, which is found in numerous cleaning products. NH3 is a base because it
increases the OH− ion concentration by reacting with H2O:
NH3(aq) + H2O(ℓ) → NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Many soaps are also slightly basic because they contain compounds that act as Brønsted-Lowry bases, accepting protons from
H2O and forming excess OH− ions. This is one explanation for why soap solutions are slippery.
Perhaps the most dangerous household chemical is the lye-based drain cleaner. Lye is a common name for NaOH, although it is
also used as a synonym for KOH. Lye is an extremely caustic chemical that can react with grease, hair, food particles, and
other substances that may build up and clog a water pipe. Unfortunately, lye can also attack body tissues and other substances
in our bodies. Thus when we use lye-based drain cleaners, we must be very careful not to touch any of the solid drain cleaner
or spill the water it was poured into. Safer, non-lye drain cleaners (like the one in the accompanying figure) use peroxide
compounds to react on the materials in the clog and clear the drain.

4.1.3 [Link]
 Figure 4.1.1 Drain Cleaners. Drain cleaners can be made from a reactive material that is less caustic than a base. Source: Photo
used by permission of Citrasolv, LLC.

Key Takeaways
A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor; a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor.
Acid-base reactions include two sets of conjugate acid-base pairs.

4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
12.3: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

4.1.4 [Link]
4.1.5 [Link]
4.2: The pH Scale
 Learning Objectives
Define pH.
Determine the pH of acidic and basic solutions.

As we have seen, [H+] and [OH−] values can be markedly different from one aqueous solution to another. So chemists defined a
new scale that succinctly indicates the concentrations of either of these two ions.
pH is a logarithmic function of [H+]:
pH = −log[H+]
pH is usually (but not always) between 0 and 14. Knowing the dependence of pH on [H+], we can summarize as follows:
If pH < 7, then the solution is acidic.
If pH = 7, then the solution is neutral.
If pH > 7, then the solution is basic.
This is known as the pH scale and is the range of values from 0 to 14 that describes the acidity or basicity of a solution. You can
use pH to quickly determine whether a given aqueous solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.

 Example 4.2.1
Label each solution as acidic, basic, or neutral based only on the stated pH.
a. milk of magnesia, pH = 10.5
b. pure water, pH = 7
c. wine, pH = 3.0

Solution
a. With a pH greater than 7, milk of magnesia is basic. (Milk of magnesia is largely Mg(OH)2.)
b. Pure water, with a pH of 7, is neutral.
c. With a pH of less than 7, wine is acidic.

 Exercise 4.2.1

Identify each substance as acidic, basic, or neutral based only on the stated pH.
1. human blood, pH = 7.4
2. household ammonia, pH = 11.0
3. cherries, pH = 3.6

Answers
1. basic
2. basic
3. acidic

Table 4.2.1 gives the typical pH values of some common substances. Note that several food items are on the list, and most of them
are acidic.
Table 4.2.1 Typical pH Values of Various Substances*
Substance pH

*Actual values may vary depending on conditions

4.2.1 [Link]
 Substance pH

stomach acid 1.7

lemon juice 2.2

vinegar 2.9

soda 3.0

wine 3.5

coffee, black 5.0

milk 6.9

pure water 7.0

blood 7.4

seawater 8.5

milk of magnesia 10.5

ammonia solution 12.5

1.0 M NaOH 14.0

*Actual values may vary depending on conditions

pH is a logarithmic scale. A solution that has a pH of 1.0 has 10 times the [H+] as a solution with a pH of 2.0, which in turn has 10
times the [H+] as a solution with a pH of 3.0 and so forth.
Using the definition of pH, it is also possible to calculate [H+] (and [OH−]) from pH and vice versa. The general formula for
determining [H+] from pH is as follows:
[H+] = 10−pH

Key Takeaways
pH is a logarithmic function of [H+].
[H+] can be calculated directly from pH.
pOH is related to pH and can be easily calculated from pH.

4.2: The pH Scale is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
12.7: The pH Scale by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]
chemistry.

4.2.2 [Link]
4.3: pH of Chesapeake Bay
pH is measured on a scale of 1 – 14 with 7 being neutral; (see figure 1.) The lower the number the more acidic a solution is, the
higher the number the more basic it is. What does acidic or basic mean? Acidity means there are more hydronium ions than
hydroxide ions and vice versa for basic solutions. Why care about pH and pOH? All organisms live in certain pH and pOH levels.
Your body tends to be between a pH of 7.35 and 7.45. When the pH is higher or lower than the preferred range, your body does not
function well. If your body is acidic (lower than pH of 7,) you can develop problems such as inflammation and wearing away of
body tissue. This can lead to cancer, heart disease, or diabetes. Your body prefers a slightly basic (higher than 7 pH) environment.
But if it gets too high, it can cause digestive and respiration problems. There is a great balancing act happening. The same is
happening in the Chesapeake Bay.

Figure 4.3.1: pH Scale

The Chesapeake tends to be between a pH of 7 and 9. When extra nutrients from farming (such as from fertilizers) leak into the
water supply, algae can thrive and bloom (see Figure 2.) This causes an imbalance in the environment and creates a more alkaline
(basic) pH water environment. A pH increase of 1 is more significant than it seems. pH is a log 10 scale, so a pH of 7 has a
concentration of 10-7 hydronium ions. A pH of 8 has a concentration of 10-8. This means that a pH of 8 has 10 times less [one
tenth] hydronium ions as a pH of 7 and a pH of 9 has 100 times less [one hundredth] hydronium ions than a pH of 7. So, there are
consequences with just a change of 1 pH unit. To figure out the pH and pOH levels from ion concentration, use the following
formulas. pH = -log (H3O+) and pOH = -log (OH-).

Figure 4.3.2: Algae Bloom [Link]

The Chesapeake Bay is home to the eastern oyster and other organisms. The eastern oyster can spawn in water with pH between
7.8 and 8.2 and had difficulties in pH that is lower than 6 or higher than 10. Larvae mortality rates increased rapidly when the pH is
in the 9.00 to 9.50 range. The pH also affects respiration rate and pumping rate of water. When algae blooms occur, the oyster
population suffers.

4.3.1 [Link]
Figure 4.3.3: Eastern Oyster from the Chesapeake Bay [Link]

Practice Questions
Directions: Figure out the pH and pOH levels and answer the following questions.
1)What is the pH if the hydronium concentration is 10-5?
pH = -log (H3O+)
pH = -log (10-5)
pH = 5
2)Would the Eastern Oyster survive in this pH? Explain.
The Eastern Oyster population would not survive in a pH of 5. The Eastern oyster needs a pH of 7.8 – 8.2 to spawn and anything
under a pH of 6 makes the respiration rate decrease with spawning nearly impossible. This means that the oyster population would
not increase and the oysters that were there would die off slowly due to not being able to function properly in that low of a pH.
3)What would the pOH be if the hydroxide concentration is 10<su>-8</sup>?

pOH = -log (OH)

pOH = -log (10-8)

pOH = 8
4)If pOH = 14 – pH, what is the pH level from your answer to number 3?
pOH = 14 – pH
8 = 14 – pH
pH + 8 = 14
pH = 14 – 8
pH = 6
5)Would the Eastern Oyster survive in this pH? Explain.
It would be possible for the Eastern Oyster to survive since they have more difficulties when the pH is lower than 6. They would be
stressed, but not to the point of being unable to reproduce. This is the lowest the pH could be before the population would really
start to decline. This could potentially be the “tipping point” of the population.
From ChemPRIME: 14.2: pH and pOH
References
[Link]
[Link]/bay/monit...ter/[Link]
[Link]/irc/docs/00000260_03.pdf

Contributors and Attributions

Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of
Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.

4.3.2 [Link]
This page titled 4.3: pH of Chesapeake Bay is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Ed Vitz, John W.
Moore, Justin Shorb, Xavier Prat-Resina, Tim Wendorff, & Adam Hahn.

4.3.3 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

5: Solids and Liquids

5.1: Classification of Matter
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and Subliming

Liquids flow when a small force is placed on them, even if only very slowly. Solids, however, may deform under a small force, but
they return to their original shape when the force is relaxed. This is how glass behaves: it goes back to its original shape (unless it
breaks under the applied force). Observers also point out that telescopes with glass lenses to focus light still do so even decades
after manufacture-a circumstance that would not be so if the lens were liquid and flowed.
There is an urban legend that glass is an extremely thick liquid rather than a solid, even at room temperature. Proponents claim that
old windows are thicker at the bottom than at the top, suggesting that the glass flowed down over time. Unfortunately, the
proponents of this idea have no credible evidence that this is true, as old windows were likely not subject to the stricter
manufacturing standards that exist today. Also, when mounting a piece of glass that has an obviously variable thickness, it makes
structural sense to put the thicker part at the bottom, where it will support the object better.

Figure 5.1 A woman cleaning glass © Thinkstock. Is this woman cleaning a solid or a liquid? Contrary to some claims, glass is a
solid, not a very thick liquid.
Liquids flow when a small force is placed on them, even if only very slowly. Solids may deform under a small force, but they
return to their original shape when the force is relaxed. This is how glass behaves: it goes back to its original shape (unless it breaks
under the applied force). Observers also point out that telescopes with glass lenses to focus light still do so even decades after
manufacture—a circumstance that would not be so if the lens were liquid and flowed. Thus, glass is a solid at room temperature.

5: Solids and Liquids is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

1
5.1: Classification of Matter
 Learning Objectives
To classify matter.

Chemists study the structures, physical properties, and chemical properties of material substances. These consist of matter, which
is anything that occupies space and has mass. Gold and iridium are matter, as are peanuts, people, and postage stamps. Smoke,
smog, and laughing gas are matter. Energy, light, and sound, however, are not matter; ideas and emotions are also not matter.
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter it contains. Do not confuse an object’s mass with its weight, which is a force caused
by the gravitational attraction that operates on the object. Mass is a fundamental property of an object that does not depend on its
[Link] physical terms, the mass of an object is directly proportional to the force required to change its speed or direction. A
more detailed discussion of the differences between weight and mass and the units used to measure them is included in Essential
Skills 1 (Section 1.9). Weight, on the other hand, depends on the location of an object. An astronaut whose mass is 95 kg weighs
about 210 lb on Earth but only about 35 lb on the moon because the gravitational force he or she experiences on the moon is
approximately one-sixth the force experienced on Earth. For practical purposes, weight and mass are often used interchangeably in
laboratories. Because the force of gravity is considered to be the same everywhere on Earth’s surface, 2.2 lb (a weight) equals 1.0
kg (a mass), regardless of the location of the laboratory on Earth.
Under normal conditions, there are three distinct states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases. Solids are relatively rigid and have
fixed shapes and volumes. A rock, for example, is a solid. In contrast, liquids have fixed volumes but flow to assume the shape of
their containers, such as a beverage in a can. Gases, such as air in an automobile tire, have neither fixed shapes nor fixed volumes
and expand to completely fill their containers. Whereas the volume of gases strongly depends on their temperature and pressure
(the amount of force exerted on a given area), the volumes of liquids and solids are virtually independent of temperature and
pressure. Matter can often change from one physical state to another in a process called a physical change. For example, liquid
water can be heated to form a gas called steam, or steam can be cooled to form liquid water. However, such changes of state do not
affect the chemical composition of the substance.

Figure 5.1.1 : The Three States of Matter. Solids have a defined shape and volume. Liquids have a fixed volume but flow to assume
the shape of their containers. Gases completely fill their containers, regardless of volume. Figure used with permission from
Wikipedia

Pure Substances and Mixtures

A pure chemical substance is any matter that has a fixed chemical composition and characteristic properties. Oxygen, for example,
is a pure chemical substance that is a colorless, odorless gas at 25°C. Very few samples of matter consist of pure substances;
instead, most are mixtures, which are combinations of two or more pure substances in variable proportions in which the individual
substances retain their identity. Air, tap water, milk, blue cheese, bread, and dirt are all mixtures. If all portions of a material are in
the same state, have no visible boundaries, and are uniform throughout, then the material is homogeneous. Examples of
homogeneous mixtures are the air we breathe and the tap water we drink. Homogeneous mixtures are also called solutions. Thus air
is a solution of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and several other gases; tap water is a solution of small amounts of
several substances in water. The specific compositions of both of these solutions are not fixed, however, but depend on both source
and location; for example, the composition of tap water in Boise, Idaho, is not the same as the composition of tap water in Buffalo,
New York. Although most solutions we encounter are liquid, solutions can also be solid. The gray substance still used by some
dentists to fill tooth cavities is a complex solid solution that contains 50% mercury and 50% of a powder that contains mostly
silver, tin, and copper, with small amounts of zinc and mercury. Solid solutions of two or more metals are commonly called alloys.
If the composition of a material is not completely uniform, then it is heterogeneous (e.g., chocolate chip cookie dough, blue
cheese, and dirt). Mixtures that appear to be homogeneous are often found to be heterogeneous after microscopic examination.

5.1.1 [Link]
Milk, for example, appears to be homogeneous, but when examined under a microscope, it clearly consists of tiny globules of fat
and protein dispersed in water. The components of heterogeneous mixtures can usually be separated by simple means. Solid-liquid
mixtures such as sand in water or tea leaves in tea are readily separated by filtration, which consists of passing the mixture through
a barrier, such as a strainer, with holes or pores that are smaller than the solid particles. In principle, mixtures of two or more solids,
such as sugar and salt, can be separated by microscopic inspection and sorting. More complex operations are usually necessary,
though, such as when separating gold nuggets from river gravel by panning. First solid material is filtered from river water; then
the solids are separated by inspection. If gold is embedded in rock, it may have to be isolated using chemical methods.

Figure 5.1.2 : A Heterogeneous Mixture. Under a microscope, whole milk is actually a heterogeneous mixture composed of
globules of fat and protein dispersed in water. Figure used with permission from Wikipedia
Homogeneous mixtures (solutions) can be separated into their component substances by physical processes that rely on differences
in some physical property, such as differences in their boiling points. Two of these separation methods are distillation and
crystallization. Distillation makes use of differences in volatility, a measure of how easily a substance is converted to a gas at a
given temperature. A simple distillation apparatus for separating a mixture of substances, at least one of which is a liquid. The most
volatile component boils first and is condensed back to a liquid in the water-cooled condenser, from which it flows into the
receiving flask. If a solution of salt and water is distilled, for example, the more volatile component, pure water, collects in the
receiving flask, while the salt remains in the distillation flask.

Figure 5.1.3 : The Distillation of a Solution of Table Salt in Water. The solution of salt in water is heated in the distilling flask until
it boils. The resulting vapor is enriched in the more volatile component (water), which condenses to a liquid in the cold condenser
and is then collected in the receiving flask.
Mixtures of two or more liquids with different boiling points can be separated with a more complex distillation apparatus. One
example is the refining of crude petroleum into a range of useful products: aviation fuel, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, and
lubricating oil (in the approximate order of decreasing volatility). Another example is the distillation of alcoholic spirits such as
brandy or whiskey. (This relatively simple procedure caused more than a few headaches for federal authorities in the 1920s during
the era of Prohibition, when illegal stills proliferated in remote regions of the United States!)
Crystallization separates mixtures based on differences in solubility, a measure of how much solid substance remains dissolved in
a given amount of a specified liquid. Most substances are more soluble at higher temperatures, so a mixture of two or more

5.1.2 [Link]
substances can be dissolved at an elevated temperature and then allowed to cool slowly. Alternatively, the liquid, called the solvent,
may be allowed to evaporate. In either case, the least soluble of the dissolved substances, the one that is least likely to remain in
solution, usually forms crystals first, and these crystals can be removed from the remaining solution by filtration.

Figure 5.1.4 : The Crystallization of Sodium Acetate from a Concentrated Solution of Sodium Acetate in Water. The addition of a
small “seed” crystal (a) causes the compound to form white crystals, which grow and eventually occupy most of the flask. Video
can be found here: [Link]/watch?v=BLq5NibwV5g
closeup of bulb flask containing liquid with many thin spike crystals radially emerging from the center.
Most mixtures can be separated into pure substances, which may be either elements or compounds. An element, such as gray,
metallic sodium, is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler ones by chemical changes; a compound, such as white,
crystalline sodium chloride, contains two or more elements and has chemical and physical properties that are usually different from
those of the elements of which it is composed. With only a few exceptions, a particular compound has the same elemental
composition (the same elements in the same proportions) regardless of its source or history. The chemical composition of a
substance is altered in a process called a chemical change. The conversion of two or more elements, such as sodium and chlorine,
to a chemical compound, sodium chloride, is an example of a chemical change, often called a chemical reaction. Currently, about
118 elements are known, but millions of chemical compounds have been prepared from these 118 elements. The known elements
are listed in the periodic table.

Figure 5.1.5 : The Decomposition of Water to Hydrogen and Oxygen by Electrolysis. Water is a chemical compound; hydrogen and
oxygen are elements.
a battery wired to an anode and cathode placed in a beaker filled with water. Two inverted test tubes are submerged in the water and
placed over each of the electrodes to collect the gaseous products. Magnifying pointers show the molecular structure of water in the
beaker as well as the hydrogen gas collected on the anode side and oxygen gas on the cathode side.

5.1.3 [Link]
 Different De nitions of Matter

Different Definitions of Matter: Different Definitions of Matter, YouTube (opens in new window) [[Link]]
In general, a reverse chemical process breaks down compounds into their elements. For example, water (a compound) can be
decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen (both elements) by a process called electrolysis. In electrolysis, electricity provides the
energy needed to separate a compound into its constituent elements (Figure 5.1.5). A similar technique is used on a vast scale to
obtain pure aluminum, an element, from its ores, which are mixtures of compounds. Because a great deal of energy is required for
electrolysis, the cost of electricity is by far the greatest expense incurred in manufacturing pure aluminum. Thus recycling
aluminum is both cost-effective and ecologically sound.
The overall organization of matter and the methods used to separate mixtures are summarized in Figure 5.1.6.

Figure 5.1.6 : Relationships between the Types of Matter and the Methods Used to Separate Mixtures

 Example 5.1.1

Identify each substance as a compound, an element, a heterogeneous mixture, or a homogeneous mixture (solution).
a. filtered tea
b. freshly squeezed orange juice
c. a compact disc
d. aluminum oxide, a white powder that contains a 2:3 ratio of aluminum and oxygen atoms
e. selenium
Given: a chemical substance
Asked for: its classification

5.1.4 [Link]
Strategy:
A. Decide whether a substance is chemically pure. If it is pure, the substance is either an element or a compound. If a
substance can be separated into its elements, it is a compound.
B. If a substance is not chemically pure, it is either a heterogeneous mixture or a homogeneous mixture. If its composition is
uniform throughout, it is a homogeneous mixture.

Solution
a. A Tea is a solution of compounds in water, so it is not chemically pure. It is usually separated from tea leaves by filtration.
B Because the composition of the solution is uniform throughout, it is a homogeneous mixture.
b. A Orange juice contains particles of solid (pulp) as well as liquid; it is not chemically pure. B Because its composition is
not uniform throughout, orange juice is a heterogeneous mixture.
c. A A compact disc is a solid material that contains more than one element, with regions of different compositions visible
along its edge. Hence a compact disc is not chemically pure. B The regions of different composition indicate that a compact
disc is a heterogeneous mixture.
d. A Aluminum oxide is a single, chemically pure compound.
e. A Selenium is one of the known elements.

 Exercise 5.1.1

Identify each substance as a compound, an element, a heterogeneous mixture, or a homogeneous mixture (solution).
a. white wine
b. mercury
c. ranch-style salad dressing
d. table sugar (sucrose)

Answer A
solution
Answer B
element
Answer C
heterogeneous mixture
Answer D
compound

Different De nitions of Changes

5.1.5 [Link]
Different Definitions of Changes: Different Definitions of Changes, YouTube(opens in new window) [[Link]] (opens in new
window)

Summary
Matter can be classified according to physical and chemical properties. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The
three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. A physical change involves the conversion of a substance from one state of matter
to another, without changing its chemical composition. Most matter consists of mixtures of pure substances, which can be
homogeneous (uniform in composition) or heterogeneous (different regions possess different compositions and properties). Pure
substances can be either chemical compounds or elements. Compounds can be broken down into elements by chemical reactions,
but elements cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. The properties of substances can be classified as
either physical or chemical. Scientists can observe physical properties without changing the composition of the substance, whereas
chemical properties describe the tendency of a substance to undergo chemical changes (chemical reactions) that change its
chemical composition. Physical properties can be intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are the same for all samples; do not
depend on sample size; and include, for example, color, physical state, and melting and boiling points. Extensive properties depend
on the amount of material and include mass and volume. The ratio of two extensive properties, mass and volume, is an important
intensive property called density.

Contributors and Attributions

Modified by Joshua Halpern (Howard University)

5.1: Classification of Matter is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1.2: Classification of Matter is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

5.1.6 [Link]
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and Subliming
 Learning Objective
Describe what happens during a phase change.
Calculate the energy change needed for a phase change.

Substances can change phase—often because of a temperature change. At low temperatures, most substances are solid; as the
temperature increases, they become liquid; at higher temperatures still, they become gaseous.
The process of a solid becoming a liquid is called melting (an older term that you may see sometimes is fusion). The opposite
process, a liquid becoming a solid, is called solidification. For any pure substance, the temperature at which melting occurs—
known as the melting point—is a characteristic of that substance. It requires energy for a solid to melt into a liquid. Every pure
substance has a certain amount of energy it needs to change from a solid to a liquid. This amount is called the enthalpy of fusion
(or heat of fusion) of the substance, represented as ΔHfus. Some ΔHfus values are listed in Table 5.2.1; it is assumed that these
values are for the melting point of the substance. Note that the unit of ΔHfus is kilojoules per mole, so we need to know the
quantity of material to know how much energy is involved. The ΔHfus is always tabulated as a positive number. However, it can be
used for both the melting and the solidification processes, minding that melting is always endothermic (so ΔH will be positive),
while solidification is always exothermic (so ΔH will be negative).
Table 5.2.1 : Enthalpies of Fusion for Various Substances
Substance (Melting Point) ΔHfus (kJ/mol)

Water (0°C) 6.01

Aluminum (660°C) 10.7

Benzene (5.5°C) 9.95

Ethanol (−114.3°C) 5.02

Mercury (−38.8°C) 2.29

 Example 5.2.1

What is the energy change when 45.7 g of H 2

O melt at 0°C?

Solution
The ΔH of H O is 6.01 kJ/mol. However, our quantity is given in units of grams, not moles, so the first step is to convert
f us 2

grams to moles using the molar mass of H O , which is 18.0 g/mol. Then we can use ΔH
2
as a conversion factor. Because
f us

the substance is melting, the process is endothermic, so the energy change will have a positive sign.

1 mol H2 O 6.01kJ
45.7 g H2 O × × = 15.3 kJ
18.0 g
mol

Without a sign, the number is assumed to be positive.

Exercise 5.2.1

What is the energy change when 108 g of C 6

H
6
freeze at 5.5°C?

Answer
−13.8 kJ

During melting, energy goes exclusively to changing the phase of a substance; it does not go into changing the temperature of a
substance. Hence melting is an isothermal process because a substance stays at the same temperature. Only when all of a substance

5.2.1 [Link]
is melted does additional energy go to changing its temperature.
What happens when a solid becomes a liquid? In a solid, individual particles are stuck in place because the intermolecular forces
cannot be overcome by the energy of the particles. When more energy is supplied (e.g., by raising the temperature), there comes a
point at which the particles have enough energy to move around, but not enough energy to separate. This is the liquid phase:
particles are still in contact, but are able to move around each other. This explains why liquids can assume the shape of their
containers: the particles move around and, under the influence of gravity, fill the lowest volume possible (unless the liquid is in a
zero-gravity environment—see Figure 5.2.1.

Figure 5.2.1 : Liquids and Gravity. (a) A liquid fills the bottom of its container as it is drawn downward by gravity and the particles
slide over each other. (b) A liquid floats in a zero-gravity environment. The particles still slide over each other because they are in
the liquid phase, but now there is no gravity to pull them down. Source: Photo on the left © Thinkstock. Photo on the right courtesy
of NASA, [Link]
The phase change between a liquid and a gas has some similarities to the phase change between a solid and a liquid. At a certain
temperature, the particles in a liquid have enough energy to become a gas. The process of a liquid becoming a gas is called boiling
(or vaporization), while the process of a gas becoming a liquid is called condensation. However, unlike the solid/liquid
conversion process, the liquid/gas conversion process is noticeably affected by the surrounding pressure on the liquid because gases
are strongly affected by pressure. This means that the temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas, the boiling point, can change
with surrounding pressure. Therefore, we define the normal boiling point as the temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas
when the surrounding pressure is exactly 1 atm, or 760 torr. Unless otherwise specified, it is assumed that a boiling point is for 1
atm of pressure.
Like the solid/liquid phase change, the liquid/gas phase change involves energy. The amount of energy required to convert a liquid
to a gas is called the enthalpy of vaporization (or heat of vaporization), represented as ΔHvap. Some ΔHvap values are listed in
Table 5.2.2; it is assumed that these values are for the normal boiling point temperature of the substance, which is also given in the
table. The unit for ΔHvap is also kilojoules per mole, so we need to know the quantity of material to know how much energy is
involved. The ΔHvap is also always tabulated as a positive number. It can be used for both the boiling and the condensation
processes as long as you keep in mind that boiling is always endothermic (so ΔH will be positive), while condensation is always
exothermic (so ΔH will be negative).
Table 5.2.1 : Enthalpies of Vaporization for Various Substances
Substance (Normal Boiling Point) ΔHvap (kJ/mol)

Water (100°C) 40.68

Bromine (59.5°C) 15.4

Benzene (80.1°C) 30.8

Ethanol (78.3°C) 38.6

Mercury (357°C) 59.23

5.2.2 [Link]
  Example 5.2.2

What is the energy change when 66.7 g of Br2(g) condense to a liquid at 59.5°C?

Solution
The ΔHvap of Br2 is 15.4 kJ/mol. Even though this is a condensation process, we can still use the numerical value of ΔHvap
as long as we realize that we must take energy out, so the ΔH value will be negative. To determine the magnitude of the energy
change, we must first convert the amount of Br2 to moles. Then we can use ΔHvap as a conversion factor.

1 mol Br2 15.4kJ

66.7 g Br2 × × = 6.43 kJ
159.8 g
mol

Because the process is exothermic, the actual value will be negative: ΔH = −6.43 kJ.

Exercise 5.2.2

What is the energy change when 822 g of C 2

H OH(ℓ)
5
boil at its normal boiling point of 78.3°C?

Answer
689 kJ

As with melting, the energy in boiling goes exclusively to changing the phase of a substance; it does not go into changing the
temperature of a substance. So boiling is also an isothermal process. Only when all of a substance has boiled does any additional
energy go to changing its temperature.
What happens when a liquid becomes a gas? We have already established that a liquid is composed of particles in contact with each
other. When a liquid becomes a gas, the particles separate from each other, with each particle going its own way in space. This is
how gases tend to fill their containers. Indeed, in the gas phase most of the volume is empty space; only about 1/1,000th of the
volume is actually taken up by matter (Figure 5.2.1). It is this property of gases that explains why they can be compressed, a fact
that is considered in Chapter 6.

Figure 5.2.2 : Sub-microscopic view of the diatomic molecules of the element bromine (a) in the gaseous state (above 58°C); (b) in
liquid form (between -7.2 and 58.8°C); and (c) in solid form (below -7.2°C). As a solid, the molecules are fixed, but fluctuate. As a
liquid, the molecules are in contact but are also able to move around each other. As a gas, most of the volume is actually empty
space. The particles are not to scale; in reality, the dots representing the particles would be about 1/100th of the size depicted.
Under some circumstances, the solid phase can transition directly to the gas phase without going through a liquid phase, and a gas
can directly become a solid. The solid-to-gas change is called sublimation, while the reverse process is called deposition.
Sublimation is isothermal, like the other phase changes. There is a measurable energy change during sublimation—this energy
change is called the enthalpy of sublimation, represented as ΔHsub. The relationship between the ΔHsub and the other enthalpy
changes is as follows:

5.2.3 [Link]
 ΔHsub = ΔHf us + ΔHvap

As such, ΔHsub is not always tabulated because it can be simply calculated from ΔHfus and ΔHvap.
There are several common examples of sublimation. A well-known product, dry ice, is actually solid CO2. Dry ice is dry because it
sublimes, with the solid bypassing the liquid phase and going straight to the gas phase. The sublimation occurs at temperature of
−77°C, so it must be handled with caution. If you have ever noticed that ice cubes in a freezer tend to get smaller over time, it is
because the solid water is very slowly subliming. "Freezer burn" isn't actually a burn; it occurs when certain foods, such as meats,
slowly lose solid water content because of sublimation. The food is still good, but looks unappetizing. Reducing the temperature of
a freezer will slow the sublimation of solid water.

Figure 5.2.3 : Freezer burn on a piece of beef. (Public Domain; RolloM.)

Chemical equations can be used to represent a phase change. In such cases, it is crucial to use phase labels on the substances. For
example, the chemical equation for the melting of ice to make liquid water is as follows:

H2 O(s) → H2 O(ℓ)

No chemical change is taking place; however, a physical change is taking place.

Summary
Phase changes can occur between any two phases of matter.
All phase changes occur with a simultaneous change in energy.
All phase changes are isothermal.

5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and Subliming is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by LibreTexts.
10.3: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and Subliming by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

5.2.4 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

6: Radioactivity
The major types of radioactivity include alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Fission is a type of radioactivity in which
large nuclei spontaneously break apart into smaller nuclei.

 Learning Objective
Define and give examples of the major types of radioactivity.

We saw in Chapter 3 that atoms are composed of subatomic particles—protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are
located in the nucleus and provide most of the mass of an atom, while electrons circle the nucleus in shells and subshells and
account for an atom's size.
In Chapter 2, we also introduced the notation for succinctly representing an isotope of a particular atom:
12
C
6

The element in this example, represented by the symbol C, is carbon. Its atomic number, 6, is the subscript next to the symbol and
is the number of protons in the atom. The mass number, the superscript next to the symbol, is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of this particular isotope. In this case, the mass number is 12, which means that the number of neutrons in
the atom is 12 − 6 = 6 (that is, the mass number of the atom minus the number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of
neurons). Occasionally, the atomic number is omitted in this notation because the symbol of the element itself conveys its
characteristic atomic number. The two isotopes of hydrogen—2H and 3H—are given their own names and symbols: deuterium (D)
and tritium (T), respectively.
Atomic theory in the nineteenth century presumed that nuclei had fixed compositions. But in 1896, the French scientist Henri
Becquerel found that a uranium compound placed near a photographic plate made an image on the plate, even if the compound was
wrapped in black cloth. He reasoned that the uranium compound was emitting some kind of radiation that passed through the cloth
to expose the photographic plate. Further investigations showed that the radiation was a combination of particles and
electromagnetic rays, with its ultimate source being the atomic nucleus. These emanations were ultimately called, collectively,
radioactivity.
There are three main forms of radioactive emissions. The first is called an alpha particle, which is symbolized by the Greek letter
α. An alpha particle is composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and is the same as a helium nucleus. We often use:
4
He
2

to represent an alpha particle. It has a 2+ charge. When a radioactive atom emits an alpha particle, the original atom's atomic
number decreases by 2 (because of the loss of 2 protons), and its mass number decreases by 4 (because of the loss of 4 nuclear
particles). We can represent the emission of an alpha particle with a chemical equation. For example, the alpha-particle emission of
uranium-235 is as follows:
235 4 231
U → He + Th
92 2 90

Rather than calling this equation a chemical equation, we call it a nuclear equation to emphasize that the change occurs in an
atomic nucleus. How do we know that a product of this reaction is \(\ce{^{90}_{231}T}\)? We use the law of conservation of
matter, which says that matter cannot be created or destroyed. This means that we must have the same number of protons and
neutrons on both sides of the nuclear equation. If our uranium nucleus loses 2 protons, there are 90 protons remaining, identifying
the element as thorium. Moreover, if we lose four nuclear particles of the original 235, there are 231 remaining. So we use
subtraction to identify the isotope of the Th atom—in this case,
231
Th
90

Chemists often use the names parent isotope and daughter isotope to represent the original atom and the product other than the
alpha particle. In the previous example,

1
 235
U
92

is the parent isotope, and

231
Th
90

is the daughter isotope. When one element changes into another in this manner, it undergoes radioactive decay.

 Example 6.1

Write the nuclear equation that represents the radioactive decay of radon-222 by alpha particle emission and identify the
daughter isotope.
Solution
Radon has an atomic number of 86, so the parent isotope is represented as
222
Rn
86

.
We represent the alpha particle as
4
He
2

Use subtraction (222 − 4 = 218 and 86 − 2 = 84) to identify the daughter isotope as polonium:
222 4 218
Rn → He + Th
86 2 84

 Exercise 6.2

Write the nuclear equation that represents radioactive decay of polonium-208 by alpha particle emission and identify the
daughter isotope.

Answer
208 4 204
Po → He + Pb
80 2 82

204
Pb
82

The second major type of radioactive emission is called a beta particle, symbolized by the Greek letter β. A beta particle is an
electron ejected from the nucleus (not from the shells of electrons about the nucleus) and has a 1− charge. We can also represent a
beta particle as e−10. The net effect of beta particle emission on a nucleus is that a neutron is converted to a proton. The overall
mass number stays the same, but because the number of protons increases by one, the atomic number goes up by one. Carbon-14
decays by emitting a beta particle:
14 14 0
C → N+ e
6 7 −1

Again, the sum of the atomic numbers is the same on both sides of the equation, as is the sum of the mass numbers. (Note that the
electron is assigned an "atomic number" of –1, equal to its charge.)
The third major type of radioactive emission is not a particle but rather a very energetic form of electromagnetic radiation called
gamma rays, symbolized by the Greek letter γ. Gamma rays themselves do not carry an overall electrical charge, but they may
knock electrons out of atoms in a sample of matter and make it electrically charged (for which gamma rays are termed ionizing
radiation). For example, in the radioactive decay of radon-222, both alpha and gamma radiation are emitted, with the latter having
an energy of 8.2 × 10−14 J per nucleus decayed:
222 218 4
Rn → Po + He + γ
86 84 2

This may not seem like much energy, but if 1 mol of Rn atoms were to decay, the gamma ray energy would be 4.9 × 107 kJ!

2
  Example 6.3

Write the nuclear equation that represents the radioactive decay of boron-12 by beta particle emission and identify the daughter
isotope. A gamma ray is emitted simultaneously with the beta particle.
Solution
The parent isotope is B-12,
12
B
5

while one of the products is B-12,

0
e
−1

So that the mass and atomic numbers have the same value on both sides, the mass number of the daughter isotope must be 12,
and its atomic number must be 6. The element having an atomic number of 6 is carbon. Thus the complete nuclear equation is
as follows:
12 12 0
B→ C+ e+γ
5 6 −1

The daughter isotope is carbon-12.

 Exercise 6.4

Answer
133 133 0
Tc → Ru + e+γ
43 44 −1

Alpha, beta, and gamma emissions have different abilities to penetrate matter. The relatively large alpha particle is easily stopped
by matter (although it may impart a significant amount of energy to the matter it contacts). Beta particles penetrate slightly into
matter, perhaps a few centimeters at most. Gamma rays can penetrate deeply into matter and can impart a large amount of energy
into the surrounding matter. Table 6.1 summarizes the properties of the three main types of radioactive emissions.
Table 6.1 The Three Main Forms of Radioactive Emissions
Characteristic Alpha Particles Beta Particles Gamma Rays

symbols α, H24 β γ

identity helium nucleus electron electromagnetic radiation

charge 2+ 1− none

mass number 4 0 0

short (will penetrate skin and deep (will penetrate tissues

penetrating power minimal (will not penetrate skin)
some tissues slightly) deeply)

Occasionally, an atomic nucleus breaks apart into smaller pieces in a radioactive process called spontaneous fission (or fission).
Typically, the daughter isotopes produced by fission are a varied mix of products, rather than a specific isotope as with alpha and
beta particle emission. Often, fission produces excess neutrons that will sometimes be captured by other nuclei, possibly inducing
additional radioactive events. Uranium-235 undergoes spontaneous fission to a small extent. One typical reaction is
235 139 94 1
Tc → Ba + Kr + 2 n
92 56 36 0

where n is a neutron. As with any nuclear process, the sums of the atomic numbers and mass numbers must be the same on both
1
0

sides of the equation. Spontaneous fission is found only in large nuclei. The smallest nucleus that exhibits spontaneous fission is
lead-208. (Fission is the radioactive process used in nuclear power plants and one type of nuclear bomb.)

3
Key Takeaways
The major types of radioactivity include alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
Fission is a type of radioactivity in which large nuclei spontaneously break apart into smaller nuclei.
6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
6.2: Half-Life
6.3: Unsafe Doses of Radiation

6: Radioactivity is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

4
6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
 Learning Objective
Learn some applications of radioactivity.

Radioactive isotopes have a variety of applications. Generally, however, they are useful because either we can detect their
radioactivity or we can use the energy they release.
Radioactive isotopes are effective tracers because their radioactivity is easy to detect. A tracer is a substance that can be used to
follow the pathway of that substance through some structure. For instance, leaks in underground water pipes can be discovered by
running some tritium-containing water through the pipes and then using a Geiger counter to locate any radioactive tritium
subsequently present in the ground around the pipes. (Recall that tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen.)
Tracers can also be used to follow the steps of a complex chemical reaction. After incorporating radioactive atoms into reactant
molecules, scientists can track where the atoms go by following their radioactivity. One excellent example of this is the use of
carbon-14 to determine the steps involved in photosynthesis in plants. We know these steps because researchers followed the
progress of carbon-14 throughout the process.

Radioactive Dating
Radioactive isotopes are useful for establishing the ages of various objects. The half-life of radioactive isotopes is unaffected by
any environmental factors, so the isotope acts like an internal clock. For example, if a rock is analyzed and is found to contain a
certain amount of uranium-235 and a certain amount of its daughter isotope, we can conclude that a certain fraction of the original
uranium-235 has radioactively decayed. If half of the uranium has decayed, then the rock has an age of one half-life of uranium-
235, or about 4.5 × 10 y . Many analyses like this, using a wide variety of isotopes, have indicated that age of the earth itself is
9

over 4 × 10 y .
9

In another interesting example of radioactive dating, hydrogen-3 dating has been used to verify the stated vintages of some old fine
wines.
One isotope, carbon-14, is particularly useful in determining the age of once-living artifacts. A tiny amount of carbon-14 is
produced naturally in the upper reaches of the atmosphere, and living things incorporate some of it into their tissues, building up to
a constant, albeit very low, level. Once a living thing dies, it no longer acquires carbon-14; as time passes the carbon-14 that was in
the tissues decays. (The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,370 y.) If a once-living artifact is discovered and analyzed many years after its
death and the remaining carbon-14 is compared to the known constant level, an approximate age of the artifact can be determined.
Using such methods, scientists determined that the age of the Shroud of Turin (Figure 6.1.1 purported by some to be the burial
cloth of Jesus Christ and composed of flax fibers, a type of plant) is about 600–700 y, not 2,000 y as claimed by some. Scientists
were also able to use radiocarbon dating to show that the age of a mummified body found in the ice of the Alps was 5,300 y.

Figure 6.1.1 : Shroud of Turin. In 1989, several groups of scientists used carbon-14 dating to demonstrate that the Shroud of Turin
was only 600–700 y. Many people still cling to a different notion, despite the scientific evidence.

Irradiation of Food
The radiation emitted by some radioactive substances can be used to kill microorganisms on a variety of foodstuffs, extending the
shelf life of these products. Produce such as tomatoes, mushrooms, sprouts, and berries are irradiated with the emissions from coba

6.1.1 [Link]
. This exposure kills a lot of the bacteria that cause spoilage, so the produce stays fresh longer. Eggs and some meat, such as beef,
pork, and poultry, can also be irradiated. Contrary to the belief of some people, irradiation of food does not make the food itself
radioactive.

Medical Applications
Radioactive isotopes have numerous medical applications in diagnosing and treating illness and diseases. One example of a
diagnostic application is using radioactive iodine-131 to test for thyroid activity (Figure 6.1.1). The thyroid gland in the neck is one
of the few places in the body with a significant concentration of iodine. To evaluate thyroid activity, a measured dose of 131I is
administered to a patient, and the next day a scanner is used to measure the amount of radioactivity in the thyroid gland. The
amount of radioactive iodine that collects there is directly related to the activity of the thyroid, allowing trained physicians to
diagnose both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Iodine-131 has a half-life of only 8 d, so the potential for damage due to
exposure is minimal. Technetium-99 can also be used to test thyroid function. Bones, the heart, the brain, the liver, the lungs, and
many other organs can be imaged in similar ways by using the appropriate radioactive isotope.

Figure 6.1.2 : Medical Diagnostics. Radioactive iodine can be used to image the thyroid gland for diagnostic purposes. Source:
Scan courtesy of Myo Han, [Link]/wiki/File:Thyroid_scan.jpg.
Very little radioactive material is needed in these diagnostic techniques because the radiation emitted is so easy to detect. However,
therapeutic applications usually require much larger doses because their purpose is to preferentially kill diseased tissues. For
example, if a thyroid tumor were detected, a much larger infusion (thousands of rem, as opposed to a diagnostic dose of less than
40 rem) of iodine-131 could help destroy the tumor cells. Similarly, radioactive strontium is used to not only detect, but also to ease
the pain of bone cancers. Table 6.1.1 lists several radioactive isotopes and their medical uses.
Table 6.1.1 : Some Radioactive Isotopes with Medical Applications
Isotope Use
32P cancer detection and treatment, especially in eyes and skin
59Fe anemia diagnosis
60Co gamma ray irradiation of tumors

99mTc* brain, thyroid, liver, bone marrow, lung, heart, and intestinal scanning;
blood volume determination
131I diagnosis and treatment of thyroid function
133Xe lung imaging
198Au liver disease diagnosis

*The "m" means that it is a metastable form of this isotope of technetium.

6.1.2 [Link]
In addition to the direct application of radioactive isotopes to diseased tissue, the gamma ray emissions of some isotopes can be
directed toward the tissue to be destroyed. Cobalt-60 is a useful isotope for this kind of procedure.

 Food and Drink Application: Radioactivity in Wines

Wine lovers put some stock in vintages, or the years in which the wine grapes were grown before they were turned into wine.
Wine can differ in quality depending on the vintage. Some wine lovers willingly pay much more for a bottle of wine with a
certain vintage. But how does one verify that a bottle of wine was in fact part of a certain vintage? Is the label a fake? Is that
stash of wine found in the basement of a French chateau really from the 1940s, or was it made in 2009?

Figure 6.1.3 : A wine label. This wine label from a bottle of wine claims a vintage of 1991. Is the wine really from this vintage,
or is it a fake? Radioactivity can help determine the answer. Source: Used by permission of Ralph E. Wermuth.
Cesium-137 is a radioactive isotope that has a half-life of 30.1 y. It was introduced into the atmosphere in the 1940s and 1950s
by the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons by several countries after World War II. A significant amount of cesium-137
was released during the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986. As a result of this atmospheric contamination, scientists have
precise measurements of the amount of cesium-137 available in the environment since 1950. Some of the isotope of cesium is
taken up by living plants, including grape vines. Using known vintages, oenologists (wine scientists) can construct a detailed
analysis of the cesium-137 of various wines through the years.
The verification of a wine's vintage requires the measurement of the activity of cesium-137 in the wine. By measuring the
current activity of cesium-137 in a sample of wine (the gamma rays from the radioactive decay pass through glass wine bottles
easily, so there's no need to open the bottle), comparing it to the known amount of cesium-137 from the vintage, and taking
into account the passage of time, researchers can collect evidence for or against a claimed wine vintage.
Before about 1950, the amount of cesium-137 in the environment was negligible, so if a wine dated before 1950 shows any
measurable cesium-137 activity, it is almost surely a fake, so do not shell out lots of money for it! It may be a good wine, but it
is almost definitely not over 60 years old.

Summary
Radioactivity has several practical applications, including tracers, medical applications, dating once-living objects, and
preservation of food.

6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
15.5: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

6.1.3 [Link]
6.2: Half-Life
 Learning Objectives
Define half-life.
Determine the amount of radioactive substance remaining after a given number of half-lives.

Whether or not a given isotope is radioactive is a characteristic of that particular isotope. Some isotopes are stable indefinitely,
while others are radioactive and decay through a characteristic form of emission. As time passes, less and less of the radioactive
isotope will be present, and the level of radioactivity decreases. An interesting and useful aspect of radioactive decay is half life,
which is the amount of time it takes for one-half of a radioactive isotope to decay. The half-life of a specific radioactive isotope is
constant; it is unaffected by conditions and is independent of the initial amount of that isotope.
Consider the following example. Suppose we have 100.0 g of tritium (a radioactive isotope of hydrogen). It has a half-life of 12.3
y. After 12.3 y, half of the sample will have decayed from hydrogen-3 to helium-3 by emitting a beta particle, so that only 50.0 g of
the original tritium remains. After another 12.3 y—making a total of 24.6 y—another half of the remaining tritium will have
decayed, leaving 25.0 g of tritium. After another 12.3 y—now a total of 36.9 y—another half of the remaining tritium will have
decayed, leaving 12.5 g. This sequence of events is illustrated in Figure 6.2.1 - Radioactive Decay.

Figure 6.2.1 Radioactive Decay. During each successive half-life, half of the initial amount will radioactively decay.
We can determine the amount of a radioactive isotope remaining after a given number half-lives by using the following expression:
n
1
amount remaining = initial amount × ( )
2

where n is the number of half-lives. This expression works even if the number of half-lives is not a whole number.

 Example 6.2.1
The half-life of fluorine-20 is 11.0 s. If a sample initially contains 5.00 g of fluorine-20, how much remains after 44.0 s?

Solution
If we compare the time that has passed to the isotope's half-life, we note that 44.0 s is exactly 4 half-lives, so we use the
previous expression n = 4. Substituting and solving results in the following:

6.2.1 [Link]
 4
1
amount remaining = 5.00 g × ( )
2

1
= 5.00 g × ( )
16

= 0.313 g

Less than one-third of a gram of fluorine-20 remains.

 Exercise 6.2.1

The half-life of titanium-44 is 60.0 y. A sample of titanium contains 0.600 g of titanium-44. How much remains after 240.0 y?

Answer
0.0375 g

Half-lives of isotopes range from fractions of a microsecond to billions of years. Table 6.2.1 - Half-Lives of Various Isotopes, lists
the half-lives of some isotopes.
Table 6.2.1 Half-Lives of Various Isotopes
Isotope Half-Life
3H 12.3 y
14C 5730 y
40K 1.26 × 109 y
51Cr 27.70 d
90Sr 29.1 y
131I 8.04 d
222Rn 3.823 d
235U 7.04 × 108 y
238U 4.47 × 109 y
241Am 432.7 y
248Bk 23.7 h
260Sg 4 ms

 Chemistry is Everywhere: Radioactive Elements in the Body

You may not think of yourself as radioactive, but you are. A small portion of certain elements in the human body are
radioactive and constantly undergo decay. The following table summarizes radioactivity in the normal human body.
Table with four columns and eight rows. The first column on the left is labeled as Radioactive Isotope, underneath in the rows has
radioactive isotopes. The second column is labeled as Half-Life (y), underneath in the rows has half-lives. The third column is labeled as
Isotope Mass in the Body (g), underneath in the rows has isotope masses. The fourth column on right is labeled as Activity in the Body
(decays/s), underneath in the rows has the activities in the body as the decays.
Radioactive Isotope Half-Life (y) Isotope Mass in the Body (g) Activity in the Body (decays/s)
40K 1.26 × 109 0.0164 4,340
14C 5,730 1.6 × 10−8 3,080
87Rb 4.9 × 1010 0.19 600
210Pb 22.3 5.4 × 10−10 15
3H 12.3 2 × 10−14 7

6.2.2 [Link]
 Radioactive Isotope Half-Life (y) Isotope Mass in the Body (g) Activity in the Body (decays/s)
238U 4.47 × 109 1 × 10−4 5
228Ra 5.76 4.6 × 10−14 5
226Ra 1,620 3.6 × 10−11 3

The average human body experiences about 8,000 radioactive decays.

Most of the radioactivity in the human body comes from potassium-40 and carbon-14. Potassium and carbon are two elements
that we absolutely cannot live without, so unless we can remove all the radioactive isotopes of these elements, there is no way
to escape at least some radioactivity. There is debate about which radioactive element is more problematic. There is more
potassium-40 in the body than carbon-14, and it has a much longer half-life. Potassium-40 also decays with about 10 times
more energy than carbon-14, making each decay potentially more problematic. However, carbon is the element that makes up
the backbone of most living molecules, making carbon-14 more likely to be present around important molecules, such as
proteins and DNA molecules. Most experts agree that while it is foolhardy to expect absolutely no exposure to radioactivity,
we can and should minimize exposure to excess radioactivity.

What if the elapsed time is not an exact number of half-lives? We can still calculate the amount of material we have left, but the
equation is more complicated. The equation is
−0.693t/t1/2
amount remaining = (amount initial) × e

where e is the base of natural logarithms (2.71828182…), t is the elapsed time, and t1/2 is the half-life of the radioactive isotope.
The variables t and t1/2 should have the same units of time, and you may need to make sure you know how to evaluate natural-
logarithm powers on your calculator (for many calculators, there is an "inverse logarithm" function that you can use; consult your
instructor if you are not sure how to use your calculator). Although this is a more complicated formula, the length of time t need not
be an exact multiple of half-lives.

 Example 6.2.2

The half-life of fluorine-20 is 11.0 s. If a sample initially contains 5.00 g of fluorine-20, how much remains after 60.0 s?

Solution
Although similar to Example 3, the amount of time is not an exact multiple of a half-life. Here we identify the initial amount as
5.00 g, t = 60.0 s, and t1/2 = 11.0 s. Substituting into the equation:
amount remaining = (5.00 g) × e−(0.693)(60.0 s)/11.0 s
Evaluating the exponent (and noting that the s units cancel), we get
amount remaining = (5.00 g) × e−3.78
Solving, the amount remaining is 0.114 g. (You may want to verify this answer to confirm that you are using your calculator
properly.)

 Exercise 6.2.2

The half-life of titanium-44 is 60.0 y. A sample of titanium contains 0.600 g of titanium-44. How much remains after 100.0 y?

Answer
0.189 g

6.2.3 [Link]
Key Takeaways
Natural radioactive processes are characterized by a half-life, the time it takes for half of the material to decay radioactively.
The amount of material left over after a certain number of half-lives can be easily calculated.

6.2: Half-Life is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
15.3: Half-Life by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]

6.2.4 [Link]
6.3: Unsafe Doses of Radiation
Radiation Leaks at Fukushima Dose Workers. After everyone else was evacuated from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant
following the tsunami disaster, around fifty workers were left behind to cool the spent fuel rods and overheating nuclear reactor.
These workers pumped seawater on the reactors in a desperate attempt to bring them back under control, meanwhile exposing the
workers to dangerous radiation. 1
How is radiation exposure measured and what is considered dangerous? Well, there are different methods to measure exposure to
ionizing radiation and units to express these measurements. One unit used is “grays per hour” which describes the absorbed dose
rate in the air which describes the intensity of gamma radiation in the air. This in turn can be translated to radiation dose, or gray
(Gy) which is equal to one joule of radiation energy that is absorbed per kilogram of organ or tissue weight. Before gray was used,
the unit rad was; so that 1 Gy = 100 rads. All radiation is not created equal, some forms are more harmful that others so to
incorporate that factor (known as the “radiation weighting factor), radiation dose is expressed as equivalent dose in units called
sievert (Sv). That makes one gray air dose equal to 0.7 Sv tissue dose. Sievert is the SI unit of radiation dose; SI meaning the
International System of units used by the scientific community in order to facilitate communication. Another unit of radiation dose
that is sometimes used is rem which is based on the unit rad; 1 Sv is equal to 100 rem.2
What is considered a dangerous dose of radiation? According to the ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection)
the recommended annual dose limit for the general public is 1 mSv or 0.001 Sv. Radiation workers however, can be exposed to 50
mSv in any given year but average only 20 mSv per year in a 5 year period. Exposure to 10 Sv will most like result in death within
days or weeks and at 1 Sv, a person runs the risk of cancer later in life as well as temporary radiation sickness and a drop in white
blood cell count. 2 Sv is high enough to cause immediate radiation sickness which results in skin redness or burns, hair loss and
nausea. At 3 Sv, the initial symptoms of radiation sickness can also include vomiting and diarrhea and progress to a period of
serious illness including appetite loss, fatigue, fever, gastrointestinal problems, possible seizures or coma and may last from hours
to months.3
There are three ways to reduce radiation exposure; reduce the amount of time exposed to radiation, increase the distance from the
source of radiation, and wear protective clothing to shield the radiation. Radiation limits are designed to be “as low as reasonable
achievable” or ALARA, and are very conservative as you can see, many times below the level that would cause radiation
sickness.4
Questions:
1. The standard legal limit for annual radiation dose for radiation workers is 50 mSv but it was raised to 250 mSv so that the 50
workers could continue to cool down the reactors. If radiation reached levels of 400 mSv/hr at Fukishima. How long would it take
for an unprotected radiation worker to receive the 250 mSv?
2. Readings at the border of the nuclear plant site were 6 mSv/hr. How long would it take for a member of the general public to
absorb 10 mSv of radiation?
3. How many mrem is 3 Sv?
4. The commonly accepted value for increased risk of cancer is 4% per Sv. If a person was exposed to 50 mSv every year for 20
years, what would his increased risk for cancer be?
5. People are exposed to 350 mrem of background radiation per year so the radiation dose guidelines refer to additional radiation. If
you had a CAT scan that delivers a dose of 4.1 mSv, what is your total radiation dose for that year in Sv?
6. If you lived near a nuclear power plant, what precautions could you take to limit your exposure to radiation in the event of an
accident? Answers to Radiation Dose Questions
1. Biello, David, Workers Battle Fukushima Nuclear Crisis at Personal Risk, Scientific American, March 16, 2011 online
[Link] 2. McGill Radiation Safety Policy Manual › 3. Radiation
dose limit, McGill University, [Link]/ehs/radiation/manual/3/ 3. Bai, Nina, How Radiation Affects Health, Scientific
American, March 15, 2011 online [Link] 4. Biello,
David, Workers Battle Fukushima Nuclear Crisis at Personal Risk, Scientific American, March 16, 2011 online
[Link]
From ChemPRIME: 19.10: Units of Radiation Dose

6.3.1 [Link]
Contributors and Attributions
Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of
Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.

This page titled 6.3: Unsafe Doses of Radiation is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Ed Vitz, John
W. Moore, Justin Shorb, Xavier Prat-Resina, Tim Wendorff, & Adam Hahn.

6.3.2 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

7: Chemical Bonds

Diamond is the hardest natural material known on Earth. Yet diamond is just pure carbon. What is special about this element that
makes diamond so hard? Bonds. Chemical bonds.
In a perfect diamond crystal, each C atom makes four connections—bonds—to four other C atoms in a three-dimensional matrix.
Four is the greatest number of bonds that is commonly made by atoms, so C atoms maximize their interactions with other atoms.
This three-dimensional array of connections extends throughout the diamond crystal, making it essentially one large molecule.
Breaking a diamond means breaking every bond at once. Also, the bonds are moderately strong. There are stronger interactions
known, but the carbon-carbon connection is fairly strong itself. Not only does a person have to break many connections at once, but
the bonds are also strong connections from the start.

Diamond is the hardest known natural substance and is composed solely of the
element carbon. (CC SA-BY 3.0; Mario Sarto).
There are other substances that have bonding arrangements similar to diamond. Silicon dioxide and boron nitride have some
similarities, but neither of them comes close to the ultimate hardness of diamond.
7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
7.3: Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
7.3.1: Ionic Formula Writing
7.4: Chemical Formulas- How to Represent Compounds
7.5: Covalent Bonds
7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
7.6: Naming Molecular Compounds
7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
7.8: Nomenclature Summary

7: Chemical Bonds is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

1
7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
 Learning Objective
Draw a Lewis electron dot diagram for an atom or a monatomic ion.

In almost all cases, chemical bonds are formed by interactions of valence electrons in atoms. To facilitate our understanding of how
valence electrons interact, a simple way of representing those valence electrons would be useful.
A Lewis electron dot diagram (or electron dot diagram, or a Lewis diagram, or a Lewis structure) is a representation of the
valence electrons of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the element. The number of dots equals the number of valence
electrons in the atom. These dots are arranged to the right and left and above and below the symbol, with no more than two dots on
a side. (The order in which the positions are used does not matter.) For example, the Lewis electron dot diagram for hydrogen is
simply

H⋅

Because the side is not important, the Lewis electron dot diagram could also be drawn as follows:
˙
H or ⋅H or H
.

The electron dot diagram for helium, with two valence electrons, is as follows:

He:

By putting the two electrons together on the same side, we emphasize the fact that these two electrons are both in the 1s subshell;
this is the common convention we will adopt, although there will be exceptions later. The next atom, lithium, has an electron
configuration of 1s22s1, so it has only one electron in its valence shell. Its electron dot diagram resembles that of hydrogen, except
the symbol for lithium is used:

Li⋅

Beryllium has two valence electrons in its 2s shell, so its electron dot diagram is like that of helium:

Be:

The next atom is boron. Its valence electron shell is 2s22p1, so it has three valence electrons. The third electron will go on another
side of the symbol:
˙
Be:

Again, it does not matter on which sides of the symbol the electron dots are positioned.
For carbon, there are four valence electrons, two in the 2s subshell and two in the 2p subshell. As usual, we will draw two dots
together on one side, to represent the 2s electrons. However, conventionally, we draw the dots for the two p electrons on different
sides. As such, the electron dot diagram for carbon is as follows:
˙
⋅ C:

With N, which has three p electrons, we put a single dot on each of the three remaining sides:
˙
⋅ N:
.

For oxygen, which has four p electrons, we now have to start doubling up on the dots on one other side of the symbol. When
doubling up electrons, make sure that a side has no more than two electrons.
¨
⋅ O:
.

Fluorine and neon have seven and eight dots, respectively:

¨
:F:
.

7.1.1 [Link]
 ¨
:Ne:
. .

With the next element, sodium, the process starts over with a single electron because sodium has a single electron in its highest-
numbered shell, the n = 3 shell. By going through the periodic table, we see that the Lewis electron dot diagrams of atoms will
never have more than eight dots around the atomic symbol.

 Example 7.1.1

What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element?

a. aluminum
b. selenium

Solution
a. The valence electron configuration for aluminum is 3s23p1. So it would have three dots around the symbol for aluminum,
two of them paired to represent the 3s electrons:
˙
Al :

2. The valence electron configuration for selenium is 4s24p4. In the highest-numbered shell, the n = 4 shell, there are six
electrons. Its electron dot diagram is as follows:
˙
⋅ S e:
. .

 Exercise 7.1.1

What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element?

a. phosphorus
b. argon

Answer
˙
⋅ P:
.

¨
:Ar:
. .

Elements in the same column of the periodic table have similar Lewis electron dot diagrams because they have the same valence
shell electron configuration. The electron dot diagrams for the first column of elements are as follows:

H ⋅ Li ⋅ Na ⋅ K ⋅ Rb ⋅ Cs ⋅

Monatomic ions are atoms that have either lost (for cations) or gained (for anions) electrons. Electron dot diagrams for ions are the
same as for atoms, except that some electrons have been removed for cations, while some electrons have been added for anions.
Thus, in comparing the electron configurations and electron dot diagrams for the Na atom and the Na+ ion, we note that the Na
atom has a single valence electron in its Lewis diagram, while the Na+ ion has lost that one valence electron:
+
Lewis dot diagram : Na ⋅ Na

1
Electron configuration : [N e] 3 s [N e]

Technically, the valence shell of the Na+ ion is now the n = 2 shell, which has eight electrons in it. So why do we not put eight dots
around Na+? Conventionally, when we show electron dot diagrams for ions, we show the original valence shell of the atom, which
in this case is the n = 3 shell and empty in the Na+ ion.

7.1.2 [Link]
In making cations, electrons are first lost from the highest numbered shell, not necessarily the last subshell filled. For example, in
going from the neutral Fe atom to the Fe2+ ion, the Fe atom loses its two 4s electrons first, not its 3d electrons, despite the fact that
the 3d subshell is the last subshell being filled. Thus, we have
2+
Lewis dot diagram : Fe : Fe

2 6 6
Electron configuration : [Ar] 4 s 3 d [Ar] 3 d

Anions have extra electrons when compared to the original atom. Here is a comparison of the Cl atom with the Cl− ion:
¨ ¨ −
Lewis dot diagram : :Cl⋅ :Cl:
. . . .

2 5 2 6
Electron configuration : [N e] 3 s 3 p [N e] 3 s 3 p

 Example 7.1.2

What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each ion?

a. Ca2+
b. O2−

Solution
a. Having lost its two original valence electrons, the Lewis electron dot diagram is simply: Ca2+
b. The O2− ion has gained two electrons in its valence shell, so its Lewis electron dot diagram is as follows:
¨ 2−
:O:
. .

 Exercise 7.1.2

The electronic configuration of the thallium ion is 6s24f145d10. What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for the Tl+ ion?

Answer
+
Tl :

Summary
Lewis electron dot diagrams use dots to represent valence electrons around an atomic symbol.
Lewis electron dot diagrams for ions have less (for cations) or more (for anions) dots than the corresponding atom.

7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
9.2: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

7.1.3 [Link]
7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding
 Learning Objectives
Realize that valence electrons can be represented by dots.
Know that there are two types of bonding: ionic and covalent.
Know that ionic bonding involves a metal and a nonmetal with a transfer of electrons.
Know that covalent bonding involves two nonmetals or a metalloid with a nonmetal sharing electrons.

Bonding (Ionic and Covalent Basics)

When two atoms approach each other, they have the potential to bond (or connect). If a metal and a nonmetal interact, then an
ionic bond will result. These types of bonds involve the metal donating it(s) valence electron(s) to a nonmetal. As the electronic
transfer occurs, both atoms will achieve more stabile confirmations. The end result will be a less reactive compound. These type of
species are composed of both cations and anions. In addition, they are crystalline and solid in nature. A few examples of real-world
ionic compounds would be NaCl (table salt) and NaF (active ingredient in toothpaste).

Figure [Link] : NaCl crystals. (Public Domain; NASA).

If two nonmetals interact, then a covalent bond will result. The connection that forms is due to each atom sharing it(s) valence
electron(s). In this type of bonding, each atom (except for H, B, and Be) obtains an octet and becomes stable. Metalloids and
nonmetals can bond to form covalent compounds as well. Solid covalent compound are not crystalline in texture. Unlike ionic
compounds. covalent compounds can be liquids or even gases.

Figure [Link] : Covalent compounds NO2 and N2O4 contained in glass bottles. Image taken from:
[Link]/wiki/File:[Link]
Table [Link] : Comparing ionic and covalent compounds
Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding

Metal/nonmetal combination nonmetal/nonmetal or metalloid/nonmetal combination

Metal loses valence electrons and nonmetal gains up to eight. Both elements share valence electrons to achieve stability

Individual species have cation/anion charges No charges are present in these compounds

All ionic compounds are solids Covalent compounds can be solid, liquid, or gas.

Examples could include: Li2CO3, Fe2O3, and MgSO4 Examples include: CO2, H2O, and CH3CH2OH

[Link] [Link]
Lewis Symbols
At the beginning of the 20th century, an American physical chemist G. N. Lewis (1875–1946) devised a system of symbols—now
called Lewis electron dot symbols (often shortened to Lewis dot symbols) that can be used for predicting the number of bonds
formed by most elements in their compounds. Each Lewis dot symbol consists of the chemical symbol for an element surrounded
by dots that represent its valence electrons. Lewis knew that incorporating models into his teaching would enable students to
visualize chemical bonding easier. Gilbert Lewis was known for his interactive teaching methods and his interest in student
success. Unfortunately, his nervous personality limited his ability to lecture in front of large groups of people.
Regarding his research, Lewis constructed his own theory to explain the nature of acids and bases. He was the first to synthesize
D2O (heavy water) and wrote numerous textbooks for his courses. In World War I, he served as a Major in the Gas Service unit of
the American Army. He trained over 200 soldiers a week on how to adequately protect themselves from gas warfare. From these
efforts, he helped reduce fatalities due to chemical gas exposures and was awarded the Distinguish Service Medal in 1922.
Lewis was nominated over thirty times for the Nobel Prize. He never received this award and does not have an element named in
honor of him. For more on Gilbert Lewis, click on this link.

Figure [Link] : G. N. Lewis and the Octet Rule. (a) Lewis is working in the laboratory. (b) In Lewis’s original sketch for the octet
rule, he initially placed the electrons at the corners of a cube rather than placing them as we do now.

 Lewis Dot symbols

convenient representation of valence electrons
allows scientists to keep track of valence electrons during bond formation
consists of the chemical symbol for the element plus a dot for each valence electron

To write an element’s Lewis dot symbol, we place dots representing its valence electrons, one at a time, around the element’s
chemical symbol. Up to four dots are placed above, below, to the left, and to the right of the symbol (in any order, as long as
elements with four or fewer valence electrons have no more than one dot in each position). The next dots, for elements with more
than four valence electrons, are again distributed one at a time, each paired with one of the first four. For example, the element
sulfur has six valence electrons (note roman numeral above group on the periodic table) and its Lewis symbol would be:

Fluorine, for example, has seven valence electrons, so its Lewis dot symbol is constructed as follows:

The number of dots in the Lewis dot symbol is the same as the number of valence electrons, which is the same as the last digit of
the element’s group number in the periodic table. Lewis dot symbols and electron configurations (not a topic for this course) for the
elements in period 2 are given in Table [Link].
Table [Link] : Lewis Dot Symbols for the Elements in Period 2

[Link] [Link]
Ionic compounds are produced when a metal bonds with a nonmetal. Stability is achieved for both atoms once the transfer of
electrons has occurred. The image below shows how sodium and chlorine bond to form the compound sodium chloride. Unlike a
sodium atom, the resulting compound is not explosive and less corrosive than chlorine. Ionic bonding can be viewed by noting the
donation of valence electrons from a metal atom to a nonmetal atom by using the Bohr model. From this theory, we will move on
the Lewis structure with an understanding that metals will always lose valence electrons and nonmetals will gain up to eight in
order to form stable compounds.

Figure [Link] : Formation of an ionic bond between sodium and chlorine. Image courtesy of By BruceBlaus - Own work, CC BY-
SA 4.0, [Link]/w/inde...curid=44968540

 Rules for Drawing IOnic Lewis structures

When drawing Lewis structures for compounds formed from the combination of a metal/nonmetal, use the list of rules shown
below:
a. Locate the elements of interest and recall how many valence electrons each species has.
b. Draw dots around each element individually.
c. To obtain successful octets, the metal must transfer all of its valence electrons to the nonmetal.
d. At this point, the metal should have no electrons around it. In addition, the nonmetal will have an octet. If this does not
occur, then refer to step e.
e. Additional atoms of the same two elements may be brought in to accomplish rules a-c.
f. Cation and anion charges must be on Lewis structure to receive full credit (this is an ionic compound).
g. To check structure, quickly write a formula for the ionic compound. This involves crossing down the charges diagonally
and losing signs. You must reduce subscripts if they are divisible by a factor.

 Example [Link]: Chloride Salts

[Link] [Link]
 In this example, the sodium atom is donating its 1 valence electron to the chlorine atom. This creates a sodium cation and a
chlorine anion. Notice that the net charge of the resulting compound is 0. Only one atom of each element is needed to obtain a
stable compound.

In this example, the magnesium atom is donating both of its valence electrons to chlorine atoms. Each chlorine atom can only
accept 1 electron before it can achieve an octet; therefore, 2 atoms of chlorine are required to accept the 2 electrons donated by
the magnesium. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0. This Lewis structure requires two anions per one cation to
produce a stable compound.
For more rigorous examples, access the CHM101 Furman moodle page (chapter 4 documents), to view a lightboard video of
your instructor.

Contributors and Attributions

Mike Blaber (Florida State University)
Wikipedia
National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (India)
Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)
Isabella Quiros (Furman University)

7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
4.5: Lewis Dot and Bonding is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
 7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
 Learning Objectives
Know how ions form.
Learn the characteristic charges that ions have.
Construct a proper formula for an ionic compound.
Generate a proper name for an ionic compound.

So far, we have discussed elements and compounds that are electrically neutral. They have the same number of electrons as
protons, so the negative charges of the electrons are balanced by the positive charges of the protons. However, this is not always the
case. Electrons can move from one atom to another; when they do, species with overall electric charges are formed. Such species
are called ions. Species with overall positive charges are termed cations, while species with overall negative charges are called
anions. Remember that ions are formed only when electrons move from one atom to another; a proton never moves from one atom
to another. Compounds formed from positive and negative ions are ionic compounds.
Individual atoms can gain or lose electrons. When they do, they become monatomic ions. When atoms gain or lose electrons, they
usually gain or lose a characteristic number of electrons and so take on a characteristic overall charge. Table 7.2.1 lists some
common ions in terms of how many electrons they lose (making cations) or gain (making anions). There are several things to notice
about the ions in Table 7.2.1. First, each element that forms a cation is a metal, except for one (hydrogen), while each element that
forms an anion is a nonmetal. This is actually one of the chemical properties of metals and nonmetals: metals tend to form cations,
while nonmetals tend to form anions. Second, most atoms form ions of a single characteristic charge. When sodium atoms form
ions, they always form a 1+ charge, never a 2+ or 3+ or even 1− charge. Thus, if you commit the information in Table 7.2.1 to
memory, you will always know what charges most atoms form.
Table 7.2.1 : Monatomic Ions of Various Charges
y… Ions formed by losing a single electron H+

Na+
K+
Rb+
Ag+
Au+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr2+
Fe2+
Co2+
Ions formed by losing two electrons Ni2+
Cu2+
Zn2+
Sn2+
Hg2+
Pb2+

Ions formed by losing three electrons Sc3+

Fe3+
Co3+
Ni3+
Au3+

7.2.1 [Link]
y… Ions formed by losing a single electron H+

Al3+
Cr3+
Ti4+
Ions formed by losing four electrons Sn4+
Pb4+
F−
Cl−
Ions formed by gaining a single electron
Br−
I−
O2−
Ions formed by gaining two electrons S2−
Se2−
N3−
Ions formed by gaining three electrons
P3−

Third, there are some exceptions to the previous point. A few elements, all of which are metals, can form more than one possible
charge. For example, iron atoms can form 2+ cations or 3+ cations. Cobalt is another element that can form more than one possible
charged ion (2+ and 3+), while lead can form 2+ or 4+ cations. Unfortunately, there is little understanding which two charges a
metal atom may take, so it is best to just memorize the possible charges a particular element can have.
Note the convention for indicating an ion. The magnitude of the charge is listed as a right superscript next to the symbol of the
element. If the charge is a single positive or negative one, the number 1 is not written; if the magnitude of the charge is greater than
1, then the number is written before the + or − sign. An element symbol without a charge written next to it is assumed to be the
uncharged atom.
Naming an ion is straightforward. For a cation, simply use the name of the element and add the word ion (or if you want to be more
specific, add cation) after the element's name. So Na+ is the sodium ion; Ca2+ is the calcium ion. If the element has more than one
possible charge, the value of the charge comes after the element name and before the word ion. Thus, Fe2+ is the iron two ion,
while Fe3+ is the iron three ion. In print, we use roman numerals in parentheses to represent the charge on the ion; so these two
iron ions would be represented as the iron(II) cation and the iron(III) cation, respectively.
For a monatomic anion, use the stem of the element name and append the suffix -ide to it, and then add ion. This is similar to how
we named molecular compounds. Thus, Cl− is the chloride ion, and N3− is the nitride ion.

 Example 7.2.1
Name each species.
a. O2−
b. Co
c. Co2+

Solution
a. This species has a 2− charge on it, so it is an anion. Anions are named using the stem of the element name with the suffix -
ide added. This is the oxide anion.
b. Because this species has no charge, it is an atom in its elemental form. This is cobalt.
c. In this case, there is a 2+ charge on the atom, so it is a cation. We note from Table 7.2.1 that cobalt cations can have two
possible charges, so the name of the ion must specify which charge the ion has. This is the cobalt(II) cation.

7.2.2 [Link]
  Exercise 7.2.1

Name each species.

a. P3−
b. Sr2+

Answers
a. the phosphide anion
b. the strontium cation

Ionic Formulas
Chemical formulas for ionic compounds are called ionic formulas. A proper ionic formula has a cation and an anion in it; an ionic
compound is never formed between two cations only or two anions only. The key to writing proper ionic formulas is simple: the
total positive charge must balance the total negative charge. Because the charges on the ions are characteristic, sometimes we have
to have more than one of a cation or an anion to balance the overall positive and negative charges. It is conventional to use the
lowest ratio of ions that are needed to balance the charges.
For example, consider the ionic compound between Na+ and Cl−. Each ion has a single charge, one positive and one negative, so
we need only one ion of each to balance the overall charge. When writing the ionic formula, we follow two additional conventions:
(1) write the formula for the cation first and the formula for the anion second, but (2) do not write the charges on the ions. Thus, for
the compound between Na+ and Cl−, we have the ionic formula NaCl (Figure 7.2.1). The formula Na2Cl2 also has balanced
charges, but the convention is to use the lowest ratio of ions, which would be one of each. (Remember from our conventions for
writing formulas that we do not write a 1 subscript if there is only one atom of a particular element present.) For the ionic
compound between magnesium cations (Mg2+) and oxide anions (O2−), again we need only one of each ion to balance the
charges. By convention, the formula is MgO.

Figure 7.2.1 : The ionic compound NaCl is table salt and is very common. (Public Domain; Pexels.)
For the ionic compound between Mg2+ ions and Cl− ions, we now consider the fact that the charges have different magnitudes: 2+
on the magnesium ion and 1− on the chloride ion. To balance the charges with the lowest number of ions possible, we need to have
two chloride ions to balance the charge on the one magnesium ion. Rather than write the formula MgClCl, we combine the two
chloride ions and write it with a 2 subscript: MgCl2.
What is the formula MgCl2 telling us? There are two chloride ions in the formula. Although chlorine as an element is a diatomic
molecule, Cl2, elemental chlorine is not part of this ionic compound. The chlorine is in the form of a negatively charged ion, not
the neutral element. The 2 subscript is in the ionic formula because we need two Cl− ions to balance the charge on one Mg2+ ion.

 Example 7.2.2

Write the proper ionic formula for each of the two given ions.
a. Ca2+ and Cl−

3+

7.2.3 [Link]
 b. Al3+ and F−
c. Al3+ and O2−

Solution
a. We need two Cl− ions to balance the charge on one Ca2+ ion, so the proper ionic formula is CaCl2.
b. We need three F− ions to balance the charge on the Al3+ ion, so the proper ionic formula is AlF3.
c. With Al3+ and O2−, note that neither charge is a perfect multiple of the other. This means we have to go to a least common
multiple, which in this case will be six. To get a total of 6+, we need two Al3+ ions; to get 6−, we need three O2− ions.
Hence the proper ionic formula is Al2O3.

 Exercise 7.2.2

Write the proper ionic formulas for each of the two given ions.
a. Fe2+ and S2−
b. Fe3+ and S2−

Answers
a. FeS
b. Fe2S3

Naming ionic compounds is simple: combine the name of the cation and the name of the anion, in both cases omitting the word ion.
Do not use numerical prefixes if there is more than one ion necessary to balance the charges. NaCl is sodium chloride, a
combination of the name of the cation (sodium) and the anion (chloride). MgO is magnesium oxide. MgCl2 is magnesium chloride
—not magnesium dichloride.
When naming ionic compounds whose cations can have more than one possible charge, we must also include the charge, in
parentheses and in roman numerals, as part of the name. Hence FeS is iron(II) sulfide, while Fe2S3 is iron(III) sulfide. Again, no
numerical prefixes appear in the name. The number of ions in the formula is dictated by the need to balance the positive and
negative charges.

 Example 7.2.3

Name each ionic compound.

a. CaCl2
b. AlF3
c. Co2O3

Solution
a. Using the names of the ions, this ionic compound is named calcium chloride. It is not calcium(II) chloride, because calcium
forms only one cation when it forms an ion, and it has a characteristic charge of 2+.
b. The name of this ionic compound is aluminum fluoride.
c. We know that cobalt can have more than one possible charge; we just need to determine what it is. Oxide always has a 2−
charge, so with three oxide ions, we have a total negative charge of 6−. This means that the two cobalt ions have to
contribute 6+, which for two cobalt ions means that each one is 3+. Therefore, the proper name for this ionic compound is
cobalt(III) oxide.

7.2.4 [Link]
  Exercise 7.2.3

Name each ionic compound.

a. Sc2O3
b. AgCl

Answers
a. scandium oxide
b. silver chloride

How do you know whether a formula—and by extension, a name—is for a molecular compound or for an ionic compound?
Molecular compounds form between nonmetals and nonmetals, while ionic compounds form between metals and nonmetals. The
periodic table can be used to determine which elements are metals and nonmetals.
There also exists a group of ions that contain more than one atom. These are called polyatomic ions. Table 7.2.2 lists the formulas,
charges, and names of some common polyatomic ions. Only one of them, the ammonium ion, is a cation; the rest are anions. Most
of them also contain oxygen atoms, so sometimes they are referred to as oxyanions. Some of them, such as nitrate and nitrite, and
sulfate and sulfite, have very similar formulas and names, so care must be taken to get the formulas and names correct. Note that
the -ite polyatomic ion has one less oxygen atom in its formula than the -ate ion but with the same ionic charge.
Table 7.2.2 : Common Polyatomic Ions
Name Formula and Charge Name Formula and Charge

ammonium NH4+ hydroxide OH−

C2H3O2−, or
acetate nitrate NO3−
CH3COO−

bicarbonate (hydrogen
HCO3− nitrite NO2−
carbonate)

bisulfate (hydrogen
HSO4− peroxide O22−
sulfate)

carbonate CO32− perchlorate ClO4−

chlorate ClO3− phosphate PO43−

chromate CrO42− sulfate SO42−

cyanide CN− sulfite SO32−

dichromate Cr2O72− triiodide I3−

The naming of ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions follows the same rules as the naming for other ionic compounds:
simply combine the name of the cation and the name of the anion. Do not use numerical prefixes in the name if there is more than
one polyatomic ion; the only exception to this is if the name of the ion itself contains a numerical prefix, such as dichromate or
triiodide.
Writing the formulas of ionic compounds has one important difference. If more than one polyatomic ion is needed to balance the
overall charge in the formula, enclose the formula of the polyatomic ion in parentheses and write the proper numerical subscript to
the right and outside of the parentheses. Thus, the formula between calcium ions, Ca2+, and nitrate ions, NO3−, is properly written
Ca(NO3)2, not CaNO32 or CaN2O6. Use parentheses where required. The name of this ionic compound is simply calcium nitrate.

 Example 7.2.4

Write the proper formula and give the proper name for each ionic compound formed between the two listed ions.
a. NH4+ and S2−
b. Al3+ and PO43−
c. Fe2+ and PO43−

7.2.5 [Link]
Solution
a. Because the ammonium ion has a 1+ charge and the sulfide ion has a 2− charge, we need two ammonium ions to balance
the charge on a single sulfide ion. Enclosing the formula for the ammonium ion in parentheses, we have (NH4)2S. The
compound's name is ammonium sulfide.
b. Because the ions have the same magnitude of charge, we need only one of each to balance the charges. The formula is
AlPO4, and the name of the compound is aluminum phosphate.
c. Neither charge is an exact multiple of the other, so we have to go to the least common multiple of 6. To get 6+, we need
three iron(II) ions, and to get 6−, we need two phosphate ions. The proper formula is Fe3(PO4)2, and the compound's name
is iron(II) phosphate.

 Exercise 7.2.4

Write the proper formula and give the proper name for each ionic compound formed between the two listed ions.
a. NH4+ and PO43−
b. Co3+ and NO2−

Answers
a. (NH4)3PO4, ammonium phosphate
b. Co(NO2)3, cobalt(III) nitrite

 Food and Drink Application: Sodium in Your Food

The element sodium, at least in its ionic form as Na+, is a necessary nutrient for humans to live. In fact, the human body is
approximately 0.15% sodium, with the average person having one-twentieth to one-tenth of a kilogram in their body at any
given time, mostly in fluids outside cells and in other bodily fluids.
Sodium is also present in our diet. The common table salt we use on our foods is an ionic sodium compound. Many processed
foods also contain significant amounts of sodium added to them as a variety of ionic compounds. Why are sodium compounds
used so much? Usually sodium compounds are inexpensive, but, more importantly, most ionic sodium compounds dissolve
easily. This allows processed food manufacturers to add sodium-containing substances to food mixtures and know that the
compound will dissolve and distribute evenly throughout the food. Simple ionic compounds such as sodium nitrite (NaNO2)
are added to cured meats, such as bacon and deli-style meats, while a compound called sodium benzoate is added to many
packaged foods as a preservative. Table 7.2.3 is a partial list of some sodium additives used in food. Some of them you may
recognize after reading this chapter. Others you may not recognize, but they are all ionic sodium compounds with some
negatively charged ion also present.
Table 7.2.3 : Some Sodium Compounds Added to Food
Sodium Compound Use in Food

Sodium acetate preservative, acidity regulator

Sodium adipate food acid

Sodium alginate thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier

Sodium aluminum phosphate acidity regulator, emulsifier

Sodium aluminosilicate anti-caking agent

Sodium ascorbate antioxidant

Sodium benzoate preservative

Sodium bicarbonate mineral salt

Sodium bisulfite preservative, antioxidant

Sodium carbonate mineral salt

7.2.6 [Link]
 Sodium Compound Use in Food

Sodium carboxymethylcellulose emulsifier

Sodium citrates food acid

Sodium dehydroacetate preservative

Sodium erythorbate antioxidant

Sodium erythorbin antioxidant

Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative

Sodium ferrocyanide anti-caking agent

Sodium formate preservative

Sodium fumarate food acid

Sodium gluconate stabilizer

Sodium hydrogen acetate preservative, acidity regulator

Sodium hydroxide mineral salt

Sodium lactate food acid

Sodium malate food acid

Sodium metabisulfite preservative, antioxidant, bleaching agent

Sodium methyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative

Sodium nitrate preservative, color fixative

Sodium nitrite preservative, color fixative

Sodium orthophenyl phenol preservative

Sodium propionate preservative

Sodium propyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative

Sodium sorbate preservative

Sodium stearoyl lactylate emulsifier

Sodium succinates acidity regulator, flavor enhancer

Sodium salts of fatty acids emulsifier, stabilizer, anti-caking agent

Sodium sulfite mineral salt, preservative, antioxidant

Sodium sulfite preservative, antioxidant

Sodium tartrate food acid

Sodium tetraborate preservative

The use of so many sodium compounds in prepared and processed foods has alarmed some physicians and nutritionists. They
argue that the average person consumes too much sodium from his or her diet. The average person needs only about 500 mg of
sodium every day; most people consume more than this—up to 10 times as much. Some studies have implicated increased
sodium intake with high blood pressure; newer studies suggest that the link is questionable. However, there has been a push to
reduce the amount of sodium most people ingest every day: avoid processed and manufactured foods, read labels on packaged
foods (which include an indication of the sodium content), avoid oversalting foods, and use other herbs and spices besides salt
in cooking.

7.2.7 [Link]
 Figure 7.2.2 : Food labels include the amount of sodium per serving. This particular label shows that there are 75 mg of sodium
in one serving of this particular food item.

Key Takeaways
Ions form when atoms lose or gain electrons.
Ionic compounds have positive ions and negative ions.
Ionic formulas balance the total positive and negative charges.
Ionic compounds have a simple system of naming.
Groups of atoms can have an overall charge and make ionic compounds.

7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
3.5: Ions and Ionic Compounds by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

7.2.8 [Link]
7.3: Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
 Learning Objectives
Write the correct formula for an ionic compound.
Recognize polyatomic ions in chemical formulas.

Ionic compounds do not exist as molecules. In the solid state, ionic compounds are in crystal lattice containing many ions each of
the cation and anion. An ionic formula, like NaCl, is an empirical formula. This formula merely indicates that sodium chloride is
made of an equal number of sodium and chloride ions. Sodium sulfide, another ionic compound, has the formula Na S. This 2

formula indicates that this compound is made up of twice as many sodium ions as sulfide ions. This section will teach you how to
find the correct ratio of ions, so that you can write a correct formula.
If you know the name of a binary ionic compound, you can write its chemical formula. Start by writing the metal ion with its
charge, followed by the nonmetal ion with its charge. Because the overall compound must be electrically neutral, decide how many
of each ion is needed in order for the positive and negative charges to cancel each other out.

 Example 7.3.1: Aluminum Nitride and Lithium Oxide

Write the formulas for aluminum nitride and lithium oxide.

Solution
Solution to Example 5.5.1
Write the formula for aluminum nitride Write the formula for lithium oxide

1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation

(metal) first and the anion (nonmetal) Al
3 +
N
3 −
Li
+ 2 −
O

second.

total charge of cations = total charge of total charge of cations = total charge of
2. Use a multiplier to make the total charge anions anions
of the cations and anions equal to each other. 1(3+) = 1(3-) 2(1+) = 1(2-)
+3 = -3 +2 = -2

3. Use the multipliers as subscript for each

Al N Li O
ion. 1 1 2 1

4. Write the final formula. Leave out all

AlN Li O
charges and all subscripts that are 1. 2

An alternative way to writing a correct formula for an ionic compound is to use the crisscross method. In this method, the
numerical value of each of the ion charges is crossed over to become the subscript of the other ion. Signs of the charges are
dropped.

 Example 7.3.2: The Crisscross Method for Lead (IV) Oxide

Write the formula for lead (IV) oxide.

Solution
Solution to Example 5.5.2
Crisscross Method Write the formula for lead (IV) oxide

1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the 4 + 2 −
Pb O
anion (nonmetal) second.

7.3.1 [Link]
 Crisscross Method Write the formula for lead (IV) oxide

2. Transpose only the number of the positive charge to become the

subscript of the anion and the number only of the negative charge to
become the subscript of the cation.

3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. Pb O

2 4

4. Write the final formula. Leave out all subscripts that are 1. PbO
2

 Exercise 7.3.2

Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions.
a. the calcium ion and the oxygen ion
b. the 2+ copper ion and the sulfur ion
c. the 1+ copper ion and the sulfur ion

Answer a:
CaO
Answer b:
CuS
Answer c:
Cu2S

Be aware that ionic compounds are empirical formulas and so must be written as the
lowest ratio of the ions.

 Example 7.3.3: Sulfur Compound

Write the formula for sodium combined with sulfur.

Solution
Solution to Example 5.5.3
Crisscross Method Write the formula for sodium combined with sulfur

1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the + 2 −
Na S
anion (nonmetal) second.

2. Transpose only the number of the positive charge to become the

subscript of the anion and the number only of the negative charge to
become the subscript of the cation.

3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. This step is not necessary.

4. Write the final formula. Leave out all subscripts that are 1. Na S
2

 Exercise 7.3.3
Write the formula for each ionic compound.
a. sodium bromide
b. lithium chloride
c. magnesium oxide

Answer a:

7.3.2 [Link]
 NaBr
Answer b:
LiCl
Answer c:
MgO

Polyatomic Ions
Some ions consist of groups of atoms bonded together and have an overall electric charge. Because these ions contain more than
one atom, they are called polyatomic ions. Polyatomic ions have characteristic formulas, names, and charges that should be
memorized. For example, NO3− is the nitrate ion; it has one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms and an overall 1− charge. Table
7.3.1 lists the most common polyatomic ions.

Table 7.3.1 : Some Polyatomic Ions

Name Formula

ammonium ion NH4+

acetate ion C2H3O2− (also written CH3CO2−)

carbonate ion CO32−

chromate ion CrO42−

dichromate ion Cr2O72−

hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO3−

cyanide ion CN−

hydroxide ion OH−

nitrate ion NO3−

nitrite ion NO2−

permanganate ion MnO4−

phosphate ion PO43−

hydrogen phosphate ion HPO42−

dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO4−

sulfate ion SO42−

hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion) HSO4−

sulfite ion SO32−

The rule for constructing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions is the same as for formulas containing
monatomic (single-atom) ions: the positive and negative charges must balance. If more than one of a particular polyatomic ion is
needed to balance the charge, the entire formula for the polyatomic ion must be enclosed in parentheses, and the numerical
subscript is placed outside the parentheses. This is to show that the subscript applies to the entire polyatomic ion. An example is
Ba(NO3)2.

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

Writing a formula for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions also involves the same steps as for a binary ionic compound.
Write the symbol and charge of the cation followed by the symbol and charge of the anion.

7.3.3 [Link]
  Example 7.3.4: Calcium Nitrate
Write the formula for calcium nitrate.

Solution
Solution to Example 5.5.4
Crisscross Method Write the formula for calcium nitrate

1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the 2 + −
Ca NO
anion (nonmetal) second. 3

2. Transpose only the number of the positive charge to become the

subscript of the anion and the number only of the negative charge to
The 2+ charge on Ca becomes the subscript of NO3 and the 1- charge
become the subscript of the cation.
on NO3 becomes the subscript of Ca.

3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. Ca (NO )

1 3 2

4. Write the final formula. Leave out all subscripts that are 1. If there
Ca(NO )
is only 1 of the polyatomic ion, leave off parentheses. 3 2

 Example 7.3.5

Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of the potassium ion and the sulfate ion.

Solution
Solution to Example 5.5.5
Explanation Answer

Potassium ions have a charge of 1+, while sulfate ions have a charge
of 2−. We will need two potassium ions to balance the charge on the K SO
2 4

sulfate ion, so the proper chemical formula is K SO .

2 4

 Exercise 7.3.5

Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions.
a. the magnesium ion and the carbonate ion
b. the aluminum ion and the acetate ion

Answer a:
MgCO
3

Answer b:
Al(CH COO)
3 3

Recognizing Ionic Compounds

There are two ways to recognize ionic compounds.

Method 1
Compounds between metal and nonmetal elements are usually ionic. For example, CaBr contains a metallic element 2

(calcium, a group 2 [or 2A] metal) and a nonmetallic element (bromine, a group 17 [or 7A] nonmetal). Therefore, it is most
likely an ionic compound (in fact, it is ionic). In contrast, the compound NO contains two elements that are both nonmetals
2

(nitrogen, from group 15 [or 5A], and oxygen, from group 16 [or 6A]. It is not an ionic compound; it belongs to the category

7.3.4 [Link]
 of covalent compounds discussed elsewhere. Also note that this combination of nitrogen and oxygen has no electric charge
specified, so it is not the nitrite ion.

Method 2
Second, if you recognize the formula of a polyatomic ion in a compound, the compound is ionic. For example, if you see the
formula Ba(NO ) , you may recognize the “NO ” part as the nitrate ion, NO . (Remember that the convention for writing
3 2 3
−
3

formulas for ionic compounds is not to include the ionic charge.) This is a clue that the other part of the formula, Ba , is
actually the Ba ion, with the 2+ charge balancing the overall 2− charge from the two nitrate ions. Thus, this compound is
2 +

also ionic.

 Example 7.3.6

Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic.

a. Na O 2

b. PCl 3

c. NH Cl4

d. OF 2

Solution
Solution to Example 5.5.6
Explanation Answer

a. Sodium is a metal, and oxygen is a nonmetal. Therefore, Na O is

2
Na O , ionic
expected to be ionic via method 1. 2

b. Both phosphorus and chlorine are nonmetals. Therefore, PCl is 3

PCl , not ionic
not ionic via method 1 3

c. The NH in the formula represents the ammonium ion, NH , +

4 4
NH Cl , ionic
which indicates that this compound is ionic via method 2 4

d. Both oxygen and fluorine are nonmetals. Therefore, OF is not

2
OF , not ionic
ionic via method 1 2

 Exercise 7.3.6

Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic.

a. N O
2

b. FeCl 3

c. (NH ) 4 3
PO
4

d. SOCl 2

Answer a:
not ionic
Answer b:
ionic
Answer c:
ionic
Answer d:
not ionic

7.3.5 [Link]
Summary
Formulas for ionic compounds contain the symbols and number of each atom present in a compound in the lowest whole number
ratio.

7.3: Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.5: Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds by Henry Agnew, Marisa Alviar-Agnew is licensed CK-12. Original source:
[Link]

7.3.6 [Link]
7.3.1: Ionic Formula Writing
 Learning Objectives
Write formulas for binary ionic compounds
Relate the Lewis structure to the chemical formula for binary ionic compounds.
Commit bolded polyatomic formulas to memory.
Write formulas for ternary (polyatomic) ionic compounds.

Ionic Formulas
Chemical formulas for ionic compounds are called ionic formulas. A proper ionic formula has a cation and an anion in it; an ionic
compound is never formed between two cations only or two anions only. The key to writing proper ionic formulas is simple: the
total positive charge must balance the total negative charge. Because the charges on the ions are characteristic, sometimes we have
to have more than one of a cation or an anion to balance the overall positive and negative charges. It is conventional to use the
lowest ratio of ions that are needed to balance the charges.
Figure [Link] : Image taken from: [Link]/wikiped...my_Bonding.JPG
For example, consider the ionic compound between Na and Cl . Each ion has a single charge, one positive and one negative, so
+ −

we need only one ion of each to balance the overall charge. When writing the ionic formula, we follow two additional conventions:
1. write the formula for the cation first and the formula for the anion next, but
2. cross the charges down diagonally.
Thus, for the compound between Na and Cl , we have the ionic formula NaCl (Figure [Link]). The formula Na Cl also has
+ −

2 2

balanced charges, but the convention is to use the lowest ratio of ions, which would be one of each. (Remember from our
conventions for writing formulas that we do not write a 1 subscript if there is only one atom of a particular element present.) For
the ionic compound between magnesium cations (Mg ) and oxide anions (O , again we need only one of each ion to balance
2 + 2 −

the charges. By convention, the formula is MgO.

Figure [Link] : NaCl is the formular for Table Salt. The ionic compound NaCl is very common. Red rock salt from the Khewra Salt
Mine in Pakistan. (CC BY-SA 4.0; Hubertl).

 Rules for Writing Ionic Formulas

Recall ionic compound can be of the following combination: metal/nonmetal or ammonium/nonmetal

[Link] [Link]
 1. Recall the cation charge. Superscript this charge to the right of the cation (Ca2+). If metal is multicharged metal (like most
transitions and metals below metalloid staircase), then charge is indicated by roman numeral (Lead IV would translate to
Pb4+).
2. Recall the anion charge. Superscript this charge to the right of the anion (S2-). If polyatomic ion is present, then put poly in
parentheses and superscript charge to the right of this species.
3. Cross charges down diagonally and lose signs. Subscripts that are divisible by the same number must be reduced (ionics are
simple compounds). Do not change what is inside a poly. You may keep your parentheses around polyatomic ions.
* Binary compound names will end with ide (except cyanide and hydroxide). This means the anion will come from the
periodic table.
** Compounds that contain polyatomic ions will end in ate/ite or the two weird ides (cyanide/hydroxide). You will need to
memorize the polyatomic ion table below.**

 Example [Link]:

Write the formulas for the combinations of ions below:

a. Ca2+ and Cl−
b. Al3+ and F−
c. Li+ and O2−

Solution
a. The proper ionic formula is CaCl2.
b. The formula for this compound is AlF3.
c. After crossing charges diagonally down, the formula will be Li2O.

 Exercise [Link]

Write the proper ionic formulas for each of the two given ions.
a. Fe2+ and S2−
b. Fe3+ and S2−

Answer a
FeS , Subscripts must be reduced for ionic compounds. If this is not done, then the answer will be incorrect.
Answer b
Fe S
2 3
, These subscripts cannot be reduced because they are not divisible by the same number.

There also exists a group of ions that contain more than one atom. These are called polyatomic ions. Table [Link] lists the
formulas, charges, and names of some common polyatomic ions. Only one of them, the ammonium ion, is a cation; the rest are
anions. Most of them also contain oxygen atoms, so sometimes they are referred to as oxyanions. Some of them, such as nitrate
and nitrite, and sulfate and sulfite, have very similar formulas and names, so care must be taken to get the formulas and names
correct. Note that the -ite polyatomic ion has one less oxygen atom in its formula than the -ate ion but with the same ionic charge.
Table [Link] : Common Polyatomic Ions
Name Formula and Charge Name Formula and Charge

ammonium (NH4)+ nitrate (NO3)-

acetate (C2H3O2)- nitrite (NO2)-

bicarbonate (hydrogen
(HCO3)- carbonate (CO3)2-
carbonate)

hydroxide (OH)- sulfate (SO4)2-

[Link] [Link]
 Name Formula and Charge Name Formula and Charge

chlorate (ClO3)- sulfite (SO3)2-

hypochlorite (ClO)- phosphate (PO4)3-

cyanide (CN)− phosphite (PO3)3-

You will need to commit Table [Link] to memory for future tests and quizzes. There are more polyatomic ions than the ones listed
in the table above. You will be provided with a list of these additional polyatomic ions for use on tests/quizzes. In our class, this list
(List O' Polyatomics) will have the ones you are required to memorize in bold print.
Writing the formulas of ionic compounds has one important difference. If more than one polyatomic ion is needed to balance the
overall charge in the formula, enclose the formula of the polyatomic ion in parentheses and write the proper numerical subscript to
the right and outside the parentheses. Thus, the formula between calcium ions, Ca2+, and nitrate ions, NO3−, is properly written
Ca(NO3)2, not CaNO32 or CaN2O6. In our course, I encourage you to keep your polyatomics insides parentheses at all times.
Refer back to your rules for writing ionic formulas.

 Example [Link]:

After writing these formulas, watch your instructor teach more examples of this concept by clicking on this link.
a. ammonium sulfide
b. aluminum phosphate
c. iron II phosphite

Solution
a. Ammonium is a polyatomic ion (cation). These species will go first in the formula. Take ammonium (NH4)+ and combine it
with sulfide S2-(ide = periodic table, except for hydroxide/cyanide). While keeping the polyatomic formula within
parentheses, cross the ion charges down and lose signs. The resulting formula will be (NH4)2S.
b. Aluminum is Al3+ and phosphate is (PO4)3-. While keeping the polyatomic ion inside parentheses, cross charges down and
reduce subscripts outside. The final formula for the compound will be Al(PO4). For more advanced chemistry courses,
students are encouraged to drop the parentheses if a subscript is not present once charges have been crossed down. I am fine
with you always keeping parentheses.
c. Transition metal charges (except for silver and zinc) will always be noted by a Roman numeral. This charge is always
positive for the metal ion. Place this charge to the top right corner of the metal atom, Fe2+. Next, recall that phosphite is the
polyatomic, (PO3)3-. Cross the charges down diagonally and keep the polyatomic inside the parentheses. The final result
will be Fe3(PO3)2.

 Exercise [Link]

Write the formulas for the following ionic compounds:

a. ammonium bicarbonate
b. cobalt III nitrite
c. lead IV oxide
d. potassium hydroxide
e. silver phosphide
f. mercury I sulfite

Answer a
(NH )(HCO )
4
, there are no numbers outside the parentheses so you could write
3
NH HCO
4 3
for the answer. Do not
combine the hydrogen atoms in the formula.
Answer b
Co(NO )
2 3
, the parentheses must be kept for this answer.

[Link] [Link]
 Answer c
PbO
2
, after the charges have been crossed, subscripts must be reduced by the division of common factor
Answer d
K(OH) , you could drop ()
Answer e
Ag P
3
, phosphide is from the periodic table, not the polyatomic table. Know your endings!!
Answer f
Hg (SO )
2 3
, you could drop ()

Key Takeaways
Ions form when atoms lose or gain electrons.
Ionic compounds have positive ions and negative ions.
Ionic formulas balance the total positive and negative charges.

Contributors and Attributions

Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)
Isabella Quiros (Furman University)

This page titled 7.3.1: Ionic Formula Writing is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Elizabeth
Gordon.
4.6: Ionic Formula Writing by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
7.4: Chemical Formulas- How to Represent Compounds
 Learning Objectives
Determine the number of different atoms in a formula.
Define chemical formula, molecular formula, and empirical formula.

A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those elements. Water
is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1 ratio. The chemical formula for water is H O . Sulfuric acid is one of the most widely
2

produced chemicals in the United States and is composed of the elements hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The chemical formula for
sulfuric acid is H SO .
2 4

Certain groups of atoms are bonded together to form what is called a polyatomic ion that acts as a single unit. Polyatomic ions are
discussed in more detail in Section 5.5. Polyatomic ions are enclosed in parenthesis followed by a subscript if more than one of the
same ion exist in a chemical formula. The formula Ca (PO ) represents a compound with the following:
3 4 2

3 Ca atoms + 2 PO43- ions

To count the total number of atoms for formulas with polyatomic ions enclosed in parenthesis, use the subscript as a multiplier for
each atom or number of atoms.

Ca3(PO4)2
3 Ca + 2 x1 P + 2 x 4 O = 3 Ca atoms + 2 P atoms + 8 O atoms
Molecular Formula
A molecular formula is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a
molecule of the compound. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen as shown below:

Figure 7.4.1 : The molecular formula for ammonia. NH3. There is one atom of nitrogen and 3 atoms of hydrogen in a molecule of
ammonia.
Note from the example that there are some standard rules to follow in writing molecular formulas. The arrangements of the
elements depend on the particular structure, which is not of concern at this point. The number of atoms of each kind is indicated by
a subscript following the atom. If there is only one atom, no number is written. If there is more than one atom of a specific kind, the
number is written as a subscript following the atom. We would not write N H for ammonia, because that would mean that there are
3

three nitrogen atoms and one hydrogen atom in the molecule, which is incorrect.

Empirical Formula
An empirical formula is a formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio. Glucose is an
important simple sugar that cells use as their primary source of energy. Its molecular formula is C H O . Since each of the
6 12 6

subscripts is divisible by 6, the empirical formula for glucose is CH O. When chemists analyze an unknown compound, often the
2

first step is to determine its empirical formula.

molecular formula: C H O
6 12 6

empirical formula: CH O 2

There are a great many compounds whose molecular and empirical formulas are the same. If the molecular formula cannot be
simplified into a smaller whole-number ratio, as in the case of H O or P O , then the empirical formula is also the molecular
2 2 5

formula.

7.4.1 [Link]
Summary
A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those elements.
If only one atom of a specific type is present, no subscript is used.
For atoms that have two or more of a specific type of atom present, a subscript is written after the symbol for that atom.
Polyatomic ions in chemical formulas are enclosed in parentheses followed by a subscript if more than one of the same type of
polyatomic ion exist.
Molecular formulas do not indicate how the atoms are arranged in the molecule.
The empirical formula tells the lowest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound. The empirical formula does not show
the actual number of atoms.

7.4: Chemical Formulas- How to Represent Compounds is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
5.3: Chemical Formulas - How to Represent Compounds by Henry Agnew, Marisa Alviar-Agnew is licensed CK-12. Original source:
[Link]

7.4.2 [Link]
7.5: Covalent Bonds
 Learning Objectives
Define covalent bond.
Illustrate covalent bond formation with Lewis electron dot diagrams.

Ionic bonding typically occurs when it is easy for one atom to lose one or more electrons, and for another atom to gain one or more
electrons. However, some atoms will not give up or gain electrons easily. Yet they still participate in compound formation. How?
There is another mechanism for obtaining a complete valence shell: sharing electrons. When electrons are shared between two
atoms, they form a covalent bond.
Let us illustrate a covalent bond by using H atoms, with the understanding that H atoms need only two electrons to fill the 1s
subshell. Each H atom starts with a single electron in its valence shell:

H⋅ ⋅ H

The two H atoms can share their electrons:

H : H

We can use circles to show that each H atom has two electrons around the nucleus, completely filling each atom's valence shell:

Because each H atom has a filled valence shell, this bond is stable, and we have made a diatomic hydrogen molecule. (This
explains why hydrogen is one of the diatomic elements.) For simplicity's sake, it is not unusual to represent the covalent bond with
a dash, instead of with two dots:
H–H
Because two atoms are sharing one pair of electrons, this covalent bond is called a single bond. As another example, consider
fluorine. F atoms have seven electrons in their valence shell:

These two atoms can do the same thing that the H atoms did; they share their unpaired electrons to make a covalent bond.

Note that each F atom has a complete octet around it now:

We can also write this using a dash to represent the shared electron pair:

There are two different types of electrons in the fluorine diatomic molecule. The bonding electron pair makes the covalent bond.
Each F atom has three other pairs of electrons that do not participate in the bonding; they are called lone pair electrons. Each F
atom has one bonding pair and three lone pairs of electrons.

7.5.1 [Link]
Covalent bonds can be made between different elements as well. One example is HF. Each atom starts out with an odd number of
electrons in its valence shell:

The two atoms can share their unpaired electrons to make a covalent bond:

Note that the H atom has a full valence shell with two electrons, while the F atom has a complete octet of electrons.

 Example 7.5.1

Use Lewis electron dot diagrams to illustrate the covalent bond formation in HBr.
Solution
HBr is very similar to HF, except that it has Br instead of F. The atoms are as follows:

The two atoms can share their unpaired electron:

 Exercise 7.5.1

Use Lewis electron dot diagrams to illustrate the covalent bond formation in Cl2.
Answer

More than two atoms can participate in covalent bonding, although any given covalent bond will be between two atoms only.
Consider H and O atoms:

The H and O atoms can share an electron to form a covalent bond:

The H atom has a complete valence shell. However, the O atom has only seven electrons around it, which is not a complete octet.
This can be fixed by including a second H atom, whose single electron will make a second covalent bond with the O atom:

7.5.2 [Link]
(It does not matter what side the second H atom is positioned on.) Now the O atom has a complete octet around it, and each H atom
has two electrons, filling its valence shell. This is how a water molecule, H2O, is made.

 Example 7.5.2

Use a Lewis electron dot diagram to show the covalent bonding in NH3.
Solution
The N atom has the following Lewis electron dot diagram:

It has three unpaired electrons, each of which can make a covalent bond by sharing electrons with an H atom. The electron dot
diagram of NH3 is as follows:

 Exercise 7.5.2

Use a Lewis electron dot diagram to show the covalent bonding in PCl3.

Answer

There is a simple set of steps for determining the Lewis electron dot diagram of a simple molecule. First, you must identify the
central atom and the surrounding atoms. The central atom is the atom in the center of the molecule, while the surrounding atoms
are the atoms making bonds to the central atom. The central atom is usually written first in the formula of the compound (H2O is
the notable exception). After the central and surrounding atoms have been identified, follow these steps:
1. Count the total number of valence electrons. Add extra if the species has negative charges and remove some for every positive
charge on the species.
2. Write the central atom and surround it with the surrounding atoms.
3. Put a pair of electrons between the central atom and each surrounding atom.
4. Complete the octets around the surrounding atoms (except for H).
5. Put remaining electrons, if any, around the central atom.
6. Check that every atom has a full valence shell.
Let us try these steps to determine the electron dot diagram for BF4−. The B atom is the central atom, and the F atoms are the
surrounding atoms. There is a negative sign on the species, so we have an extra electron to consider.
1. Count the total number of electrons. B has 3, each F has 7, and there is one extra electron: 3 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = 32.
2. Write the central atom surrounded by surrounding atoms.

7.5.3 [Link]
3. Put a pair of electrons between the central atom and each surrounding atom. This uses up eight electrons, so we have 32 −
8 = 24 electrons left.

4. Complete the octets around the surrounding atoms (except for H). This uses up 24 more electrons, leaving 24 − 24 = 0
electrons left.

5. Put remaining electrons, if any, around the central atom. There are no additional electrons to add to the central atom.
6. Check. The B atom has eight electrons around it, as does each F atom. Each atom has a complete octet. This is a good Lewis
electron dot diagram for BF4−.
Sometimes, however, these steps do not work. If we were to follow these steps for the compound formaldehyde (CH2O), we would
get the following:

The H and O atoms have the proper number of electrons, but the C atom only has six electrons around it, not the eight electrons for
an octet. How do we fix this?
We fix this by recognizing that two atoms can share more than one pair of electrons. In the case of CH2O, the O and C atoms share
two pairs of electrons, with the following Lewis electron dot diagram as a result:

By circling the electrons around each atom, we can now see that the O and C atoms have octets, while each H atom has two
electrons:

Each valence shell is full, so this is an acceptable Lewis electron dot diagram. If we were to use lines to represent the bonds, we
would use two lines between the C and O atoms:

The bond between the C and O atoms is a double bond and represents two bonding pairs of electrons between the atoms. If the
rules for drawing Lewis electron dot diagrams do not work as written, a double bond may be required.

 Example 7.5.3: Carbon Dioxide

What is the proper Lewis electron dot diagram for CO2?

Solution
The central atom is a C atom, with O atoms as surrounding atoms. We have a total of 4 + 6 + 6 = 16 valence electrons.
Following the rules for Lewis electron dot diagrams for compounds gives us

7.5.4 [Link]
The O atoms have complete octets around them, but the C atom only has four electrons around it. The way to solve this dilemma is
to make a double bond between carbon and each O atom:

Each O atom still has eight electrons around it, but now the C atom also has a complete octet. This is an acceptable Lewis electron
dot diagram for CO2.

 Exercise 7.5.3

What is the proper Lewis electron dot diagram for carbonyl sulfide (COS)?
Answer

It is also possible to have a triple bond, in which there are three pairs of electrons between two atoms. Good examples of this are
elemental nitrogen (N2) and acetylene (C2H2):

Acetylene is an interesting example of a molecule with two central atoms, which are both C atoms. Polyatomic ions are bonded
together with covalent bonds. Because they are ions, however, they participate in ionic bonding with other ions. So both major
types of bonding can occur at the same time.

 Food and Drink Application: Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins are nutrients that our bodies need in small amounts but cannot synthesize; therefore, they must be obtained from the
diet. The word vitamin comes from "vital amine" because it was once thought that all these compounds had an amine group
(NH2) in it. This is not actually true, but the name stuck anyway.
All vitamins are covalently bonded molecules. Most of them are commonly named with a letter, although all of them also have
formal chemical names. Thus vitamin A is also called retinol, vitamin C is called ascorbic acid, and vitamin E is called
tocopherol. There is no single vitamin B; there is a group of substances called the B complex vitamins that are all water soluble
and participate in cell metabolism. If a diet is lacking in a vitamin, diseases such as scurvy or rickets develop. Luckily, all
vitamins are available as supplements, so any dietary deficiency in a vitamin can be easily corrected.
A mineral is any chemical element other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen that is needed by the body. Minerals that
the body needs in quantity include sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine. Essential
minerals that the body needs in tiny quantities (so-called trace elements) include manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc,
molybdenum, selenium, and iodine. Minerals are also obtained from the diet. Interestingly, most minerals are consumed in
ionic form, rather than as elements or from covalent molecules. Like vitamins, most minerals are available in pill form, so any
deficiency can be compensated for by taking supplements.

7.5.5 [Link]
 Figure 7.5.1 : Vitamin and Mineral supplements. Every entry down through pantothenic acid is a vitamin, and everything from
calcium and below is a mineral.

Summary
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons.
Lewis electron dot diagrams can be drawn to illustrate covalent bond formation.
Double bonds or triple bonds between atoms may be necessary to properly illustrate the bonding in some molecules.

7.5: Covalent Bonds is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
9.4: Covalent Bonds by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]
chemistry.

7.5.6 [Link]
7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
Learning Outcomes
Determine Lewis structure of a compound.

Ionic substances are completely held together by ionic bonds. The full charges of the ions (for example, Na and Cl in sodium
+ −

chloride) cause electrostatic interactions that result in a stable crystal lattice. Ionic compounds exist as extended, orderly
arrangements of ions. This is quite different from the structure of molecular substances, which take the form of collections of
individual molecules.
The electrons that form a covalent bond are not fully possessed by a single atom (as the electrons in an ion would be) but are shared
between the two atoms involved in the bond. The concept of the covalent bond was first proposed in 1916 by the American chemist
G. N. Lewis (1875 - 1946), who suggested that sharing electrons was one way that atoms could attain a complete octet of valence
electrons. This idea was expanded upon by Linus Pauling (1901 - 1994), who eventually won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954
for his work on chemical bonding.

Single Covalent Bonds

The simplest covalent bond is formed between two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom has a single electron, and each needs two
electrons for a full outer shell. The hydrogen molecule, H , consists of two hydrogen atoms sharing their two valence electrons.
2

Hydrogen can also form covalent bonds with other atoms. For example, hydrogen and chlorine each need one more electron to
achieve a noble gas configuration. By sharing valence electrons (each atom donates one), the stable HCl molecule is formed.
We will use a simplified representation of covalent bonds known as Lewis structures. These drawings are also know by various
other names, including Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures. Each dot in the structure represents one valence electron in
the compound. For example, H could be drawn as H : H . Each dot represents one valence electron, and the fact that they are
2

placed between the two atoms means that they are being shared bas a covalent bond. For larger molecules, it can become
cumbersome to draw out all of the valence electrons, so a bonding pair of electrons can also be drawn as a straight line. Thus, H 2

can also be represented as H−H .

If we wanted to show the Lewis structure of HCl, we would draw the following:

We can see that the covalent bond consists of two electrons between the H and the Cl. The H has a full outer shell of two electrons
and the chlorine has a full outer shell of eight electrons. Covalent bonds with other halogens can be written the same way.
Similar types of Lewis structures can be written for other molecules that form covalent bonds. Many compounds that contain O, N ,
C , S , and P are held together by covalent bonds. The number of covalent bonds an atom will form can generally be predicted by

the number of electrons an atom requires to fill its valence shell. For example, oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell and needs
two more to fill this shell, so it will only form two covalent bonds with other atoms. If we look at the water molecule (H O) (see
2

figure below), we see that the oxygen atom makes two total bonds (one with each hydrogen atom).

Figure [Link] : Electron sharing in a water molecule.

As you can see, there are two pairs of electrons not involved in covalent bonding. These unbonded pairs of electrons are known as
lone pairs and contribute to the overall shape of the molecule. Similarly, nitrogen needs three electrons to complete its valence
shell, so it tends to make three covalent bonds, with one lone pair of non-bonding electrons left over.

[Link] [Link]
Again, each of the lines stands for a pair of bonding electrons (a single bond), and the lone pair of nitrogen is drawn as two dots.

Double and Triple Bonds

So far we have considered only single bonds, formed by the sharing of one electron from each atom. Many molecules contain
double bonds, in which each atom shares two electrons, or triple bonds, in which each atom shares three electrons. These are
represented by drawing two or three lines between the bonded atoms. For example, a carbon-carbon double bond can be written as
C :: C or C=C. A carbon-carbon triple bond is shown as C ::: C or with three lines between the two carbon atoms, as seen in the

structure of an organic molecule called acetylene (shown in the figure below). Just as N wants to form 3 bonds, other elements tend
to form the same number of bonds in different compounds.

Figure [Link] : Acetylene molecule.

We will build Lewis structures that satisfy the octet rule to determine how atoms are attached to one another using the components
shown in the table below to create structures that follow the octet rule.
Table [Link] : Components to Build Lewis Structures

Supplemental Resources
Practice drawing Lewis Dot Structures of Covalent Compounds: [Link]

Contributors and Attributions

Allison Soult, Ph.D. (Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky)

This page titled 7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Allison
Soult.

[Link] [Link]
7.6: Naming Molecular Compounds
 Learning Objectives
Determine the name of a simple molecular compound from its chemical formula.

Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete molecules. Examples include such familiar
substances as water (H O) and carbon dioxide (CO ). These compounds are very different from ionic compounds like sodium
2 2

chloride (NaCl). Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms lose one or more of their electrons to nonmetal atoms. The
resulting cations and anions are electrostatically attracted to each other.
So what holds the atoms of a molecule together? Rather than forming ions, the atoms of a molecule share their electrons in such a
way that a bond forms between a pair of atoms. In a carbon dioxide molecule, there are two of these bonds, each occurring
between the carbon atom and one of the two oxygen atoms.

Figure 7.6.1 : Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a central carbon atom bonded to 2 oxygen atoms.
Larger molecules can have many, many bonds that serve to keep the molecule together. In a large sample of a given molecular
compound, all of the individual molecules are identical.

Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

Recall that a molecular formula shows the number of atoms of each element that a molecule contains. A molecule of water contains
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, so its formula is H O . A molecule of octane, which is a component of gasoline,
2

contains 8 atoms of carbon and 18 atoms of hydrogen. The molecular formula of octane is C H . 8 18

Figure 7.6.2 : Nitrogen dioxide ( NO )

2
is a reddish-brown toxic gas that is a prominent air pollutant produced by internal
combustion engines.
Naming binary (two-element) molecular compounds is similar to naming simple ionic compounds. The first element in the formula
is simply listed using the name of the element. The second element is named by taking the stem of the element name and adding
the suffix -ide. A system of numerical prefixes is used to specify the number of atoms in a molecule. Table 7.6.1 lists these
numerical prefixes.
Table 7.6.1 : Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
Number of Atoms in Compound Prefix on the Name of the Element

1 mono-*

2 di-

3 tri-

4 tetra-

5 penta-

6 hexa-

7.6.1 [Link]
 Number of Atoms in Compound Prefix on the Name of the Element

7 hepta-

8 octa-

9 nona-

10 deca-

*This prefix is not used for the first element’s name.

 Note
Generally, the less electronegative element is written first in the formula, though there are a few exceptions. Carbon is
always first in a formula and hydrogen is after nitrogen in a formula such as NH . The order of common nonmetals in
3

binary compound formulas is C, P, N , H , S, I , Br , Cl, O, F .

The a or o at the end of a prefix is usually dropped from the name when the name of the element begins with a vowel. As
an example, four oxygen atoms, is tetroxide instead of tetraoxide.
The prefix is "mono" is not added to the first element’s name if there is only one atom of the first element in a molecule.

Some examples of molecular compounds are listed in Table 7.6.2.

Table 7.6.2
Formula Name

NO nitrogen monoxide

N O
2
dinitrogen monoxide

S Cl
2 2
disulfur dichloride

Cl O
2 7
dichlorine heptoxide

Notice that the mono- prefix is not used with the nitrogen in the first compound, but is used with the oxygen in both of the first two
examples. The S Cl emphasizes that the formulas for molecular compounds are not reduced to their lowest ratios. The o of the
2 2

mono- and the a of hepta- are dropped from the name when paired with oxide.

 Exercise 7.6.1

Write the name for each compound.

a. CF4
b. SeCl2
c. SO3

Answer a:
carbon tetrafluoride

7.6.2 [Link]
 Answer b:
selenium dichloride
Answer c:
sulfur trioxide

Simple molecular compounds with common names

For some simple covalent compounds, we use common names rather than systematic names. We have already encountered these
compounds, but we list them here explicitly:
H2O: water
NH3: ammonia
CH4: methane
H2O2: hydrogen peroxide
Methane is the simplest organic compound. Organic compounds are compounds with carbon atoms and are named by a separate
nomenclature system.

Some Compounds Have Both Covalent and Ionic Bonds

If you recall the introduction of polyatomic ions, you will remember that the bonds that hold the polyatomic ions together are
covalent bonds. Once the polyatomic ion is constructed with covalent bonds, it reacts with other substances as an ion. The bond
between a polyatomic ion and another ion will be ionic. An example of this type of situation is in the compound sodium nitrate.
Sodium nitrate is composed of a sodium ion and a nitrate ion. The nitrate ion is held together by covalent bonds and the nitrate ion
is attached to the sodium ion by an ionic bond.

Summary
A molecular compound is usually composed of two or more nonmetal elements.
Molecular compounds are named with the first element first and then the second element by using the stem of the element name
plus the suffix -ide. Numerical prefixes are used to specify the number of atoms in a molecule.

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7.6.3 [Link]
7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
 Learning Objectives
Define molecule.
Name simple molecules based on their formulas.
Determine a formula of a molecule based on its name.

There are many substances that exist as two or more atoms connected together so strongly that they behave as a single particle.
These multiatom combinations are called molecules. A molecule is the smallest part of a substance that has the physical and
chemical properties of that substance. In some respects, a molecule is similar to an atom. A molecule, however, is composed of
more than one atom.
Table 7.7.1 : Elements That Exist as Diatomic Molecules
Hydrogen (H )
2
Oxygen (O )
2
Nitrogen (N ) 2
Fluorine (F )
2

Chlorine (Cl )
2
Bromine (Br )
2
Iodine (I )
2

Some elements exist naturally as molecules. For example, hydrogen and oxygen exist as two-atom molecules. Other elements also
exist naturally as diatomic molecules (Table 7.7.1). As with any molecule, these elements are labeled with a molecular formula, a
formal listing of what and how many atoms are in a molecule. (Sometimes only the word formula is used, and its meaning is
inferred from the context.) For example, the molecular formula for elemental hydrogen is H2, with H being the symbol for
hydrogen and the subscript 2 implying that there are two atoms of this element in the molecule. Other diatomic elements have
similar formulas: O2, N2, and so forth. Other elements exist as molecules—for example, sulfur normally exists as an eight-atom
molecule, S8, while phosphorus exists as a four-atom molecule, P4 (Figure 7.7.1). Otherwise, we will assume that elements exist
as individual atoms, rather than molecules. It is assumed that there is only one atom in a formula if there is no numerical subscript
on the right side of an element's symbol.

Figure 7.7.1 : Molecular Art of S8 and P4 Molecules. If each green ball represents a sulfur atom, then the diagram on the left
represents an S8 molecule. The molecule on the right shows that one form of elemental phosphorus exists, as a four-atom
molecule.
Figure 7.7.1 shows two examples of how we will be representing molecules in this text. An atom is represented by a small ball or
sphere, which generally indicates where the nucleus is in the molecule. A cylindrical line connecting the balls represents the
connection between the atoms that make this collection of atoms a molecule. This connection is called a chemical bond and is the
connection between two atoms in a molecule.
Many compounds exist as molecules. In particular, when nonmetals connect with other nonmetals, the compounds typically exist as
molecules. (Compounds between a metal and a nonmetal are different and will be considered in Section 3.4.) In some cases, there
are many different kinds of molecules that can be formed between any given elements, with all the different molecules having
different chemical and physical properties. How do we tell them apart?
The answer is a very specific system of naming compounds, called chemical nomenclature. By following the rules of
nomenclature, each and every compound has its own unique name, and each name refers to one and only one compound. Here, we
will start with relatively simple molecules that have only two elements in them, the so-called binary compounds:
1. Identify the elements in the molecule from its formula.

7.7.1 [Link]
 2. Begin the name with the element name of the first element. If there is more than one atom of this element in the molecular
formula, use a numerical prefix to indicate the number of atoms, as listed in Table 7.7.2. Do not use the prefix mono- if there is
only one atom of the first element.
3. Name the second element by using three pieces:
a numerical prefix indicating the number of atoms of the second element, plus
the stem of the element name (e.g., ox for oxygen, chlor for chlorine, etc.), plus
the suffix -ide
4. Combine the two words, leaving a space between them.
Table 7.7.2 : Numerical Prefixes Used in Naming Molecular Compounds
The Number of Atoms of an Element Prefix

1 mono-

2 di-

3 tri-

4 tetra-

5 penta-

6 hexa-

7 hepta-

8 octa-

9 nona-

10 deca-

Let us see how these steps work for a molecule whose molecular formula is SO2, which has one sulfur atom and two oxygen atoms
—this completes step 1. According to step 2, we start with the name of the first element—sulfur. Remember, we do not use the
mono- prefix for the first element. Now for step 3, we combine the numerical prefix di- (see Table 7.7.2) with the stem ox- and the
suffix -ide, to make dioxide. Bringing these two words together, we have the unique name for this compound—sulfur dioxide.
Why all this trouble? There is another common compound consisting of sulfur and oxygen whose molecular formula is SO3, so the
compounds need to be distinguished. SO3 has three oxygen atoms in it, so it is a different compound with different chemical and
physical properties. The system of chemical nomenclature is designed to give this compound its own unique name. Its name, if you
go through all the steps, is sulfur trioxide. Different compounds have different names.
In some cases, when a prefix ends in a or o; and the element name begins with o, we drop the a or o on the prefix. So we see
monoxide or pentoxide, rather than monooxide or pentaoxide in molecule names.

 Example 7.7.1

Name each molecule.

a. PF3
b. CO
c. Se2Br2

Solution
a. A molecule with a single phosphorus atom and three fluorine atoms is called phosphorus trifluoride.
b. A compound with one carbon atom and one oxygen atom is properly called carbon monoxide, not carbon monooxide.
c. There are two atoms of each element, selenium and bromine. According to the rules, the proper name here is diselenium
dibromide.

7.7.2 [Link]
  Exercise 7.7.1

Name each molecule.

a. SF4
b. P2S5

Answer a
sulfur tetrafluoride

Answer b
diphosphorus pentasulfide

One great thing about this system is that it works both ways. From the name of a compound, you should be able to determine its
molecular formula. Simply list the element symbols, with a numerical subscript if there is more than one atom of that element, in
the order of the name (we do not use the subscript 1 if there is only one atom of the element present; 1 is implied). From the name
nitrogen trichloride, you should be able to get NCl3 as the formula for this molecule. From the name diphosphorus pentoxide, you
should be able to get the formula P2O5 (note the numerical prefix on the first element, indicating there is more than one atom of
phosphorus in the formula).

 Example 7.7.2

Give the formula for each molecule.

a. carbon tetrachloride
b. silicon dioxide
c. trisilicon tetranitride

Solution
a. The name carbon tetrachloride implies one carbon atom and four chlorine atoms, so the formula is CCl4.
b. The name silicon dioxide implies one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms, so the formula is SiO2.
c. We have a name that has numerical prefixes on both elements. Tri- means three, and tetra- means four, so the formula of
this compound is Si3N4.

 Exercise 7.7.2

Give the formula for each molecule.

a. disulfur difluoride
b. iodine pentabromide

Answer a
S F
2 2

Answer b
IBr
5

Some simple molecules have common names that we use as part of the formal system of chemical nomenclature. For example,
H2O is given the name water, not dihydrogen monoxide. NH3 is called ammonia, while CH4 is called methane. We will
occasionally see other molecules that have common names; we will point them out as they occur.

7.7.3 [Link]
Key Takeaways
Molecules are groups of atoms that behave as a single unit.
Some elements exist as molecules: hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and so forth.
There are rules that can express a unique name for any given molecule, and a unique formula for any given name.

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7.7.4 [Link]
7.8: Nomenclature Summary

Contributions & Attributions

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[Link]

7.8.1 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

8: Organic Chemistry
Photosynthesis involves a whole series of reactions with many chemicals, enzymes, breaking and making chemical bonds, the
transfer of electrons and H+ ions, and other chemical processes. The elucidation of the actual steps of photosynthesis-a process still
unduplicated artificially-is a major achievement of modern chemistry.
All life on Earth is ultimately based on photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants absorb CO2 and H2O from
their environment and, in the presence of sunlight, convert those substances into a simple sugar (glucose) and ultimately starches
and other building blocks of life. The net photosynthesis chemical reaction is as follows:
light

6C O2 + 6 H2 O → C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2

Oxygen is also a product of photosynthesis. Most forms of animal life (including people) depend on oxygen to breathe, which
makes plants indispensable. Virtually all food sources come from plants, eaten either directly (as fruits, vegetables, or grains) or
indirectly (as feedstock for meat animals such as cattle, poultry, pigs, sheep, goats, and the like). Plants are absolutely necessary for
life to exist.

Figure 8.1: Photosynthesis. In the presence of the sun, plants perform photosynthesis, the chemical reactions that convert CO2 and
H2O to glucose. The reaction also produces O2, which is necessary for animal life. Virtually all life on Earth depends on
photosynthesis.
The net reaction for photosynthesis is misleadingly simple. A series of reactions, called light-dependent reactions, start by the
absorption of light by pigments (not just chlorophyll, as commonly misunderstood) in plant cells. This is followed by a series of
light-independent reactions, so named not because they happen in the dark, but because they do not directly involve light. However,
light-independent reactions involve the products of reactions stimulated by light, so they ultimately depend on light. The whole
series of reactions involves many chemicals, enzymes, breaking and making chemical bonds, the transfer of electrons and H+ ions,
and other chemical processes. The elucidation of the actual steps of photosynthesis—a process still unduplicated artificially—is a
major achievement of modern chemistry.
8.1: Organic Chemistry
8.2: Structures and Names of Alkanes
8.3: Branched-Chain Alkanes
8.4: Condensed Structural and Line-Angle Formulas
8.4.1: IUPAC Nomenclature
8.5: Prelude to Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
8.5.1: Alkenes- Structures and Names
8.5.2: Alkynes
8.5.3: Aromatic Compounds- Benzene
8.6: Functional Groups

1
 8.7: Narcotics

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2
8.1: Organic Chemistry
 Learning Objectives
To recognize the composition and properties typical of organic and inorganic compounds.

Scientists of the 18th and early 19th centuries studied compounds obtained from plants and animals and labeled them organic
because they were isolated from “organized” (living) systems. Compounds isolated from nonliving systems, such as rocks and ores,
the atmosphere, and the oceans, were labeled inorganic. For many years, scientists thought organic compounds could be made by
only living organisms because they possessed a vital force found only in living systems. The vital force theory began to decline in
1828, when the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea from inorganic starting materials. He reacted silver cyanate (
AgOCN) and ammonium chloride (NH Cl), expecting to get ammonium cyanate (NH OCN). What he expected is described by
4 4

the following equation.

AgOCN + NH Cl → AgCl + NH OCN (8.1.1)
4 4

Instead, he found the product to be urea (NH2CONH2), a well-known organic material readily isolated from urine. This result led to
a series of experiments in which a wide variety of organic compounds were made from inorganic starting materials. The vital force
theory gradually went away as chemists learned that they could make many organic compounds in the laboratory.
Today organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of the carbon compounds, and inorganic chemistry is the study of the
chemistry of all other elements. It may seem strange that we divide chemistry into two branches—one that considers compounds of
only one element and one that covers the 100-plus remaining elements. However, this division seems more reasonable when we
consider that of tens of millions of compounds that have been characterized, the overwhelming majority are carbon compounds.

The word organic has different meanings. Organic fertilizer, such as cow manure, is organic in the original sense; it is derived
from living organisms. Organic foods generally are foods grown without synthetic pesticides or fertilizers. Organic chemistry
is the chemistry of compounds of carbon.

Carbon is unique among the other elements in that its atoms can form stable covalent bonds with each other and with atoms of
other elements in a multitude of variations. The resulting molecules can contain from one to millions of carbon atoms. We
previously surveyed organic chemistry by dividing its compounds into families based on functional groups. We begin with the
simplest members of a family and then move on to molecules that are organic in the original sense—that is, they are made by and
found in living organisms. These complex molecules (all containing carbon) determine the forms and functions of living systems
and are the subject of biochemistry.
Organic compounds, like inorganic compounds, obey all the natural laws. Often there is no clear distinction in the chemical or
physical properties among organic and inorganic molecules. Nevertheless, it is useful to compare typical members of each class, as
in Table 8.1.1.
Table 8.1.1 : General Contrasting Properties and Examples of Organic and Inorganic Compounds
Organic Hexane Inorganic NaCl

low melting points −95°C high melting points 801°C

low boiling points 69°C high boiling points 1,413°C

low solubility in water; greater solubility in water;

insoluble in water; soluble soluble in water; insoluble
high solubility in nonpolar low solubility in nonpolar
in gasoline in gasoline
solvents solvents

flammable highly flammable nonflammable nonflammable

aqueous solutions do not aqueous solutions conduct conductive in aqueous

nonconductive
conduct electricity electricity solution

exhibit covalent bonding covalent bonds exhibit ionic bonding ionic bonds

8.1.1 [Link]
Keep in mind, however, that there are exceptions to every category in this table. To further illustrate typical differences among
organic and inorganic compounds, Table 8.1.1 also lists properties of the inorganic compound sodium chloride (common table salt,
NaCl) and the organic compound hexane (C6H14), a solvent that is used to extract soybean oil from soybeans (among other uses).
Many compounds can be classified as organic or inorganic by the presence or absence of certain typical properties, as illustrated in
Table 8.1.1.

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8.1.2 [Link]
8.2: Structures and Names of Alkanes
 Learning Objectives
To identify and name simple (straight-chain) alkanes given formulas and write formulas for straight-chain alkanes given
their names.

We begin our study of organic chemistry with the hydrocarbons, the simplest organic compounds, which are composed of carbon
and hydrogen atoms only. As we noted, there are several different kinds of hydrocarbons. They are distinguished by the types of
bonding between carbon atoms and the properties that result from that bonding. Hydrocarbons with only carbon-to-carbon single
bonds (C–C) and existing as a continuous chain of carbon atoms also bonded to hydrogen atoms are called alkanes (or saturated
hydrocarbons). Saturated, in this case, means that each carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms (hydrogen or carbon)—the most
possible; there are no double or triple bonds in the molecules.

The word saturated has the same meaning for hydrocarbons as it does for the dietary fats and oils: the molecule has no carbon-
to-carbon double bonds (C=C).

We previously introduced the three simplest alkanes—methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8) and they are shown
again in Figure 8.2.1.

Figure 8.2.1 : The Three Simplest Alkanes

The flat representations shown do not accurately portray bond angles or molecular geometry. Methane has a tetrahedral shape that
chemists often portray with wedges indicating bonds coming out toward you and dashed lines indicating bonds that go back away
from you. An ordinary solid line indicates a bond in the plane of the page. Recall that the VSEPR theory correctly predicts a
tetrahedral shape for the methane molecule (Figure 8.2.2).

Figure 8.2.2 : The Tetrahedral Methane Molecule

Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8) are the beginning of a series of compounds in which any two members in a
sequence differ by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms—namely, a CH2 unit. The first 10 members of this series are given in
Table 8.2.1.
Table 8.2.1 : The First 10 Straight-Chain Alkanes
Name Molecular Formula (CnH2n + 2) Condensed Structural Formula Number of Possible Isomers

methane CH4 CH4 —

ethane C2H6 CH3CH3 —

propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 —

butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3 2

pentane C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 3

8.2.1 [Link]
 Name Molecular Formula (CnH2n + 2) Condensed Structural Formula Number of Possible Isomers

hexane C6H14 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 5

heptane C7H16 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 9

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH
octane C8H18 18
3

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH
nonane C9H20 35
2CH3

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH
decane C10H22 75
2CH2CH3

Consider the series in Figure 8.2.3. The sequence starts with C3H8, and a CH2 unit is added in each step moving up the series. Any
family of compounds in which adjacent members differ from each other by a definite factor (here a CH2 group) is called a
homologous series. The members of such a series, called homologs, have properties that vary in a regular and predictable manner.
The principle of homology gives organization to organic chemistry in much the same way that the periodic table gives organization
to inorganic chemistry. Instead of a bewildering array of individual carbon compounds, we can study a few members of a
homologous series and from them deduce some of the properties of other compounds in the series.

Figure 8.2.3 : Members of a Homologous Series. Each succeeding formula incorporates one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms
more than the previous formula.
The principle of homology allows us to write a general formula for alkanes: CnH2n + 2. Using this formula, we can write a
molecular formula for any alkane with a given number of carbon atoms. For example, an alkane with eight carbon atoms has the
molecular formula C8H(2 × 8) + 2 = C8H18.

Key Takeaway
Simple alkanes exist as a homologous series, in which adjacent members differ by a CH2 unit.

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8.2.2 [Link]
8.3: Branched-Chain Alkanes
 Learning Objectives
To learn how alkane molecules can have branched chains and recognize compounds that are isomers.

We can write the structure of butane (C4H10) by stringing four carbon atoms in a row,
–C–C–C–C–
and then adding enough hydrogen atoms to give each carbon atom four bonds:

The compound butane has this structure, but there is another way to put 4 carbon atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms together. Place 3 of
the carbon atoms in a row and then branch the fourth one off the middle carbon atom:

Now we add enough hydrogen atoms to give each carbon four bonds.

Figure 8.3.1 ).

Figure 8.3.1 : Butane and Isobutane. The ball-and-stick models of these two compounds show them to be isomers; both have the
molecular formula C4H10.
Notice that C4H10 is depicted with a bent chain in Figure 8.3.1. The four-carbon chain may be bent in various ways because the
groups can rotate freely about the C–C bonds. However, this rotation does not change the identity of the compound. It is important
to realize that bending a chain does not change the identity of the compound; all of the following represent the same compound,
butane:

8.3.1 [Link]
The structure of isobutane shows a continuous chain of three carbon atoms only, with the fourth attached as a branch off the middle
carbon atom of the continuous chain, which is different from the structures of butane (compare the two structures in Figure 8.3.1.
Unlike C4H10, the compounds methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8) do not exist in isomeric forms because there is
only one way to arrange the atoms in each formula so that each carbon atom has four bonds.
Next beyond C4H10 in the homologous series is pentane. Each compound has the same molecular formula: C5H12. (Table 12.1.1
from the previous section has a column identifying the number of possible isomers for the first 10 straight-chain alkanes.) The
compound at the far left is pentane because it has all five carbon atoms in a continuous chain. The compound in the middle is
isopentane; like isobutane, it has a one CH3 branch off the second carbon atom of the continuous chain. The compound at the far
right, discovered after the other two, was named neopentane (from the Greek neos, meaning “new”). Although all three have the
same molecular formula, they have different properties, including boiling points: pentane, 36.1°C; isopentane, 27.7°C; and
neopentane, 9.5°C.

A continuous (unbranched) chain of carbon atoms is often called a straight chain even though the tetrahedral arrangement
about each carbon gives it a zigzag shape. Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes called normal alkanes, and their names are
given the prefix n-. For example, butane is called n-butane. We will not use that prefix here because it is not a part of the
system established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

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8.3.2 [Link]
8.4: Condensed Structural and Line-Angle Formulas
 Learning Objectives
Write condensed structural formulas for alkanes given complete structural formulas.
Draw line-angle formulas given structural formulas.

We use several kinds of formulas to describe organic compounds. A molecular formula shows only the kinds and numbers of atoms
in a molecule. For example, the molecular formula C4H10 tells us there are 4 carbon atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms in a molecule,
but it doesn’t distinguish between butane and isobutane. A structural formula shows all the carbon and hydrogen atoms and the
bonds attaching them. Thus, structural formulas identify the specific isomers by showing the order of attachment of the various
atoms.
Unfortunately, structural formulas are difficult to type/write and take up a lot of space. Chemists often use condensed structural
formulas to alleviate these problems. The condensed formulas show hydrogen atoms right next to the carbon atoms to which they
are attached, as illustrated for butane:

The ultimate condensed formula is a line-angle formula, in which carbon atoms are implied at the corners and ends of lines, and
each carbon atom is understood to be attached to enough hydrogen atoms to give each carbon atom four bonds. For example, we
can represent pentane (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3) and isopentane [(CH3)2CHCH2CH3] as follows:

Parentheses in condensed structural formulas indicate that the enclosed grouping of atoms is attached to the adjacent carbon
atom.

Key Takeaways
Condensed chemical formulas show the hydrogen atoms (or other atoms or groups) right next to the carbon atoms to which they
are attached.
Line-angle formulas imply a carbon atom at the corners and ends of lines. Each carbon atom is understood to be attached to
enough hydrogen atoms to give each carbon atom four bonds.

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8.4.1 [Link]
8.4.1: IUPAC Nomenclature
 Learning Objectives
To name alkanes by the IUPAC system and write formulas for alkanes given IUPAC names

As noted in previously, the number of isomers increases rapidly as the number of carbon atoms increases. There are 3 pentanes, 5
hexanes, 9 heptanes, and 18 octanes. It would be difficult to assign unique individual names that we could remember. A systematic
way of naming hydrocarbons and other organic compounds has been devised by the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC). These rules, used worldwide, are known as the IUPAC System of Nomenclature. (Some of the names we used
earlier, such as isobutane, isopentane, and neopentane, do not follow these rules and are called common names.) A stem name
(Table [Link]) indicates the number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain (LCC). Atoms or groups attached to this
carbon chain, called substituents, are then named, with their positions indicated by numbers. For now, we will consider only those
substituents called alkyl groups.
Table [Link] : Stems That Indicate the Number of Carbon Atoms in Organic Molecules
Stem Number

meth- 1

eth- 2

prop- 3

but- 4

pent- 5

hex- 6

hept- 7

oct- 8

non- 9

dec- 10

An alkyl group is a group of atoms that results when one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane. The group is named by
replacing the -ane suffix of the parent hydrocarbon with -yl. For example, the -CH3 group derived from methane (CH4) results from
subtracting one hydrogen atom and is called a methyl group. The alkyl groups we will use most frequently are listed in Table
[Link]. Alkyl groups are not independent molecules; they are parts of molecules that we consider as a unit to name compounds

systematically.
Table [Link] : Common Alkyl Groups
Condensed Structural
Parent Alkane Alkyl Group
Formula

methane methyl CH3–

ethane ethyl CH3CH2–

*There are four butyl groups, two derived from butane and two from isobutane. We will introduce the other three where appropriate.

[Link] [Link]
 Condensed Structural
Parent Alkane Alkyl Group
Formula

propane propyl CH3CH2CH2–

isopropyl (CH3)2CH–

butane butyl* CH3CH2CH2CH2–

*There are four butyl groups, two derived from butane and two from isobutane. We will introduce the other three where appropriate.

Simplified IUPAC rules for naming alkanes are as follows (demonstrated in Example [Link]).
1. Name alkanes according to the LCC (longest continuous chain) of carbon atoms in the molecule (rather than the total
number of carbon atoms). This LCC, considered the parent chain, determines the base name, to which we add the suffix -ane to
indicate that the molecule is an alkane.
2. If the hydrocarbon is branched, number the carbon atoms of the LCC. Numbers are assigned in the direction that gives the
lowest numbers to the carbon atoms with attached substituents. Hyphens are used to separate numbers from the names of
substituents; commas separate numbers from each other. (The LCC need not be written in a straight line; for example, the LCC in
the following has five carbon atoms.)

3. Place the names of the substituent groups in alphabetical order before the name of the parent compound. If the same alkyl
group appears more than once, the numbers of all the carbon atoms to which it is attached are expressed. If the same group appears
more than once on the same carbon atom, the number of that carbon atom is repeated as many times as the group appears.
Moreover, the number of identical groups is indicated by the Greek prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on. These prefixes are not
considered in determining the alphabetical order of the substituents. For example, ethyl is listed before dimethyl; the di- is simply
ignored. The last alkyl group named is prefixed to the name of the parent alkane to form one word.
When these rules are followed, every unique compound receives its own exclusive name. The rules enable us to not only name a
compound from a given structure but also draw a structure from a given name. The best way to learn how to use the IUPAC system
is to put it to work, not just memorize the rules. It’s easier than it looks.

 Example [Link]

Name each compound.

1.

[Link] [Link]
Solution
1. The LCC has five carbon atoms, and so the parent compound is pentane (rule 1). There is a methyl group (rule 2) attached to
the second carbon atom of the pentane chain. The name is therefore 2-methylpentane.
2. The LCC has six carbon atoms, so the parent compound is hexane (rule 1). Methyl groups (rule 2) are attached to the second
and fifth carbon atoms. The name is 2,5-dimethylhexane.
3. The LCC has eight carbon atoms, so the parent compound is octane (rule 1). There are methyl and ethyl groups (rule 2), both
attached to the fourth carbon atom (counting from the right gives this carbon atom a lower number; rule 3). The correct name is
thus 4-ethyl-4-methyloctane.

 Exercise [Link]

Name each compound.

1.

 Example [Link]

Draw the structure for each compound.

a. 2,3-dimethylbutane
b. 4-ethyl-2-methylheptane

Solution
In drawing structures, always start with the parent chain.
a. The parent chain is butane, indicating four carbon atoms in the LCC.

Then add the groups at their proper positions. You can number the parent chain from either direction as long as you are consistent;
just don’t change directions before the structure is done. The name indicates two methyl (CH3) groups, one on the second carbon
atom and one on the third.

[Link] [Link]
Finally, fill in all the hydrogen atoms, keeping in mind that each carbon atom must have four bonds.

The parent chain is heptane in this case, indicating seven carbon atoms in the LCC. –C–C–C–C–C–C–C–
Adding the groups at their proper positions gives

Filling in all the hydrogen atoms gives the following condensed structural formulas:

Note that the bonds (dashes) can be shown or not; sometimes they are needed for spacing.

 Exercise [Link]

Draw the structure for each compound.

a. 4-ethyloctane
b. 3-ethyl-2-methylpentane
c. 3,3,5-trimethylheptane

Key Takeaway
Alkanes have both common names and systematic names, specified by IUPAC.

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[Link]

[Link] [Link]
8.5: Prelude to Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Our modern society is based to a large degree on the chemicals we discuss in this chapter. Most are made from petroleum. Alkanes
—saturated hydrocarbons—have relatively few important chemical properties other than that they undergo combustion and react
with halogens. Unsaturated hydrocarbons—hydrocarbons with double or triple bonds—on the other hand, are quite reactive. In
fact, they serve as building blocks for many familiar plastics—polyethylene, vinyl plastics, acrylics—and other important synthetic
materials (e.g., alcohols, antifreeze, and detergents). Aromatic hydrocarbons have formulas that can be drawn as cyclic alkenes,
making them appear unsaturated, but their structure and properties are generally quite different, so they are not considered to be
alkenes. Aromatic compounds serve as the basis for many drugs, antiseptics, explosives, solvents, and plastics (e.g., polyesters and
polystyrene).
The two simplest unsaturated compounds—ethylene (ethene) and acetylene (ethyne)—were once used as anesthetics and were
introduced to the medical field in 1924. However, it was discovered that acetylene forms explosive mixtures with air, so its medical
use was abandoned in 1925. Ethylene was thought to be safer, but it too was implicated in numerous lethal fires and explosions
during anesthesia. Even so, it remained an important anesthetic into the 1960s, when it was replaced by nonflammable anesthetics
such as halothane (CHBrClCF ). 3

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[Link]

8.5.1 [Link]
8.5.1: Alkenes- Structures and Names
 Learning Objectives
To name alkenes given formulas and write formulas for alkenes given names.

As noted before, alkenes are hydrocarbons with carbon-to-carbon double bonds (R2C=CR2) and alkynes are hydrocarbons with
carbon-to-carbon triple bonds (R–C≡C–R). Collectively, they are called unsaturated hydrocarbons because they have fewer
hydrogen atoms than does an alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, as is indicated in the following general formulas:

Some representative alkenes—their names, structures, and physical properties—are given in Table [Link].
Table [Link] : Physical Properties of Some Selected Alkenes
Condensed Structural
IUPAC Name Molecular Formula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)
Formula

ethene C2H4 CH2=CH2 –169 –104

propene C3H6 CH2=CHCH3 –185 –47

1-butene C4H8 CH2=CHCH2CH3 –185 –6

1-pentene C5H10 CH2=CH(CH2)2CH3 –138 30

1-hexene C6H12 CH2=CH(CH2)3CH3 –140 63

1-heptene C7H14 CH2=CH(CH2)4CH3 –119 94

1-octene C8H16 CH2=CH(CH2)5CH3 –102 121

We used only condensed structural formulas in Table [Link]. Thus, CH2=CH2 stands for

The double bond is shared by the two carbons and does not involve the hydrogen atoms, although the condensed formula does not
make this point obvious. Note that the molecular formula for ethene is C2H4, whereas that for ethane is C2H6.
The first two alkenes in Table [Link], ethene and propene, are most often called by their common names—ethylene and propylene,
respectively (Figure [Link]). Ethylene is a major commercial chemical. The US chemical industry produces about 25 billion
kilograms of ethylene annually, more than any other synthetic organic chemical. More than half of this ethylene goes into the
manufacture of polyethylene, one of the most familiar plastics. Propylene is also an important industrial chemical. It is converted to
plastics, isopropyl alcohol, and a variety of other products.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : Ethene and Propene. The ball-and-spring models of ethene/ethylene (a) and propene/propylene (b) show their
respective shapes, especially bond angles.

Although there is only one alkene with the formula C2H4 (ethene) and only one with the formula C3H6 (propene), there are
several alkenes with the formula C4H8.

Here are some basic rules for naming alkenes from the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC):
1. The longest chain of carbon atoms containing the double bond is considered the parent chain. It is named using the same stem
as the alkane having the same number of carbon atoms but ends in -ene to identify it as an alkene. Thus the compound
CH2=CHCH3 is propene.
2. If there are four or more carbon atoms in a chain, we must indicate the position of the double bond. The carbons atoms are
numbered so that the first of the two that are doubly bonded is given the lower of the two possible [Link] compound
CH3CH=CHCH2CH3, for example, has the double bond between the second and third carbon atoms. Its name is 2-pentene (not
3-pentene).
3. Substituent groups are named as with alkanes, and their position is indicated by a number. Thus, the structure below is 5-
methyl-2-hexene. Note that the numbering of the parent chain is always done in such a way as to give the double bond the
lowest number, even if that causes a substituent to have a higher number. The double bond always has priority in numbering.

 Example [Link]

Name each compound.

a.

b.
Solution
a. The longest chain containing the double bond has five carbon atoms, so the compound is a pentene (rule 1). To give the first
carbon atom of the double bond the lowest number (rule 2), we number from the left, so the compound is a 2-pentene. There is
a methyl group on the fourth carbon atom (rule 3), so the compound’s name is 4-methyl-2-pentene.
b. The longest chain containing the double bond has five carbon atoms, so the parent compound is a pentene (rule 1). To give the
first carbon atom of the double bond the lowest number (rule 2), we number from the left, so the compound is a 2-pentene.
There is a methyl group on the third carbon atom (rule 3), so the compound’s name is 3-methyl-2-pentene.

[Link] [Link]
  Exercise [Link]

Name each compound.

1. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH=CHCH3

Just as there are cycloalkanes, there are cycloalkenes. These compounds are named like alkenes, but with the prefix cyclo- attached
to the beginning of the parent alkene name.

 Example [Link]

Draw the structure for each compound.

1. 3-methyl-2-pentene
2. cyclohexene

Solution
1. First write the parent chain of five carbon atoms: C–C–C–C–C. Then add the double bond between the second and third
carbon atoms:

Now place the methyl group on the third carbon atom and add enough hydrogen atoms to give each carbon atom a total of four
bonds.

First, consider what each of the three parts of the name means. Cyclo means a ring compound, hex means 6 carbon atoms, and -
ene means a double bond.

 Exercise [Link]

Draw the structure for each compound.

a. 2-ethyl-1-hexene
b. cyclopentene

Key Takeaway
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a carbon-to-carbon double bond.

8.5.1: Alkenes- Structures and Names is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
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[Link] [Link]
8.5.2: Alkynes
 Learning Objectives
Describe the general physical and chemical properties of alkynes.
Name alkynes given formulas and write formulas for alkynes given names.

The simplest alkyne—a hydrocarbon with carbon-to-carbon triple bond—has the molecular formula C2H2 and is known by its
common name—acetylene (Figure [Link]). Its structure is H–C≡C–H.

Figure [Link] : Ball-and-Spring Model of Acetylene. Acetylene (ethyne) is the simplest member of the alkyne family.

Acetylene is used in oxyacetylene torches for cutting and welding metals. The flame from such a torch can be very hot. Most
acetylene, however, is converted to chemical intermediates that are used to make vinyl and acrylic plastics, fibers, resins, and a
variety of other products.

Alkynes are similar to alkenes in both physical and chemical properties. For example, alkynes undergo many of the typical addition
reactions of alkenes. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) names for alkynes parallel those of alkenes,
except that the family ending is -yne rather than -ene. The IUPAC name for acetylene is ethyne. The names of other alkynes are
illustrated in the following exercises.

Key Takeaway
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with carbon-to-carbon triple bonds and properties much like those of alkenes.

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chemistry-general-organic-and-biological.

[Link] [Link]
8.5.3: Aromatic Compounds- Benzene
 Learning Objectives
To describe the bonding in benzene and the way typical reactions of benzene differ from those of the alkenes.

Next we consider a class of hydrocarbons with molecular formulas like those of unsaturated hydrocarbons, but which, unlike the
alkenes, do not readily undergo addition reactions. These compounds comprise a distinct class, called aromatic hydrocarbons, with
unique structures and properties. We start with the simplest of these compounds. Benzene (C6H6) is of great commercial
importance, but it also has noteworthy health effects.
The formula C6H6 seems to indicate that benzene has a high degree of unsaturation. (Hexane, the saturated hydrocarbon with six
carbon atoms has the formula C6H14—eight more hydrogen atoms than benzene.) However, despite the seeming low level of
saturation, benzene is rather unreactive. It does not, for example, react readily with bromine, which, is a test for unsaturation.

Benzene is a liquid that smells like gasoline, boils at 80°C, and freezes at 5.5°C. It is the aromatic hydrocarbon produced in the
largest volume. It was formerly used to decaffeinate coffee and was a significant component of many consumer products, such
as paint strippers, rubber cements, and home dry-cleaning spot removers. It was removed from many product formulations in
the 1950s, but others continued to use benzene in products until the 1970s when it was associated with leukemia deaths.
Benzene is still important in industry as a precursor in the production of plastics (such as Styrofoam and nylon), drugs,
detergents, synthetic rubber, pesticides, and dyes. It is used as a solvent for such things as cleaning and maintaining printing
equipment and for adhesives such as those used to attach soles to shoes. Benzene is a natural constituent of petroleum
products, but because it is a known carcinogen, its use as an additive in gasoline is now limited.

To explain the surprising properties of benzene, chemists suppose the molecule has a cyclic, hexagonal, planar structure of six
carbon atoms with one hydrogen atom bonded to each. We can write a structure with alternate single and double bonds, either as a
full structural formula or as a line-angle formula:

However, these structures do not explain the unique properties of benzene. Furthermore, experimental evidence indicates that all
the carbon-to-carbon bonds in benzene are equivalent, and the molecule is unusually stable. Chemists often represent benzene as a
hexagon with an inscribed circle:

The inner circle indicates that the valence electrons are shared equally by all six carbon atoms (that is, the electrons are delocalized,
or spread out, over all the carbon atoms). It is understood that each corner of the hexagon is occupied by one carbon atom, and each
carbon atom has one hydrogen atom attached to it. Any other atom or groups of atoms substituted for a hydrogen atom must be
shown bonded to a particular corner of the hexagon. We use this modern symbolism, but many scientists still use the earlier
structure with alternate double and single bonds.

 To Your Health: Benzene and Us

Most of the benzene used commercially comes from petroleum. It is employed as a starting material for the production of
detergents, drugs, dyes, insecticides, and plastics. Once widely used as an organic solvent, benzene is now known to have both
short- and long-term toxic effects. The inhalation of large concentrations can cause nausea and even death due to respiratory or

[Link] [Link]
 heart failure, while repeated exposure leads to a progressive disease in which the ability of the bone marrow to make new
blood cells is eventually destroyed. This results in a condition called aplastic anemia, in which there is a decrease in the
numbers of both the red and white blood cells.

Key Takeaway
Aromatic hydrocarbons appear to be unsaturated, but they have a special type of bonding and do not undergo addition reactions.

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[Link] [Link]
8.6: Functional Groups
Learning Outcomes
Describe the importance and purpose of functional groups in organic reactions.
Identify and name functional groups in compounds.

With over twenty million known organic compounds in existence, it would be very challenging to memorize chemical reactions for
each one. Fortunately, molecules with similar functional groups tend to undergo similar reactions. A functional group is defined as
an atom or group of atoms within a molecule that has similar chemical properties whenever it appears in various compounds. Even
if other parts of the molecule are quite different, certain functional groups tend to react in certain ways.
We've already looked at alkanes, but they are generally unreactive. We primarily use alkanes as a source of energy when they are
combusted. While the majority of functional groups involve atoms other than carbon and hydrogen, we will also look at some that
include only carbon and hydrogen. Some of the most common functional groups are presented in the following sections.
Organic molecules vary greatly in size and when focusing on functional groups, we want to direct our attention to the atoms
involved in the functional group. As a result, the abbreviation R is used in some examples. The letter R is used in molecular
structures to represent the “Rest of the molecule”. It consists of a group of carbon and hydrogen atoms of any size. It is used as an
abbreviation since a group of carbon and hydrogen atoms does not affect the functionality of the compound. In some molecules,
you will see R, R’, or R’’ which indicates that the R groups in the molecule can be different from one another. For example, R
might be –CH2CH3 while R’ is –CH2CH2CH2CH3.

Alkenes and Alkynes

Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain one or more double bonds between neighboring carbon atoms. Alkynes contain one or more
triple bonds between neighboring carbon atoms. The presence of a double or triple bond results in reactivity not present in alkane
and alkynes (see figure below) undergo characteristic reactions which will be covered later.

Figure 8.6.1 : Alkenes (left) contain one or more double bonds while alkynes (right) contain one or more triple bonds.

Aromatics
The additional functional group that contains only carbon and hydrogen is an aromatic ring which is a six-carbon ring with
alternative double bonds. The aromatic ring is also shown as a ring with a circle in the middle representing the double bonds.
Aromatic rings (see figure below) are found in many compounds including steroids and medications.

Figure 8.6.2 : Aromatic rings contain alternating double bonds.

Alcohols
The alcohol functional group involves an oxygen atom that is bonded to one hydrogen atom and one carbon atom. The carbon atom
will be part of a larger organic structure. One way to indicate a generic alcohol would be with the formula R−OH. R represents
any organic fragment in which a carbon atom is directly bonded to the explicitly indicated functional group (in this case, OH). The
R group is typically a chain of carbon atoms.

8.6.1 [Link]
 Figure 8.6.3 : Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
Alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the characteristics of the carbon to which it is attached. In a
primary alcohol, the carbon bonded directly to the oxygen atom is also bonded to exactly one carbon atom, with the other bonds
generally going to hydrogen atoms. In a secondary alcohol, the carbon is attached to two other carbon atoms, and in a tertiary
alcohol, the carbon is bonded to three other carbon atoms. The type of alcohol being used will determine the product of certain
reactions. Note the naming of alcohols as illustrated in the figure above. The location of the −OH group is indicated with the
number of the carbon to which it is attached.
We are already familiar with several common alcohols. For example, ethanol (CH CH OH) is the alcohol present in alcoholic
3 2

beverages. It is also widely used in the industrial manufacture of other chemicals. Methanol (CH OH) is used as a gasoline
3

additive or alternative. Additionally, methanol can be used to manufacture formaldehyde, which is employed in the production of
plastics, paints, and other useful substances. Isopropanol is commonly known as rubbing alcohol. In addition to its industrial uses,
isopropanol is used to clean various surfaces, including computer monitors, whiteboards, and even skin (e.g., before getting blood
drawn).

Ethers
The ether functional group consists of an oxygen atom that forms single bonds with two carbon atoms.

Figure 8.6.4 : Ethers

Ethers are good solvents for other organic compounds because of their low reactivity. They readily dissolve nonpolar molecules.
Diethyl ether is perhaps the best known ether. It is widely used as a solvent and has been used as an inhalable anesthetic.
Although ethers themselves are relatively unreactive, they can be converted to peroxides after prolonged exposure to oxygen.
Peroxides are very reactive and are often explosive at elevated temperatures. Many commercially available ethers come with a
small amount of a peroxide scavenger dissolved in them to help prevent this type of safety hazard.

Thiol
The thiol functional group contains a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. It is very similar to an alcohol functional group with
the sulfur replacing the O.

Figure 8.6.5 : Thiol

8.6.2 [Link]
Thiols are also called mercaptans which is derived from the Latin phrase for "capturing mercury" because of the strong bonds it
forms with mercury-containing compounds. Some thiol compounds have a distinctive smell similar to rotten eggs. They are often
added to natural gas, which itself has no odor, as a way to detect leaks since its odor can be detected by humans in very small
amounts. A thiol group is also present in the amino acid cysteine which will be discussed later.

Amines
An amine consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to some combination of carbons and hydrogens.

Figure 8.6.6 : Amines

Like alcohols, amines can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. However, the rules for assigning these categories are
slightly different. In an alcohol, the oxygen atom is always bonded to exactly one carbon atom, so we look at the branching on the
adjacent carbon, not the oxygen atom itself. In a neutral amine, the nitrogen can be bonded to one, two, or three carbon atoms, and
this is how we decide whether it is called a primary, secondary, or tertiary amine.
Neutral amines are weak bases, because the lone pair on nitrogen can act as a proton acceptor. Many smaller amines have very
strong and offensive odors. For example, the aptly-named compounds cadaverine and putrescine are foul-smelling amines, formed
as a part of the decay process after death.
Amines serve a wide variety of uses. Diphenylamine acts as a stabilizer for certain types of explosives. Amines are found as
components in some lubricating materials, in developers, and are a part of waterproofing textiles. Some amines, such as novocaine,
are used as anesthetics. Many pharmaceutical compounds contain amines, including 8 of the 10 most prescribed medications in
2012.

Aldehydes
A very common structural component of organic structures is the carbonyl, which is simply a carbon atom and an oxygen atom
connected by a double bond. The reactivity of carbonyls is primarily dictated by the polarization of the C=O bond, but the
surrounding atoms also play a role in its specific reaction pathways. While carbonyl is a component of many functional groups, it is
not itself a functional group.

Figure 8.6.7 : Aldehyde

An aldehyde is a carbonyl in which the carbon atom is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom. The other group attached to the
carbonyl may be an R-group or a hydrogen atom. Because the hydrogen atom is so small, the partial positive charge on the
carbonyl carbon is very easy for other molecules to approach, making aldehydes a particularly reactive type of carbonyl. Aldehydes
are versatile reactants for a wide variety of organic syntheses. Many aldehydes also have distinctive flavors and aromas. For
example, the flavor of cinnamon is primarily due to the molecule cinnamaldehyde, and vanillin is the aldehyde most responsible for
the smell and taste of vanilla extract.
A special aldehyde is the molecule in which the carbonyl is bonded to two hydrogen atoms. This molecule, called formaldehyde,
has a wide variety of uses. By itself, it can be used as a tissue preservative or as a very harsh disinfectant. It is also used as a
precursor to various materials, including plastics, resins, and other polymers.

8.6.3 [Link]
 Figure 8.6.8 : Examples of molecules with aldehyde functional groups.

Ketones

Figure 8.6.9 : Ketone

A ketone involves a carbonyl in which the carbon atom makes single bonds with two R-groups. Ketones undergo most of the same
reactions as aldehydes, but they tend to be slightly less reactive. The simplest ketone is acetone, in which the carbonyl carbon is
bonded to two CH groups. This ketone is commonly used to remove fingernail polish and serves as an industrial solvent. Methyl
3

ethyl ketone is used as a paint stripper and a solvent. Ketones are also used in the production of various polymers, either as a
building block or as a solvent. The R-group in a ketone can be the same or different as seen in the example.

Figure 8.6.10 : Two examples of ketones.

Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids are another carbonyl-containing functional group, in which the carbon atom is bonded to an OH group on one
side and either a carbon or hydrogen atom on the other.

Figure 8.6.11 : Carboxylic acid

As the name implies, carboxylic acids are weak acids. An OH group that is directly connected to a carbonyl will ionize to a small
extent when dissolved in water. The reason for this is the relative stability of the resulting anion. A carboxylate ion (see figure
below), in which the negative charge is spread over two different oxygen atoms through resonance structures, is more stable than
an isolated oxygen-centered anion. The carboxylic acid and carboxylate ion are interchangeable. Carboxylate ions are often present
in amino acids.

Figure 8.6.12 : Carboxylate ion

Carboxylic acids are used in a variety of environments. Formic acid acts as a protective chemical for many stinging insects and
plants. Acetic acid gives vinegar its characteristic smell and flavor and is a fundamental biological and industrial building block.
Carboxylic acids with longer carbon chains (fatty acids) are used by animals as a way of storing energy and are widely used in the
manufacture of soaps. Some compounds contain multiple carboxylic acids within a single molecule. For example, citric acid (three
carboxyl groups) is especially abundant in citrus fruits and it used as a flavoring and preservative in many foods and beverages.

8.6.4 [Link]
 Figure 8.6.13 : Carboxylic acids

Esters
An ester is similar to a carboxylic acid, in that it contains a carbonyl where the carbon is bonded to one additional oxygen atom
and one carbon or hydrogen atom. However, the second oxygen atom is bonded to another carbon instead of to an acidic hydrogen
atom. Structurally, carboxylic acids and esters are related to one another in the same way as alcohols and ethers.

Figure 8.6.14 : Ester

Esters can be formed by heating carboxylic acids and alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst. This process is reversible, and the
starting materials can be regenerated by reacting an ester with water in the presence of a weak base.
Some esters have very pleasant odors, so they are used in the manufacture of many perfumes. Propyl acetate contributes to the odor
of pears, while isoamyl acetate gives bananas their smell. This ester also serves as an alarm signal for honeybees. Esters are
employed in the manufacture of fabrics (polyesters) and Plexiglass. Anesthetics such as procaine and benzocaine also contain
esters.

Amides
An amide is a carbonyl in which the carbon is attached to one nitrogen atom and one carbon or hydrogen atom. Alternatively, we
could define an amide as an amine in which one of the carbon atoms attached to the nitrogen is part of a carbonyl.

Figure 8.6.15 : Amide

An amide can be formed by combining a carboxylic acid and an amine. Only primary and secondary amines can be sued to form
amides, since they have a hydrogen that can be replaced with the carbonyl carbon; tertiary amines will not form amides. The amide
shown in the figure above was formed from a carboxylic acid and a primary amine.
Amides are used as coloring agents in crayons, pencils, and ink. They are employed in the paper, plastic, and rubber industries.
Polyacrylamide is a very widely used amide; it is involved in t he treatment of drinking water and sewage, and in plastics
manufacture. The amide Kevlar is widely employed for the production of body armor, and nylon is another type of amide-based
polymer.

Haloalkanes
The haloalkanes, also known as alkyl halides, are a group of chemical compounds comprised of an alkane with one or more
hydrogens replaced by a halogen atom (Group 17 atom). There is a fairly large distinction between the structural and physical
properties of haloalkanes and the structural and physical properties of alkanes. A

Figure 8.6.16 : Amide

Haloalkanes are found in fire extinguishers, refrigerants, propellants, solvents, and medications. They are also a significant source
of pollution and their use has been reduced or eliminated in some products. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were used as refrigerants
in air-conditioners but were found to be a major cause of the depletion of the ozone layer. Research and development of alternatives

8.6.5 [Link]
began in the 1970s. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) have been used for many years since they cause less damage to the ozone
layer, but many countries agreed to eliminate HCFCs by 2020.

Contributors and Attributions

Allison Soult, Ph.D. (Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky)

This page titled 8.6: Functional Groups is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Allison Soult.

8.6.6 [Link]
8.7: Narcotics
Narcotic agents are potent analgesics which are effective for the relief of severe pain. Analgesics are selective central nervous
system depressants used to relieve pain. The term analgesic means "without pain". Even in therapeutic doses, narcotic analgesics
can cause respiratory depression, nausea, and drowsiness. Long term administration produces tolerance, psychic, and physical
dependence called addiction.

Introduction
Narcotic agents may be classified into four categories:
1. Morphine and codeine - natural alkaloids of opium.
2. Synthetic derivatives of morphine such as heroin.
3. Synthetic agents which resemble the morphine structure.
4. Narcotic antagonists which are used as antidotes for overdoses of narcotic analgesics.
The main pharmacological action of analgesics is on the cerebrum and medulla of the central nervous system. Another effect is on
the smooth muscle and glandular secretions of the respiratory and gastro-intestinal tract. The precise mechanism of action is
unknown although the narcotics appear to interact with specific receptor sites to interfere with pain impulses.

Receptor Site
A schematic for an analgesic receptor site may look as shown in the graphic below with morphine. Three areas are needed: a flat
areas to accommodate a flat nonpolar aromatic ring, a cavity to accept another series of rings perpendicular, and an anionic site for
polar interaction of the amine group.

Enkephalins
Recently investigators have discovered two compounds in the brain called enkephalins which resemble morphine in structure. Each
one is a peptide composed of 5 amino acids and differ only in the last amino acid. The peptide sequences are: tyr-gly-gly-phe-leu
and tyr-gly-gly-phe-met. Molecular models show that the structures of the enkephalins has some similarities with morphine. The
main feature in common appears to be the aromatic ring with the -OH group attached (tyr). Methadone and other similar analgesics
have 2 aromatic rings which would be similar to the enkephalins (tyr and phe).
Analgesics may relieve pain by preventing the release of acetylcholine. Enkephalin molecules are released from a nerve cell and
bind to analgesic receptor sites on the nerve cell sending the impulse. The binding of enkephalin or morphine-like drugs changes
the shape of the nerve sending the impulse in such a fashion as to prevent the cell from releasing acetylcholine. As a result, the pain
impulse cannot be transmitted and the brain does not preceive pain.

Morphine and Codeine

Morphine exerts a narcotic action manifested by analgesia, drowsiness, changes in mood, and mental clouding. The major medical
action of morphine sought in the CNS is analgesia. Opiates suppress the "cough center" which is also located in the brain stem, the

8.7.1 [Link]
medulla. Such an action is thought to underlie the use of opiate narcotics as cough suppressants. Codeine appears to be particularly
effective in this action and is widely used for this purpose.
Narcotic analgesics cause an addictive physical dependence. If the drug is discontinued, withdrawal symptoms are experienced.
Although the reasons for addiction and withdrawal symptoms are not completely known, recent experiments have provided some
information. A nucleotide known as cyclicadenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is synthesized with the aid of the enzyme adenylate
cyclase. Enkephalin and morphine-like drugs inhibit this enzyme and thus decrease the amount of cAMP in the cells. In order to
compensate for the decreased cAMP, the cells synthesize more enzyme in an attempt to produce more cAMP. Since more enzyme
has been produced, more morphine is required as an inhibitor to keep the cAMP at a low level. This cycle repeats itself causing an
increase in the tolerance level and increasing the amounts of morphine required. If morphine is suddenly withheld, withdrawal
symptoms are probably caused by a high concentration of cAMP since the synthesizing enzyme, adenylate cyclase, is no longer
being inhibited.

Morphine and codeine are contained in opium from the poppy (Papaver Somniterum) plant found in Turkey, Mexico, Southeast
Asia, China, and India. This plant is 3-4 feet tall with 5-8 egg shaped capsules on top. Ten days after the poppy blooms in June,
incisions are made in the capsules permitting a milky fluid to ooze out. The following day the gummy mass (now brown) is
carefully scraped off and pressed into cakes of raw opium to dry.
Opium contains over 20 compounds but only morphine (10%) and codeine (0.5%) are of any importance. Morphine is extracted
from the opium and isolated in a relatively pure form. Since codeine is in such low concentration, it is synthesized from morphine
by an ether-type methylation of an alcohol group. Codeine has only a fraction of the potency compared to morphine. It is used with
aspirin and as a cough suppressant.

Heroin
Heroin is synthesized from morphine by a relatively simple esterification reaction of two alcohol (phenol) groups with acetic
anhydride (equivalent to acetic acid). Heroin is much more potent than morphine but without the respiratory depression effect. A
possible reason may be that heroin passes the blood-brain barrier much more rapidly than morphine. Once in the brain, the heroin is
hydrolyzed to morphine which is responsible for its activity.
Synthetic narcotic analgesics include meperidine and methadone. Meperidine is the most common subsitute for morphine. It
exerts several pharmacological effects: analgesic, local anesthetic, and mild antihistamine. This multiple activity may be explained
by its structural resemblance to morphine, atropine, and histamine.
Methadone is more active and more toxic than morphine. It can be used for the relief of may types of pain. In addition it is used as
a narcotic substitute in addiction treatment because it prevents morphine abstinence syndrome. Methadone was synthesized by
German chemists during Wold War II when the United States and our allies cut off their opium supply. And it is difficult to fight a
war without analgesics so the Germans went to work and synthesized a number of medications in use today, including demerol and
darvon which is structurally simular to methadone. And before we go further lets clear up another myth. Methadone, or dolophine
was not named after Adolf Hitler. The "dol" in dolophine comes from the latin root "dolor." The female name Dolores is derived
from it and the term dol is used in pain research to measure pain e.g., one dol is 1 unit of pain.

8.7.2 [Link]
Even methadone, which looks strikingly different from other opioid agonists, has steric forces which produce a configuration that
closely resembles that of other opiates. See the graphic on the left and the top graphic on this page. In other words, steric forces
bend the molecule of methadone into the correct configuration to fit into the opiate receptor. When you take methadone it first must
be metabolized in the liver to a product that your body can use. Excess methadone is also stored in the liver and blood stream and
this is how methadone works its 'time release trick' and last for 24 hours or more. Once in the blood stream metabolized methadone
is slowly passed to the brain when it is needed to fill opiate receptors. Methadone is the only effective treatment for heroin
addiction. It works to smooth the ups and down of heroin craving and allows the person to function normally.

Narcotic Antagonists
Narcotic Antagonists prevent or abolish excessive respiratory depression caused by the administration of morphine or related
compounds. They act by competing for the same analgesic receptor sites. They are structurally related to morphine with the
exception of the group attached to nitrogen.

Nalorphine precipitates withdrawal symptoms and produces behavioral disturbances in addition to the antogonism action. Naloxane
is a pure antagonist with no morphine like effects. It blocks the euphoric effect of heroin when given before heroin. Naltrexone
became clinically available in 1985 as a new narcotic antagonist. Its actions resemble those of naloxone, but naltrexone is well is
well absorbed orally and is long acting, necessitating only a dose of 50 to 100 mg. Therefore, it is useful in narcotic treatment
programs where it is desired to maintain an individual on chronic therapy with a narcotic antagonist. In individuals taking
naltrexone, subsequent injection of an opiate will produce little or no effect. Naltrexone appears to be particularly effective for the
treatment of narcotic dependence in addicts who have more to gain by being drug-free rather than drug dependant

Contributors and Attributions

Charles Ophardt, Professor Emeritus, Elmhurst College; Virtual Chembook
Poppies image from: [Link]

This page titled 8.7: Narcotics is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Elizabeth Gordon.

8.7.3 [Link]
Narcotic Analgesic Drugs by Charles Ophardt is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

8.7.4 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

9: Biochemistry
9.1: Carbohydrates Fundamentals
9.1.1: Introduction to Carbohydrates
9.1.2: Carbohydrate Classification
9.1.3: Carbohydrate Isomers
9.1.4: Carbohydrate Overview
9.1.5: Nonreducing Sugar
9.2: Lipids
9.2.1: Fatty Acids
9.2.2: Steroids
9.3: Amino Acids
9.3.1: Peptide Bonds
9.3.2: Proteins and Amino Acids
9.4: Nucleic Acids
9.4.1: Nucleotides
9.4.2: Nucleic Acid Structure

9: Biochemistry is shared under a CC BY-NC license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

1
 SECTION OVERVIEW

9.1: Carbohydrates Fundamentals

Carbohydrates, also known as sugars, are found in all living organisms. They are essential to the very source of life (ex. Ribose
sugars in DNA and RNA) or sustaining life itself (e.g., Metabolic conversion of carbohydrates into usable biochemical energy,
ATP). Another important role of carbohydrates is structural (ex. Cellulose in plants). General names for carbohydrates include
sugars, starches, saccharides, and polysaccharides. The term saccharide is derived from the Latin word "sacchararum" from the
sweet taste of sugars. The name "carbohydrate" means a "hydrate of carbon." The name derives from the general formula of
carbohydrate is Cx(H2O)y - x and y may or may not be equal and range in value from 3 to 12 or more. For example glucose is:
C6(H2O)6 or is more commonly written, C6H12O6.

Topic hierarchy

9.1.1: Introduction to Carbohydrates

9.1.2: Carbohydrate Classification

9.1.3: Carbohydrate Isomers

9.1.4: Carbohydrate Overview

9.1.5: Nonreducing Sugar

Thumbnail: Haworth formula of D-glucose.

9.1: Carbohydrates Fundamentals is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

9.1.1 [Link]
9.1.1: Introduction to Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living organisms. They originate as products of
photosynthesis, an endothermic reductive condensation of carbon dioxide requiring light energy and the pigment chlorophyll.

n CO2 + n H2O + energy CnH2nOn + n O2

Introduction
The formulas of many carbohydrates can be written as carbon hydrates, Cn(H2O)n, hence their name. The carbohydrates are a
major source of metabolic energy, both for plants and for animals that depend on plants for food. Aside from the sugars and
starches that meet this vital nutritional role, carbohydrates also serve as a structural material (cellulose), a component of the energy
transport compound ATP, recognition sites on cell surfaces, and one of three essential components of DNA and RNA.
Carbohydrates are called saccharides or, if they are relatively small, sugars. Several classifications of carbohydrates have proven
useful, and are outlined in the following table.

1. Carbohydrates have been given non-systematic names, although the suffix ose is generally used. The most common carbohydrate is glucose (C6H12O6).
Applying the terms defined above, glucose is a monosaccharide, an aldohexose (note that the function and size classifications are combined in one word) and a
reducing sugar. The general structure of glucose and many other aldohexoses was established by simple chemical reactions. The following diagram illustrates
the kind of evidence considered, although some of the reagents shown here are different from those used by the original scientists.

Glucose and other saccharides are extensively cleaved by periodic acid, thanks to the abundance of vicinal diol moieties in their structure. This oxidative
cleavage, known as the Malaprade reaction is particularly useful for the analysis of selective O-substituted derivatives of saccharides, since ether functions do
not react. The stoichiometry of aldohexose cleavage is shown in the following equation.

HOCH2(CHOH)4CHO + 5 HIO4 ——> H2C=O + 5 HCO2H + 5 HIO3

The Configuration of Glucose

The four chiral centers in glucose indicate there may be as many as sixteen (24) stereoisomers having this constitution. These would exist as eight
diastereomeric pairs of enantiomers, and the initial challenge was to determine which of the eight corresponded to glucose. This challenge was accepted and
met in 1891 by the German chemist Emil Fischer. His successful negotiation of the stereochemical maze presented by the aldohexoses was a logical tour de
force, and it is fitting that he received the 1902 Nobel Prize for chemistry for this accomplishment. One of the first tasks faced by Fischer was to devise a
method of representing the configuration of each chiral center in an unambiguous manner. To this end, he invented a simple technique for drawing chains of
chiral centers, that we now call the Fischer projection formula. Click on this link for a review.
At the time Fischer undertook the glucose project it was not possible to establish the absolute configuration of an enantiomer. Consequently, Fischer made an
arbitrary choice for (+)-glucose and established a network of related aldose configurations that he called the D-family. The mirror images of these
configurations were then designated the L-family of aldoses. To illustrate using present day knowledge, Fischer projection formulas and names for the D-aldose
family (three to six-carbon atoms) are shown below, with the asymmetric carbon atoms (chiral centers) colored red. The last chiral center in an aldose chain
(farthest from the aldehyde group) was chosen by Fischer as the D / L designator site. If the hydroxyl group in the projection formula pointed to the right, it was
defined as a member of the D-family. A left directed hydroxyl group (the mirror image) then represented the L-family. Fischer's initial assignment of the D-
configuration had a 50:50 chance of being right, but all his subsequent conclusions concerning the relative configurations of various aldoses were soundly
based. In 1951 x-ray fluorescence studies of (+)-tartaric acid, carried out in the Netherlands by Johannes Martin Bijvoet (pronounced "buy foot"), proved that
Fischer's choice was correct.
It is important to recognize that the sign of a compound's specific rotation (an experimental number) does not correlate with its configuration (D or L). It is a
simple matter to measure an optical rotation with a polarimeter. Determining an absolute configuration usually requires chemical interconversion with known
compounds by stereospecific reaction paths.

[Link] [Link]
Models of representative aldoses may be examined by clicking on the Fischer formulas for glyceraldehyde, erythrose, threose, ribose, arabinose, allose, altrose,
glucose or mannose in the above diagram.

Important Reactions
Emil Fischer made use of several key reactions in the course of his carbohydrate studies. These are described here, together with the information that each
delivers.

Oxidation
As noted above, sugars may be classified as reducing or non-reducing based on their reactivity with Tollens', Benedict's or Fehling's reagents. If a sugar is
oxidized by these reagents it is calledreducing, since the oxidant (Ag(+) or Cu(+2)) is reduced in the reaction, as evidenced by formation of a silver mirror or
precipitation of cuprous oxide. The Tollens' test is commonly used to detect aldehyde functions; and because of the facile interconversion of ketoses and aldoses
under the basic conditions of this test, ketoses such as fructose also react and are classified as reducing sugars.
When the aldehyde function of an aldose is oxidized to a carboxylic acid the product is called an aldonic acid. Because of the 2º hydroxyl functions that are
also present in these compounds, a mild oxidizing agent such as hypobromite must be used for this conversion (equation 1). If both ends of an aldose chain are
oxidized to carboxylic acids the product is called an aldaric acid. By converting an aldose to its corresponding aldaric acid derivative, the ends of the chain
become identical (this could also be accomplished by reducing the aldehyde to CH2OH, as noted below). Such an operation will disclose any latent symmetry in
the remaining molecule. Thus, ribose, xylose, allose and galactose yield achiral aldaric acids which are, of course, not optically active. The ribose oxidation is
shown in equation 2 below.

1.

2.

3.

Other aldose sugars may give identical chiral aldaric acid products, implying a unique configurational relationship. The examples of arabinose and lyxose
shown in equation 3 above illustrate this result. Remember, a Fischer projection formula may be rotated by 180º in the plane of projection without changing its
configuration.

[Link] [Link]
Reduction
Sodium borohydride reduction of an aldose makes the ends of the resulting alditol chain identical, HOCH2(CHOH)nCH2OH, thereby accomplishing the same
configurational change produced by oxidation to an aldaric acid. Thus, allitol and galactitol from reduction of allose and galactose are achiral, and altrose and
talose are reduced to the same chiral alditol. A summary of these redox reactions, and derivative nomenclature is given in the following table.

Derivatives of HOCH2(CHOH)nCHO

HOCH2(CHOH)nCO2H
HOBr Oxidation ——> an Aldonic Acid

H2OC(CHOH)nCO2H
HNO3 Oxidation ——> an Aldaric Acid

HOCH2(CHOH)nCH2OH
NaBH4 Reduction ——> an Alditol

Osazone Formation

1.

2.

The osazone reaction was developed and used by Emil Fischer to identify aldose sugars differing in configuration only at the alpha-carbon. The upper equation
shows the general form of the osazone reaction, which effects an alpha-carbon oxidation with formation of a bis-phenylhydrazone, known as an osazone.
Application of the osazone reaction to D-glucose and D-mannose demonstrates that these compounds differ in configuration only at C-2.

Chain Shortening and Lengthening

1.

2.

These two procedures permit an aldose of a given size to be related to homologous smaller and larger aldoses. The importance of these relationships may be
seen in the array of aldose structurespresented earlier, where the structural connections are given by the dashed blue lines. Thus Ruff degradation of the pentose
arabinose gives the tetrose erythrose. Working in the opposite direction, a Kiliani-Fischer synthesis applied to arabinose gives a mixture of glucose and
mannose. An alternative chain shortening procedure known as the Wohl degradation is essentially the reverse of the Kiliani-Fischer synthesis.

Using these reactions we can now follow Fischer's train of logic in assigning the configuration of D-
glucose.
1. In order to determine which of these epimers was glucose, Fischer made use of the inherent C2 symmetry in the four-carbon dissymmetric core of one
epimer (B). This is shown in the following diagram by a red dot where the symmetry axis passes through the projection formula. Because of this symmetry,
if the aldehyde and 1º-alcohol functions at the ends of the chain are exchanged, epimer B would be unchanged; whereas A would be converted to a different
compound. By clicking on the diagram, the consequences of such an exchange will be displayed.

[Link] [Link]
Ketoses
If a monosaccharide has a carbonyl function on one of the inner atoms of the carbon chain it is classified as a ketose. Dihydroxyacetone may not be a sugar,
but it is included as the ketose analog of glyceraldehyde. The carbonyl group is commonly found at C-2, as illustrated by the following examples (chiral
centers are colored red). As expected, the carbonyl function of a ketose may be reduced by sodium borohydride, usually to a mixture of epimeric products.
D-Fructose, the sweetest of the common natural sugars, is for example reduced to a mixture of D-glucitol (sorbitol) and D-mannitol, named after the
aldohexoses from which they may also be obtained by analogous reduction. Mannitol is itself a common natural carbohydrate.
Although the ketoses are distinct isomers of the aldose monosaccharides, the chemistry of both classes is linked due to their facile interconversion in the
presence of acid or base catalysts. This interconversion, and the corresponding epimerization at sites alpha to the carbonyl functions, occurs by way of an
enediol tautomeric intermediate. By clicking on the diagram, an equation illustrating these isomerizations will be displayed.

Because of base-catalyzed isomerizations of this kind, the Tollens' reagent is not useful for distinguishing aldoses from ketoses or for specific oxidation of
aldoses to the corresponding aldonic acids. Oxidation by HOBr is preferred for the latter conversion.

Anomeric Forms of Glucose

Fischer's brilliant elucidation of the configuration of glucose did not remove all uncertainty concerning its structure. Two different crystalline forms of
glucose were reported in 1895. Each of these gave all the characteristic reactions of glucose, and when dissolved in water equilibrated to the same mixture.
This equilibration takes place over a period of many minutes, and the change in optical activity that occurs is called mutarotation. These facts are
summarized in the diagram below.

When glucose was converted to its pentamethyl ether (reaction with excess CH3I & AgOH), two different isomers were isolated, and neither exhibited the
expected aldehyde reactions. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of the pentamethyl ether derivatives, however, gave a tetramethyl derivative that was oxidized by
Tollen's reagent and reduced by sodium borohydride, as expected for an aldehyde. These reactions will be displayed above by clicking on the diagram.
The search for scientific truth often proceeds in stages, and the structural elucidation of glucose serves as a good example. It should be clear from the new
evidence presented above, that the open chain pentahydroxyhexanal structure drawn above must be modified. Somehow a new stereogenic center must be
created, and the aldehyde must be deactivated in the pentamethyl derivative. A simple solution to this dilemma is achieved by converting the open aldehyde
structure for glucose into a cyclic hemiacetal, called a glucopyranose, as shown in the following diagram. The linear aldehyde is tipped on its side, and
rotation about the C4-C5 bond brings the C5-hydroxyl function close to the aldehyde carbon. For ease of viewing, the six-membered hemiacetal structure is
drawn as a flat hexagon, but it actually assumes a chair conformation. The hemiacetal carbon atom (C-1) becomes a new stereogenic center, commonly
referred to as the anomeric carbon, and the α and β-isomers are called anomers.

We can now consider how this modification of the glucose structure accounts for the puzzling facts noted above. First, we know that hemiacetals are in
equilibrium with their carbonyl and alcohol components when in solution. Consequently, fresh solutions of either alpha or beta-glucose crystals in water
should establish an equilibrium mixture of both anomers, plus the open chain chain form. This will be shown above by clicking on the diagram. Note that
despite the very low concentration of the open chain aldehyde in this mixture, typical chemical reactions of aldehydes take place rapidly.
Second, a pentamethyl ether derivative of the pyranose structure converts the hemiacetal function to an acetal. Acetals are stable to base, so this product
should not react with Tollen's reagent or be reduced by sodium borohydride. Acid hydrolysis of acetals regenerates the carbonyl and alcohol components,
and in the case of the glucose derivative this will be a tetramethyl ether of the pyranose hemiacetal. This compound will, of course, undergo typical aldehyde
reactions. By clicking on the diagram a second time this relationship will be displayed above.

5. Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides

As noted above, the preferred structural form of many monosaccharides may be that of a cyclic hemiacetal. Five and six-membered
rings are favored over other ring sizes because of their low angle and eclipsing strain. Cyclic structures of this kind are termed
furanose (five-membered) or pyranose (six-membered), reflecting the ring size relationship to the common heterocyclic compounds
furan and pyran shown on the right. Ribose, an important aldopentose, commonly adopts a furanose structure, as shown in the
following illustration. By convention for the D-family, the five-membered furanose ring is drawn in an edgewise projection with the ring oxygen positioned
away from the viewer. The anomeric carbon atom (colored red here) is placed on the right. The upper bond to this carbon is defined as beta, the lower
bond then is alpha.
Click on the following diagram to see a model of β-D-ribofuranose.

[Link] [Link]
The cyclic pyranose forms of various monosaccharides are often drawn in a flat projection known as a Haworth formula, after the British chemist, Norman
Haworth. As with the furanose ring, the anomeric carbon is placed on the right with the ring oxygen to the back of the edgewise view. In the D-family, the
alpha and beta bonds have the same orientation defined for the furanose ring (beta is up & alpha is down). These Haworth formulas are convenient for
displaying stereochemical relationships, but do not represent the true shape of the molecules. We know that these molecules are actually puckered in a
fashion we call a chair conformation. Examples of four typical pyranose structures are shown below, both as Haworth projections and as the more
representative chair conformers. The anomeric carbons are colored red.

Models of these glucose, galactose, mannose and allose pyranose structures may be viewed by Clicking Here.
A practice page for examining the configurations of aldohexoses may be viewed by Clicking Here.
The size of the cyclic hemiacetal ring adopted by a given sugar is not constant, but may vary with substituents and other structural features. Aldolhexoses
usually form pyranose rings and their pentose homologs tend to prefer the furanose form, but there are many counter examples. The formation of acetal
derivatives illustrates how subtle changes may alter this selectivity. By clicking on the above diagram. the display will change to illustrate this. A pyranose
structure for D-glucose is drawn in the rose-shaded box on the left. Acetal derivatives have been prepared by acid-catalyzed reactions with benzaldehyde
and acetone. As a rule, benzaldehyde forms six-membered cyclic acetals, whereas acetone prefers to form five-membered acetals. The top equation shows
the formation and some reactions of the 4,6-O-benzylidene acetal, a commonly employed protective group. A methyl glycoside derivative of this compound
(see below) leaves the C-2 and C-3 hydroxyl groups exposed to reactions such as the periodic acid cleavage, shown as the last step. The formation of an
isopropylidene acetal at C-1 and C-2, center structure, leaves the C-3 hydroxyl as the only unprotected function. Selective oxidation to a ketone is then
possible. Finally, direct di-O-isopropylidene derivatization of glucose by reaction with excess acetone results in a change to a furanose structure in which the
C-3 hydroxyl is again unprotected. However, the same reaction with D-galactose, shown in the blue-shaded box, produces a pyranose product in which the
C-6 hydroxyl is unprotected. Both derivatives do not react with Tollens' reagent. This difference in behavior is attributed to the cis-orientation of the C-3 and
C-4 hydroxyl groups in galactose, which permits formation of a less strained five-membered cyclic acetal, compared with the trans-C-3 and C-4 hydroxyl
groups in glucose. Derivatizations of this kind permit selective reactions to be conducted at different locations in these highly functionalized molecules.
The ring size of these cyclic monosaccharides was determined by oxidation and chain cleavage of their tetra methyl ether derivatives. To see how this was
done for glucose Click Here.

6. Glycosides
Acetal derivatives formed when a monosaccharide reacts with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst are called glycosides. This reaction is illustrated
for glucose and methanol in the diagram below. In naming of glycosides, the "ose" suffix of the sugar name is replaced by "oside", and the alcohol group
name is placed first. As is generally true for most acetals, glycoside formation involves the loss of an equivalent of water. The diether product is stable to
base and alkaline oxidants such as Tollen's reagent. Since acid-catalyzed aldolization is reversible, glycosides may be hydrolyzed back to their alcohol and
sugar components by aqueous acid.
The anomeric methyl glucosides are formed in an equilibrium ratio of 66% alpha to 34% beta. From the structures in the previous diagram, we see that
pyranose rings prefer chair conformations in which the largest number of substituents are equatorial. In the case of glucose, the substituents on the beta-
anomer are all equatorial, whereas the C-1 substituent in the alpha-anomer changes to axial. Since substituents on cyclohexane rings prefer an equatorial
location over axial (methoxycyclohexane is 75% equatorial), the preference for alpha-glycopyranoside formation is unexpected, and is referred to as the
anomeric effect.

Glycosides abound in biological systems. By attaching a sugar moiety to a lipid or benzenoid structure, the solubility and other properties of the compound
may be changed substantially. Because of the important modifying influence of such derivatization, numerous enzyme systems, known as glycosidases, have
evolved for the attachment and removal of sugars from alcohols, phenols and amines. Chemists refer to the sugar component of natural glycosides as the
glycon and the alcohol component as the aglycon. Two examples of naturally occurring glycosides and one example of an amino derivative will be
displayed above by clicking on the diagram. Salicin, one of the oldest herbal remedies known, was the model for the synthetic analgesic aspirin. A large
class of hydroxylated, aromatic oxonium cations called anthocyanins provide the red, purple and blue colors of many flowers, fruits and some vegetables.
Peonin is one example of this class of natural pigments, which exhibit a pronounced pH color dependence. The oxonium moiety is only stable in acidic
environments, and the color changes or disappears when base is added. The complex changes that occur when wine is fermented and stored are in part

[Link] [Link]
associated with glycosides of anthocyanins. Finally, amino derivatives of ribose, such as cytidine play important roles in biological phosphorylating agents,
coenzymes and information transport and storage materials.
For a discussion of the anomeric effect Click Here. For examples of structurally and functionally modified sugars Click Here.

Disaccharides
When the alcohol component of a glycoside is provided by a hydroxyl function on another monosaccharide, the compound is called a disaccharide. Four
examples of disaccharides composed of two glucose units are shown in the following diagram. The individual glucopyranose rings are labeled A and B, and
the glycoside bonding is circled in light blue. Notice that the glycoside bond may be alpha, as in maltose and trehalose, or beta as in cellobiose and
gentiobiose. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of these disaccharides yields glucose as the only product. Enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis is selective for a specific
glycoside bond, so an alpha-glycosidase cleaves maltose and trehalose to glucose, but does not cleave cellobiose or gentiobiose. A beta-glycosidase has the
opposite activity.
In order to draw a representative structure for cellobiose, one of the glucopyranose rings must be rotated by 180º, but this feature is often omitted in favor of
retaining the usual perspective for the individual rings. The bonding between the glucopyranose rings in cellobiose and maltose is from the anomeric carbon
in ring A to the C-4 hydroxyl group on ring B. This leaves the anomeric carbon in ring B free, so cellobiose and maltose both may assume alpha and beta
anomers at that site (the beta form is shown in the diagram). Gentiobiose has a beta-glycoside link, originating at C-1 in ring A and terminating at C-6 in
ring B. Its alpha-anomer is drawn in the diagram. Because cellobiose, maltose and gentiobiose are hemiacetals they are all reducing sugars (oxidized by
Tollen's reagent). Trehalose, a disaccharide found in certain mushrooms, is a bis-acetal, and is therefore a non-reducing sugar. A systematic nomenclature for
disaccharides exists, but as the following examples illustrate, these are often lengthy.

Disaccharides made up of other sugars are known, but glucose is often one of the components. Two important examples of such mixed disaccharides will
be displayed above by clicking on the diagram. Lactose, also known as milk sugar, is a galactose-glucose compound joined as a beta-glycoside. It is a
reducing sugar because of the hemiacetal function remaining in the glucose moiety. Many adults, particularly those from regions where milk is not a
dietary staple, have a metabolic intolerance for lactose. Infants have a digestive enzyme which cleaves the beta-glycoside bond in lactose, but production
of this enzyme stops with weaning. Cheese is less subject to the lactose intolerance problem, since most of the lactose is removed with the whey.
Sucrose, or cane sugar, is our most commonly used sweetening agent. It is a non-reducing disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose joined at the
anomeric carbon of each by glycoside bonds (one alpha and one beta). In the formula shown here the fructose ring has been rotated 180º from its
conventional perspective.
To examine a model of sucrose Click Here
Additional Topics
For a brief discussion of sweetening agents Click Here. For examples of some larger saccharide oligomers Click Here.

Polysaccharides
As the name implies, polysaccharides are large high-molecular weight molecules constructed by joining monosaccharide units together by glycosidic
bonds. They are sometimes called glycans. The most important compounds in this class, cellulose, starch and glycogen are all polymers of glucose. This
is easily demonstrated by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis to the monosaccharide. Since partial hydrolysis of cellulose gives varying amounts of cellobiose, we
conclude the glucose units in this macromolecule are joined by beta-glycoside bonds between C-1 and C-4 sites of adjacent sugars. Partial hydrolysis of
starch and glycogen produces the disaccharide maltose together with low molecular weight dextrans, polysaccharides in which glucose molecules are
joined by alpha-glycoside links between C-1 and C-6, as well as the alpha C-1 to C-4 links found in maltose. Polysaccharides built from other
monosaccharides (e.g. mannose, galactose, xylose and arabinose) are also known, but will not be discussed here.
Over half of the total organic carbon in the earth's biosphere is in cellulose. Cotton fibers are essentially pure cellulose, and the wood of bushes and trees
is about 50% cellulose. As a polymer of glucose, cellulose has the formula (C6H10O5)n where n ranges from 500 to 5,000, depending on the source of the
polymer. The glucose units in cellulose are linked in a linear fashion, as shown in the drawing below. The beta-glycoside bonds permit these chains to
stretch out, and this conformation is stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonds. A parallel orientation of adjacent chains is also favored by
intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Although an individual hydrogen bond is relatively weak, many such bonds acting together can impart great stability to
certain conformations of large molecules. Most animals cannot digest cellulose as a food, and in the diets of humans this part of our vegetable intake
functions as roughage and is eliminated largely unchanged. Some animals (the cow and termites, for example) harbor intestinal microorganisms that
breakdown cellulose into monosaccharide nutrients by the use of beta-glycosidase enzymes.
Cellulose is commonly accompanied by a lower molecular weight, branched, amorphous polymer called hemicellulose. In contrast to cellulose,
hemicellulose is structurally weak and is easily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base. Also, many enzymes catalyze its hydrolysis. Hemicelluloses are
composed of many D-pentose sugars, with xylose being the major component. Mannose and mannuronic acid are often present, as well as galactose and
galacturonic acid.

[Link] [Link]
 Starch is a polymer of glucose, found in roots, rhizomes, seeds, stems, tubers and corms of plants, as microscopic granules having characteristic shapes
and sizes. Most animals, including humans, depend on these plant starches for nourishment. The structure of starch is more complex than that of
cellulose. The intact granules are insoluble in cold water, but grinding or swelling them in warm water causes them to burst.
The released starch consists of two fractions. About 20% is a water soluble material called amylose. Molecules of amylose are linear chains of several
thousand glucose units joined by alpha C-1 to C-4 glycoside bonds. Amylose solutions are actually dispersions of hydrated helical micelles. The majority
of the starch is a much higher molecular weight substance, consisting of nearly a million glucose units, and called amylopectin. Molecules of
amylopectin are branched networks built from C-1 to C-4 and C-1 to C-6 glycoside links, and are essentially water insoluble. Representative structural
formulas for amylose and amylopectin will be shown above by clicking on the diagram. To see an expanded structure for amylopectin click again on the
diagram. The branching in this diagram is exaggerated, since on average, branches only occur every twenty five glucose units.
Hydrolysis of starch, usually by enzymatic reactions, produces a syrupy liquid consisting largely of glucose. When cornstarch is the feedstock, this
product is known as corn syrup. It is widely used to soften texture, add volume, prohibit crystallization and enhance the flavor of foods.
Glycogen is the glucose storage polymer used by animals. It has a structure similar to amylopectin, but is even more highly branched (about every tenth
glucose unit). The degree of branching in these polysaccharides may be measured by enzymatic or chemical analysis.
For examples of chemical analysis of branching Click Here.

Synthetic Modification of Cellulose

Cotton, probably the most useful natural fiber, is nearly pure cellulose. The manufacture of textiles from cotton involves physical manipulation of the
raw material by carding, combing and spinning selected fibers. For fabrics the best cotton has long fibers, and short fibers or cotton dust are removed.
Crude cellulose is also available from wood pulp by dissolving the lignan matrix surrounding it. These less desirable cellulose sources are widely used
for making paper.
In order to expand the ways in which cellulose can be put to practical use, chemists have devised techniques for preparing solutions of cellulose
derivatives that can be spun into fibers, spread into a film or cast in various solid forms. A key factor in these transformations are the three free hydroxyl
groups on each glucose unit in the cellulose chain, --[C6H7O(OH)3]n--. Esterification of these functions leads to polymeric products having very different
properties compared with cellulose itself.
Cellulose Nitrate, first prepared over 150 years ago by treating cellulose with nitric acid, is the earliest synthetic polymer to see general use. The fully
nitrated compound, --[C6H7O(ONO2)3]n--, called guncotton, is explosively flammable and is a component of smokeless powder. Partially nitrated
cellulose is called pyroxylin. Pyroxylin is soluble in ether and at one time was used for photographic film and lacquers. The high flammability of
pyroxylin caused many tragic cinema fires during its period of use. Furthermore, slow hydrolysis of pyroxylin yields nitric acid, a process that
contributes to the deterioration of early motion picture films in storage.
Cellulose Acetate, --[C6H7O(OAc)3]n--, is less flammable than pyroxylin, and has replaced it in most applications. It is prepared by reaction of cellulose
with acetic anhydride and an acid catalyst. The properties of the product vary with the degree of acetylation. Some chain shortening occurs unavoidably
in the preparations. An acetone solution of cellulose acetate may be forced through a spinneret to generate filaments, called acetate rayon, that can be
woven into fabrics.
Viscose Rayon, is prepared by formation of an alkali soluble xanthate derivative that can be spun into a fiber that reforms the cellulose polymer by acid
quenching. The following general equation illustrates these transformations. The product fiber is called viscose rayon.

NaOH H3O(+)
ROH RO(-) Na(+) + S=C=S RO-CS2(-) Na(+) ROH

cellulose viscose solution rayon

Contributors
William Reusch, Professor Emeritus (Michigan State U.), Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry

This page titled 9.1.1: Introduction to Carbohydrates is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
William Reusch.
Introduction to Carbohydrates by William Reusch is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
9.1.2: Carbohydrate Classification
There are a variety of interrelated classification schemes. The most useful classification scheme divides the carbohydrates into
groups according to the number of individual simple sugar units. Monosaccharides contain a single unit; disaccharides contain
two sugar units; and polysaccharides contain many sugar units as in polymers - most contain glucose as the monosaccharide unit.

Monosaccharides Disaccharides

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9.1.3: Carbohydrate Isomers
Glyceraldehyde, the simplest carbohydrate, exhibits properties of a chiral or optical isomer compound. This molecule forms the
basis for the designation of the isomers of all of the carbohydrates.

Introduction
Glyceraldehyde can exist in two isomeric forms that are mirror images of each other which are shown below. The absolute
configuration is defined by the molecule on the far left as the D-glyceraldehyde. With the aldehyde group in the "up" direction, the
the -OH group must project to the right side of the molecule for the D isomer. Chemists have used this configuration of D-
glyceraldehyde to determine the optical isomer families of the rest of the carbohydrates. All naturally occurring monosaccharides
belong to the D optical family. It is remarkable that the chemistry and enzymes of all living things can tell the difference between
the geometry of one optical isomer over the other.

Monosaccharides are assigned to the D-family according to the projection of the -OH group to the right on the chiral carbon that is
the farthest from the carbonyl (aldehyde) group. This is on carbon # 5 if the carbonyl carbon is # 1.
Note: For whatever reason, the ball and stick model does not completely match the projections of the -OH groups on carbons # 2
and 4. It is in the way that the flat Fischer model has been defined.

How many chiral carbons can you find? List them. If necessary Review Chiral Compounds to find the [Link] check the
answer from the drop down menu.

Answer

Compare Glucose and Galactose

Examine the structures of glucose and galactose carefully. Which -OH group determines that they both are the D isomer? Then
check the answer from the drop down menu.

[Link] [Link]
 Answer

Isomers have different arrangements of atoms. Which carbon bonding to -OH and -H is different in glucose vs. galactose? This
single difference makes glucose and galactose isomers. Then check the answer from the drop down menu.

Answer

Contributors
Charles Ophardt, Professor Emeritus, Elmhurst College; Virtual Chembook

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Carbohydrate Isomers is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

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9.1.4: Carbohydrate Overview
Introduction
The chemistry of carbohydrates most closely resembles that of alcohol, aldehyde, and ketone functional groups. As a result, the
modern definition of a CARBOHYDRATE is that the compounds are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. The chemistry of
carbohydrates is complicated by the fact that there is a functional group (alcohol) on almost every carbon. In addition, the
carbohydrate may exist in either a straight chain or a ring structure. Ring structures incorporate two additional functional groups:
the hemiacetal and acetal.
A major part of the carbon cycle occurs as carbon dioxide is converted to carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Carbohydrates are
utilized by animals and humans in metabolism to produce energy and other compounds.
Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions carried out by algae, phytoplankton, and the leaves in plants, which utilize the
energy from the sun. The simplified version of this chemical reaction is to utilize carbon dioxide molecules from the air and water
molecules and the energy from the sun to produce a simple sugar such as glucose and oxygen molecules as a by product. The
simple sugars are then converted into other molecules such as starch, fats, proteins, enzymes, and DNA/RNA i.e. all of the other
molecules in living plants. All of the "matter/stuff" of a plant ultimately is produced as a result of this photosynthesis reaction.

Di- and Poly-Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit such as glucose, galactose, fructose, etc.
Disaccharides contain two sugar units. In almost all cases one of the sugars is glucose, with the other sugar being galactose,
fructose, or another glucose. Common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose.
Polysaccharides contain many sugar units in long polymer chains of many repeating units. The most common sugar unit is
glucose. Common poly saccharides are starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
Table 1: Common Carbohydrates
Name Derivation of name and Source

Monosaccharides

Glucose From Greek word for sweet wine; grape sugar, blood sugar, dextrose.

Galactose Greek word for milk--"galact", found as a component of lactose in milk.

Fructose Latin word for fruit--"fructus", also known as levulose,found in fruits and honey; sweetest sugar.

Ribose Ribose and Deoxyribose are found in the backbone structure of RNA and DNA, respectively.

Disaccharides - contain two monosaccharides

Sucrose French word for sugar--"sucre", a disaccharide containing glucose and fructose; table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar.

Lactose Latin word for milk--"lact"; a disaccharide found in milk containing glucose and galactose.

French word for "malt"; a disaccharide containing two units of glucose; found in germinating grains, used to make
Maltose
beer.
Common Polysaccharides
Plants store glucose as the polysaccharide starch. The cereal grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley) as well as tubers
Starch
such as potatoes are rich in starch.
The major component in the rigid cell walls in plants is cellulose and is a linear polysaccharide polymer with many
Cellulose
glucose monosaccharide units.
This is the storage form of glucose in animals and humans which is analogous to the starch in plants. Glycogen is
Glycogen
synthesized and stored mainly in the liver and the muscles.

Metabolism
Metabolism occurs in animals and humans after the ingestion of organic plant or animal foods. In the cells a series of complex
reactions occurs with oxygen to convert for example glucose sugar into the products of carbon dioxide and water and ENERGY.
This reaction is also carried out by bacteria in the decomposition/decay of waste materials on land and in the water.

[Link] [Link]
Combustion occurs when any organic material is reacted (burned) in the presence of oxygen to give off the products of carbon
dioxide and water and ENERGY. The organic material can be any fossil fuel such as natural gas (methane), oil, or coal. Other
organic materials that combust are wood, paper, plastics, and cloth.
The whole purpose of both processes is to convert chemical energy into other forms of energy such as heat.

Contributors
Charles Ophardt, Professor Emeritus, Elmhurst College; Virtual Chembook

9.1.4: Carbohydrate Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Carbohydrate Overview is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

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9.1.5: Nonreducing Sugar
A nonreducing sugar is a carbohydrate that is not oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent (an oxidizing agent that oxidizes aldehydes
but not alcohols, such as the Tollen’s reagent) in basic aqueous solution. The characteristic property of nonreducing sugars is that,
in basic aqueous medium, they do not generate any compounds containing an aldehyde group.
eg: sucrose, which contains neither a hemiacetal group nor a hemiketal group and, therefore, is stable in water.

Contributors and Attributions

Gamini Gunawardena from the OChemPal site (Utah Valley University)

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9.2: Lipids

On July 11, 2003, the Food and Drug Administration amended its food labeling regulations to require that manufacturers list
the amount of trans fatty acids on Nutrition Facts labels of foods and dietary supplements, effective January 1, 2006. This
amendment was a response to published studies demonstrating a link between the consumption of trans fatty acids and an
increased risk of heart disease. Trans fatty acids are produced in the conversion of liquid oils to solid fats, as in the creation of
many commercial margarines and shortenings. They have been shown to increase the levels of low-density lipoproteins
(LDLs)—complexes that are often referred to as bad cholesterol—in the blood. In this chapter, you will learn about fatty acids
and what is meant by a trans fatty acid, as well as the difference between fats and oils. You will also learn what cholesterol is
and why it is an important molecule in the human body.

Fats and oils, found in many of the foods we eat, belong to a class of biomolecules known as lipids. Gram for gram, they pack more
than twice the caloric content of carbohydrates: the oxidation of fats and oils supplies about 9 kcal of energy for every gram
oxidized, whereas the oxidation of carbohydrates supplies only 4 kcal/g. Although the high caloric content of fats may be bad news
for the dieter, it says something about the efficiency of nature’s designs. Our bodies use carbohydrates, primarily in the form of
glucose, for our immediate energy needs. Our capacity for storing carbohydrates for later use is limited to tucking away a bit of
glycogen in the liver or in muscle tissue. We store our reserve energy in lipid form, which requires far less space than the same
amount of energy stored in carbohydrate form. Lipids have other biological functions besides energy storage. They are a major
component of the membranes of the 10 trillion cells in our bodies. They serve as protective padding and insulation for vital organs.
Furthermore, without lipids in our diets, we would be deficient in the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Lipids are not defined by the presence of specific functional groups, as carbohydrates are, but by a physical property—solubility.
Compounds isolated from body tissues are classified as lipids if they are more soluble in organic solvents, such as
dichloromethane, than in water. By this criterion, the lipid category includes not only fats and oils, which are esters of the
trihydroxy alcohol glycerol and fatty acids, but also compounds that incorporate functional groups derived from phosphoric acid,
carbohydrates, or amino alcohols, as well as steroid compounds such as cholesterol (Figure 9.2.1 presents one scheme for
classifying the various kinds of lipids). We will discuss the various kinds of lipids by considering one subclass at a time and
pointing out structural similarities and differences as we go.

Figure 9.2.1 : Lipid Organization Based on Structural Relationships

Lipid categorized into fatty acids and steroids. Fatty acids are further separated into triglycerides, phospho-glycerides, waxes, and
sphingolipids. Sphingolipids are separated into sphingo-myelins and glycolipids. Glycolipids are separated into cerebrosides and
gangliosides.

9.2: Lipids is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
17.0: Prelude to Lipids by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source: [Link]
to-chemistry-general-organic-and-biological.

9.2.1 [Link]
9.2.1: Fatty Acids
 Learning Objectives
To recognize the structures of common fatty acids and classify them as saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated.

Fatty acids are carboxylic acids that are structural components of fats, oils, and all other categories of lipids, except steroids. More
than 70 have been identified in nature. They usually contain an even number of carbon atoms (typically 12–20), are generally
unbranched, and can be classified by the presence and number of carbon-to-carbon double bonds. Thus, saturated fatty acids
contain no carbon-to-carbon double bonds, monounsaturated fatty acids contain one carbon-to-carbon double bond, and
polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more carbon-to-carbon double bonds.

Cis fatty acids have two H atoms on the same side of the plane of the fatty acid while trans has the two H atoms on opposite sides.
Table [Link] lists some common fatty acids and one important source for each. The atoms or groups around the double bonds in
unsaturated fatty acids can be arranged in either the cis or trans isomeric form. Naturally occurring fatty acids are generally in the
cis configuration.
Table [Link] : Some Common Fatty Acids Found in Natural Fats
Abbreviated Structural Condensed Structural
Name Melting Point (°C) Source
Formula Formula

lauric acid C11H23COOH CH3(CH2)10COOH 44 palm kernel oil

myristic acid C13H27COOH CH3(CH2)12COOH 58 oil of nutmeg

palmitic acid C15H31COOH CH3(CH2)14COOH 63 palm oil

CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7
palmitoleic acid C15H29COOH 0.5 macadamia oil
COOH

stearic acid C17H35COOH CH3(CH2)16COOH 70 cocoa butter

CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7
oleic acid C17H33COOH 16 olive oil
COOH

CH3(CH2)3(CH2CH=CH)2
linoleic acid C17H31COOH −5 canola oil
(CH2)7COOH

CH3(CH2CH=CH)3(CH2)7
α-linolenic acid C17H29COOH −11 flaxseed
COOH

CH3(CH2)4(CH2CH=CH)4
arachidonic acid C19H31COOH −50 liver
(CH2)2COOH

Two polyunsaturated fatty acids—linoleic and α-linolenic acids—are termed essential fatty acids because humans must obtain them
from their diets. Both substances are required for normal growth and development, but the human body does not synthesize them.
The body uses linoleic acid to synthesize many of the other unsaturated fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid, a precursor for the
synthesis of prostaglandins. In addition, the essential fatty acids are necessary for the efficient transport and metabolism of
cholesterol. The average daily diet should contain about 4–6 g of the essential fatty acids.

[Link] [Link]
  To Your Health: Prostaglandins

Prostaglandins are chemical messengers synthesized in the cells in which their physiological activity is expressed. They are
unsaturated fatty acids containing 20 carbon atoms and are synthesized from arachidonic acid—a polyunsaturated fatty acid—
when needed by a particular cell. They are called prostaglandins because they were originally isolated from semen found in the
prostate gland. It is now known that they are synthesized in nearly all mammalian tissues and affect almost all organs in the
body. The five major classes of prostaglandins are designated as PGA, PGB, PGE, PGF, and PGI. Subscripts are attached at the
end of these abbreviations to denote the number of double bonds outside the five-carbon ring in a given prostaglandin.
The prostaglandins are among the most potent biological substances known. Slight structural differences give them highly
distinct biological effects; however, all prostaglandins exhibit some ability to induce smooth muscle contraction, lower blood
pressure, and contribute to the inflammatory response. Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, such as
ibuprofen, obstruct the synthesis of prostaglandins by inhibiting cyclooxygenase, the enzyme needed for the initial step in the
conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins.

Their wide range of physiological activity has led to the synthesis of hundreds of prostaglandins and their analogs. Derivatives
of PGE2 are now used in the United States to induce labor. Other prostaglandins have been employed clinically to lower or
increase blood pressure, inhibit stomach secretions, relieve nasal congestion, relieve asthma, and prevent the formation of
blood clots, which are associated with heart attacks and strokes.

Although we often draw the carbon atoms in a straight line, they actually have more of a zigzag configuration (Figure 9.2.1.2a).
Viewed as a whole, however, the saturated fatty acid molecule is relatively straight (Figure 9.2.1.2b). Such molecules pack closely
together into a crystal lattice, maximizing the strength of dispersion forces and causing fatty acids and the fats derived from them to
have relatively high melting points. In contrast, each cis carbon-to-carbon double bond in an unsaturated fatty acid produces a
pronounced bend in the molecule, so that these molecules do not stack neatly. As a result, the intermolecular attractions of
unsaturated fatty acids (and unsaturated fats) are weaker, causing these substances to have lower melting points. Most are liquids at
room temperature.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : The Structure of Saturated Fatty Acids. (a) There is a zigzag pattern formed by the carbon-to-carbon single bonds
in the ball-and-stick model of a palmitic acid molecule. (b) A space-filling model of palmitic acid shows the overall straightness of
a saturated fatty acid molecule.
Waxes are esters formed from long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols. Most natural waxes are mixtures of such esters. Plant
waxes on the surfaces of leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits protect the plant from dehydration and invasion by harmful
microorganisms. Carnauba wax, used extensively in floor waxes, automobile waxes, and furniture polish, is largely myricyl
cerotate, obtained from the leaves of certain Brazilian palm trees. Animals also produce waxes that serve as protective coatings,
keeping the surfaces of feathers, skin, and hair pliable and water repellent. In fact, if the waxy coating on the feathers of a water
bird is dissolved as a result of the bird swimming in an oil slick, the feathers become wet and heavy, and the bird, unable to
maintain its buoyancy, drowns.

Summary
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids that are the structural components of many lipids. They may be saturated or unsaturated. Most fatty
acids are unbranched and contain an even number of carbon atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points than
saturated fatty acids containing the same number of carbon atoms.

9.2.1: Fatty Acids is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
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chemistry-general-organic-and-biological.

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9.2.2: Steroids
 Learning Objectives
To identify the functions of steroids produced in mammals.

All the lipids discussed so far are saponifiable, reacting with aqueous alkali to yield simpler components, such as glycerol, fatty
acids, amino alcohols, and sugars. Lipid samples extracted from cellular material, however, also contain a small but important
fraction that does not react with alkali. The most important nonsaponifiable lipids are the steroids. These compounds include the
bile salts, cholesterol and related compounds, and certain hormones (such as cortisone and the sex hormones).

Figure [Link] Steroids. (a) The four-fused-ring steroid skeleton uses letter designations for each ring and the numbering of the
carbon atoms. (b) The cholesterol molecule follows this pattern.
Steroids occur in plants, animals, yeasts, and molds but not in bacteria. They may exist in free form or combined with fatty acids or
carbohydrates. All steroids have a characteristic structural component consisting of four fused rings. Chemists identify the rings by
capital letters and number the carbon atoms as shown in Figure 9.2.2.1a. Slight variations in this structure or in the atoms or
groups attached to it produce profound differences in biological activity.

Cholesterol
Cholesterol (Figure 9.2.2.1b) does not occur in plants, but it is the most abundant steroid in the human body (240 g is a typical
amount). Excess cholesterol is believed to be a primary factor in the development of atherosclerosis and heart disease, which are
major health problems in the United States today. About half of the body’s cholesterol is interspersed in the lipid bilayer of cell
membranes. Much of the rest is converted to cholic acid, which is used in the formation of bile salts. Cholesterol is also a precursor
in the synthesis of sex hormones, adrenal hormones, and vitamin D.
Excess cholesterol not metabolized by the body is released from the liver and transported by the blood to the gallbladder. Normally,
it stays in solution there until being secreted into the intestine (as a component of bile) to be eliminated. Sometimes, however,
cholesterol in the gallbladder precipitates in the form of gallstones (Figure [Link]). Indeed, the name cholesterol is derived from
the Greek chole, meaning “bile,” and stereos, meaning “solid.”

Figure [Link] : Numerous small gallstones made up largely of cholesterol, all removed in one patient. Grid scale 1 mm

 To Your Health: Cholesterol and Heart Disease

Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States for both men and women. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention reported that heart disease claimed 631,636 lives in the United States (26% of all reported deaths) in 2006.

[Link] [Link]
 Scientists agree that elevated cholesterol levels in the blood, as well as high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and cigarette
smoking, are associated with an increased risk of heart disease. A long-term investigation by the National Institutes of Health
showed that among men ages 30 to 49, the incidence of heart disease was five times greater for those whose cholesterol levels
were above 260 mg/100 mL of serum than for those with cholesterol levels of 200 mg/100 mL or less. The cholesterol content
of blood varies considerably with age, diet, and sex. Young adults average about 170 mg of cholesterol per 100 mL of blood,
whereas males at age 55 may have cholesterol levels at 250 mg/100 mL or higher because the rate of cholesterol breakdown
decreases with age. Females tend to have lower blood cholesterol levels than males.
To understand the link between heart disease and cholesterol levels, it is important to understand how cholesterol and other
lipids are transported in the body. Lipids, such as cholesterol, are not soluble in water and therefore cannot be transported in the
blood (an aqueous medium) unless they are complexed with proteins that are soluble in water, forming assemblages called
lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are classified according to their density, which is dependent on the relative amounts of protein and
lipid they contain. Lipids are less dense than proteins, so lipoproteins containing a greater proportion of lipid are less dense
than those containing a greater proportion of protein.

Research on cholesterol and its role in heart disease has focused on serum levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-
density lipoproteins (HDLs). One of the most fascinating discoveries is that high levels of HDLs reduce a person’s risk of
developing heart disease, whereas high levels of LDLs increase that risk. Thus the serum LDL:HDL ratio is a better predictor of
heart disease risk than the overall level of serum cholesterol. Persons who, because of hereditary or dietary factors, have high
LDL:HDL ratios in their blood have a higher incidence of heart disease.
How do HDLs reduce the risk of developing heart disease? No one knows for sure, but one role of HDLs appears to be the
transport of excess cholesterol to the liver, where it can be metabolized. Therefore, HDLs aid in removing cholesterol from blood
and from the smooth muscle cells of the arterial wall.
Dietary modifications and increased physical activity can help lower total cholesterol and improve the LDL:HDL ratio. The
average American consumes about 600 mg of cholesterol from animal products each day and also synthesizes approximately 1 g of
cholesterol each day, mostly in the liver. The amount of cholesterol synthesized is controlled by the cholesterol level in the blood;
when the blood cholesterol level exceeds 150 mg/100 mL, the rate of cholesterol biosynthesis is halved. Hence, if cholesterol is
present in the diet, a feedback mechanism suppresses its synthesis in the liver. However, the ratio of suppression is not a 1:1 ratio;
the reduction in biosynthesis does not equal the amount of cholesterol ingested. Thus, dietary substitutions of unsaturated fat for
saturated fat, as well as a reduction in consumption of trans fatty acids, is recommended to help lower serum cholesterol and the
risk of heart disease.

Steroid Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers that are released in one tissue and transported through the circulatory system to one or more
other tissues. One group of hormones is known as steroid hormones because these hormones are synthesized from cholesterol,
which is also a steroid. There are two main groups of steroid hormones: adrenocortical hormones and sex hormones.
The adrenocortical hormones, such as aldosterone and cortisol (Table [Link]), are produced by the adrenal gland, which is located
adjacent to each kidney. Aldosterone acts on most cells in the body, but it is particularly effective at enhancing the rate of
reabsorption of sodium ions in the kidney tubules and increasing the secretion of potassium ions and/or hydrogen ions by the

[Link] [Link]
tubules. Because the concentration of sodium ions is the major factor influencing water retention in tissues, aldosterone promotes
water retention and reduces urine output. Cortisol regulates several key metabolic reactions (for example, increasing glucose
production and mobilizing fatty acids and amino acids). It also inhibits the inflammatory response of tissue to injury or stress.
Cortisol and its analogs are therefore used pharmacologically as immunosuppressants after transplant operations and in the
treatment of severe skin allergies and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Table [Link] : Representative Steroid Hormones and Their Physiological Effects
Hormone Effect

regulates salt metabolism; stimulates kidneys to retain sodium and

excrete potassium

stimulates the conversion of proteins to carbohydrates

regulates the menstrual cycle; maintains pregnancy

stimulates female sex characteristics; regulates changes during the

menstrual cycle

stimulates and maintains male sex characteristics

The sex hormones are a class of steroid hormones secreted by the gonads (ovaries or testes), the placenta, and the adrenal glands.
Testosterone and androstenedione are the primary male sex hormones, or androgens, controlling the primary sexual characteristics
of males, or the development of the male genital organs and the continuous production of sperm. Androgens are also responsible
for the development of secondary male characteristics, such as facial hair, deep voice, and muscle strength. Two kinds of sex
hormones are of particular importance in females: progesterone, which prepares the uterus for pregnancy and prevents the further
release of eggs from the ovaries during pregnancy, and the estrogens, which are mainly responsible for the development of female
secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and increased deposition of fat tissue in the breasts, the buttocks, and
the thighs. Both males and females produce androgens and estrogens, differing in the amounts of secreted hormones rather than in
the presence or absence of one or the other.
Sex hormones, both natural and synthetic, are sometimes used therapeutically. For example, a woman who has had her ovaries
removed may be given female hormones to compensate. Some of the earliest chemical compounds employed in cancer
chemotherapy were sex hormones. For example, estrogens are one treatment option for prostate cancer because they block the
release and activity of testosterone. Testosterone enhances prostate cancer growth. Sex hormones are also administered in

[Link] [Link]
preparation for sex-change operations, to promote the development of the proper secondary sexual characteristics. Oral
contraceptives are synthetic derivatives of the female sex hormones; they work by preventing ovulation.

Bile Salts
Bile is a yellowish green liquid (pH 7.8–8.6) produced in the liver. The most important constituents of bile are bile salts, which are
sodium salts of amidelike combinations of bile acids, such as cholic acid (part (a) of Figure [Link]) and an amine such as the
amino acid glycine (part (b) of Figure [Link]). They are synthesized from cholesterol in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and
then secreted in bile into the small intestine. In the gallbladder, the composition of bile gradually changes as water is absorbed and
the other components become more concentrated.

Figure [Link] Bile Acids. (a) Cholic acid is an example of a bile acid. (b) Sodium glycocholate is a bile salt synthesized from
cholic acid and glycine.
Because they contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups, bile salts are highly effective detergents and emulsifying agents;
they break down large fat globules into smaller ones and keep those smaller globules suspended in the aqueous digestive
environment. Enzymes can then hydrolyze fat molecules more efficiently. Thus, the major function of bile salts is to aid in the
digestion of dietary lipids.

Surgical removal is often advised for a gallbladder that becomes infected, inflamed, or perforated. This surgery does not
seriously affect digestion because bile is still produced by the liver, but the liver’s bile is more dilute and its secretion into the
small intestine is not as closely tied to the arrival of food.

Summary
Steroids have a four-fused-ring structure and have a variety of functions. Cholesterol is a steroid found in mammals that is needed
for the formation of cell membranes, bile acids, and several hormones. Bile salts are secreted into the small intestine to aid in the
digestion of fats.

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9.3: Amino Acids
Athletics are very competitive these days at all levels, from school sports to the pros. Everybody is looking for that edge that will
make them faster, stronger, and more physically fit. One approach taken by many athletes is the use of amino acid supplements.
The theory is that the increase in amino acids in the diet will lead to increased protein for muscles. However, the only real benefit
comes to the people who make and sell the pills. Studies have not shown any advantage obtained by the athletes themselves; they
are better off just maintaining a healthy diet.

Amino Acids
An amino acid is a compound that contains both an amine group (−NH ) and a carboxyl group (−COOH) in the same molecule.
2

While any number of amino acids can be imagined, biochemists generally reserve the term for a group of 20 amino acids which are
formed and used by living organisms. The figure below shows the general structure of an amino acid.

Figure 9.3.1 : An amino acid is an organic molecule that contains an amine group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain , all
(R)

bonded to a central carbon atom.

The amino acid and carboxyl group of an amino acid are both covalently bonded to a central carbon atom. That carbon atom is also
bonded to a hydrogen atom and an R group. It is this R group which varies from one amino acid to another and is called the amino
acid side chain.
The nature of the side chains accounts for the variability in physical and chemical properties of the different amino acids. Some
side chains consist of nonpolar aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons. Other side chains are polar, while some are acidic or basic.

9.3.1 [Link]
 Figure 9.3.2 : Five of the twenty biologically relevant amino acids, each having a distinct side chain (R). Alanine's side chain is
nonpolar, while threonine's is polar. Tryptophan is one of several amino acids whose side chain is aromatic. Aspartic acid has an
acidic side chain, while lysine has a basic side chain.
The table below lists the names of the 20 naturally occurring amino acids along with a three-letter abbreviation which is used to
describe sequences of linked amino acids.
Table 9.3.1 : Amino acids and Abbreviations
Amino acids and Abbreviations
Amino Acid Abbreviation Amino Acid Abbreviation

Alanine Ala Leucine Leu

Arginine Arg Lysine Lys

Asparagine Asp Methionine Met

Aspartic acid Asp Phenylalanine Phe

Cysteine Cys Proline Pro

Glutamine Gln Serine Ser

Glutamic acid Glu Threonine Thr

Glycine Gly Tryptophan Trp

Histidine His Tyrosine Tyr

Isoleucine Ile Valine Val

Another more recent set of abbreviations employs only one letter. Leucine would be designated by L, serine by S, tyrosine by Y.
The advantage of this system comes when listing the amino acid sequence of a protein that may contain over 100 amino acids in its

9.3.2 [Link]
chain.

Summary
An amino acid is a compound that contains both an amine group (−NH ) and a carboxyl group (−COOH) in the same
2

molecule.
The nature of an amino acid's side chain accounts for the variability in chemical and physical properties of amino acids.
There are 20 amino acids formed and used by living organisms.

9.3: Amino Acids is shared under a CC BY-NC license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
26.4: Amino Acids by CK-12 Foundation is licensed CK-12. Original source: [Link]
2.0/.

9.3.3 [Link]
9.3.1: Peptide Bonds
The formation of peptides is nothing more than the application of the amide synthesis reaction. By convention, the amide bond in
the peptides should be made in the order that the amino acids are written. The amine end (N terminal) of an amino acid is always
on the left, while the acid end (C terminal) is on the right. The reaction of glycine with alanine to form the dipeptide glyclalanine is
written as shown in the graphic on the left. Oxygen (red) from the acid and hydrogens (red) on the amine form a water molecule.
The carboxyl oxygen (green) and the amine nitrogen (green) join to form the amide bond.

If the order of listing the amino acids is reversed, a different dipeptide is formed such as alaninylglycine.

 Exercise [Link]

Write the reactions for:

a. ala + gly ---> Answer graphic
b. phe + ser ----> Answer graphic

Salt Formation Contrast

The salt formation reaction is simply the transfer of the -H (positive ion) from the acid to the amine and the attraction of the
positive and negative chagres. The acid group becomes negative, and the amine nitrogen becomes positive because of the positive
hydrogen ion. No water is formed and there is only one product, the salt.

Backbone Peptide or Protein Structure

The structure of a peptide can be written fairly easily without showing the complete amide synthesis reaction by learning the
structure of the "backbone" for peptides and proteins. The peptide backbone consists of repeating units of "N-H 2, CH, C double
bond O; N-H 2, CH, C double bond O; etc. After the backbone is written, go back and write the specific structure for the side
chains as represented by the "R" as gly-ala-leu for this example. The amine end (N terminal) of an amino acid is always on the left
(gly), while the acid end (C terminal) is on the right (leu).

[Link] [Link]
  Exercise [Link]

Write the tripeptide structure for val-ser-cys. First write the "backbone" and then add the specific side chains. Answer graphic

 Exercise [Link]
Write the structure for the tripeptide:
1. a ) glu-cys-gly ---> Answer graphic
2. b) phe-tyr-asn ---> Answer graphic

Glutathione
Glutathione is an important tripeptide present in significant concentrations in all tissues. It contains glutamic acid, cysteine, and
glycine. What is unusual about the structure of glutathione (bottom figure below? Compare it to a "normal" tri peptide of glu-cys-
gly (top graphic). Instead of the usual backbone, the carboxyl acid "side chain" is part of the backbone peptide structure. The
normal carboxyl group is the so called side chain in this case.

The function of glutathione is to protect cells from oxidizing agents which might otherwise damage them. The oxidizing agents
react with the -SH group of cysteine of the glutathione instead of doing damage elsewhere. Many foreign chemicals get attached to
glutathione, which is really acting as a detoxifying agent.

Contributors
Charles Ophardt (Professor Emeritus, Elmhurst College); Virtual Chembook

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9.3.2: Proteins and Amino Acids
Proteins, from the Greek proteios, meaning first, are a class of organic compounds which are present in and vital to every living
cell. In the form of skin, hair, callus, cartilage, muscles, tendons and ligaments, proteins hold together, protect, and provide
structure to the body of a multi-celled organism. In the form of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and globulins, they catalyze,
regulate, and protect the body chemistry. In the form of hemoglobin, myoglobin and various lipoproteins, they effect the transport
of oxygen and other substances within an organism.

Contributors and Attributions

William Reusch, Professor Emeritus (Michigan State U.), Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry

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9.4: Nucleic Acids
Following the initial isolation of insulin in 1921, diabetic patients could be treated with insulin obtained from the pancreases of
cattle and pigs. Unfortunately, some patients developed an allergic reaction to this insulin because its amino acid sequence was not
identical to that of human insulin. In the 1970s, an intense research effort began that eventually led to the production of genetically
engineered human insulin—the first genetically engineered product to be approved for medical use. To accomplish this feat,
researchers first had to determine how insulin is made in the body and then find a way of causing the same process to occur in
nonhuman organisms, such as bacteria or yeast cells. Many aspects of these discoveries are presented in this chapter on nucleic
acids.

Figure 9.4.1 : A vial of insulin. It has been given a trade name, Actrapid, by the manufacturer. (Public Domain; Mr Hyde).

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9.4.1 [Link]
9.4.1: Nucleotides
 Learning Objectives
To identify the different molecules that combine to form nucleotides.

The repeating, or monomer, units that are linked together to form nucleic acids are known as nucleotides. The deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) of a typical mammalian cell contains about 3 × 109 nucleotides. Nucleotides can be further broken down to phosphoric
acid (H3PO4), a pentose sugar (a sugar with five carbon atoms), and a nitrogenous base (a base containing nitrogen atoms).
can be broken can be broken

nucleic acids −−−−−−−−→ nucleotides −−−−−−−−→ H3 PO4 + nitrogen base + pentose sugar
down into down into

If the pentose sugar is ribose, the nucleotide is more specifically referred to as a ribonucleotide, and the resulting nucleic acid is
ribonucleic acid (RNA). If the sugar is 2-deoxyribose, the nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide, and the nucleic acid is DNA.

The nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides are classified as pyrimidines or purines. Pyrimidines are heterocyclic amines with two
nitrogen atoms in a six-member ring and include uracil, thymine, and cytosine. Purines are heterocyclic amines consisting of a
pyrimidine ring fused to a five-member ring with two nitrogen atoms. Adenine and guanine are the major purines found in nucleic
acids (Figure [Link]).

Figure [Link] : The Nitrogenous Bases Found in DNA and RNA

The formation of a bond between C1′ of the pentose sugar and N1 of the pyrimidine base or N9 of the purine base joins the pentose
sugar to the nitrogenous base. In the formation of this bond, a molecule of water is removed. Table [Link] summarizes the
similarities and differences in the composition of nucleotides in DNA and RNA.

The numbering convention is that primed numbers designate the atoms of the pentose ring, and unprimed numbers designate
the atoms of the purine or pyrimidine ring.

Table [Link] : Composition of Nucleotides in DNA and RNA

Composition DNA RNA

[Link] [Link]
 Composition DNA RNA

purine bases adenine and guanine adenine and guanine

pyrimidine bases cytosine and thymine cytosine and uracil

pentose sugar 2-deoxyribose ribose

inorganic acid phosphoric acid (H3PO4) H3PO4

The names and structures of the major ribonucleotides and one of the deoxyribonucleotides are given in Figure [Link].

Figure [Link] : The Pyrimidine and Purine Nucleotides

Apart from being the monomer units of DNA and RNA, the nucleotides and some of their derivatives have other functions as well.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), shown in Figure [Link], have a role in cell metabolism.
Moreover, a number of coenzymes, including flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), and
coenzyme A, contain adenine nucleotides as structural components.

Figure [Link] : Structures of Two Important Adenine-Containing Nucleotides

[Link] [Link]
Summary
Nucleotides are composed of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and a nitrogen-containing base (adenine,
cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil). Ribonucleotides contain ribose, while deoxyribonucleotides contain deoxyribose.

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chemistry-general-organic-and-biological.

[Link] [Link]
9.4.2: Nucleic Acid Structure
Skills to Develop
Identify the two types of nucleic acids and the function of each type.
Describe how nucleotides are linked together to form nucleic acids.
Describe the secondary structure of DNA and the importance of complementary base pairing.

Nucleic acids are large polymers formed by linking nucleotides together and are found in every cell. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
is the nucleic acid that stores genetic information. If all the DNA in a typical mammalian cell were stretched out end to end, it
would extend more than 2 m. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is the nucleic acid responsible for using the genetic information encoded in
DNA to produce the thousands of proteins found in living organisms.

Primary Structure of Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides are joined together through the phosphate group of one nucleotide connecting in an ester linkage to the OH group on
the third carbon atom of the sugar unit of a second nucleotide. This unit joins to a third nucleotide, and the process is repeated to
produce a long nucleic acid chain (Figure [Link]). The backbone of the chain consists of alternating phosphate and sugar units (2-
deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA). The purine and pyrimidine bases branch off this backbone.

Each phosphate group has one acidic hydrogen atom that is ionized at physiological pH.
This is why these compounds are known as nucleic acids.

Figure [Link] Structure of a Segment of DNA. A similar segment of RNA would have OH groups on each C2′, and uracil would
replace thymine.
Like proteins, nucleic acids have a primary structure that is defined as the sequence of their nucleotides. Unlike proteins, which
have 20 different kinds of amino acids, there are only 4 different kinds of nucleotides in nucleic acids. For amino acid sequences in
proteins, the convention is to write the amino acids in order starting with the N-terminal amino acid. In writing nucleotide
sequences for nucleic acids, the convention is to write the nucleotides (usually using the one-letter abbreviations for the bases,
shown in Figure [Link]) starting with the nucleotide having a free phosphate group, which is known as the 5′ end, and indicate the
nucleotides in order. For DNA, a lowercase d is often written in front of the sequence to indicate that the monomers are
deoxyribonucleotides. The final nucleotide has a free OH group on the 3′ carbon atom and is called the 3′ end. The sequence of

[Link] [Link]
nucleotides in the DNA segment shown in Figure [Link] would be written 5′-dG-dT-dA-dC-3′, which is often further abbreviated
to dGTAC or just GTAC.

Secondary Structure of DNA

The three-dimensional structure of DNA was the subject of an intensive research effort in the late 1940s to early 1950s. Initial work
revealed that the polymer had a regular repeating structure. In 1950, Erwin Chargaff of Columbia University showed that the molar
amount of adenine (A) in DNA was always equal to that of thymine (T). Similarly, he showed that the molar amount of guanine
(G) was the same as that of cytosine (C). Chargaff drew no conclusions from his work, but others soon did.
At Cambridge University in 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick announced that they had a model for the secondary structure
of DNA. Using the information from Chargaff’s experiments (as well as other experiments) and data from the X ray studies of
Rosalind Franklin (which involved sophisticated chemistry, physics, and mathematics), Watson and Crick worked with models that
were not unlike a child’s construction set and finally concluded that DNA is composed of two nucleic acid chains running
antiparallel to one another—that is, side-by-side with the 5′ end of one chain next to the 3′ end of the other. Moreover, as their
model showed, the two chains are twisted to form a double helix—a structure that can be compared to a spiral staircase, with the
phosphate and sugar groups (the backbone of the nucleic acid polymer) representing the outside edges of the staircase. The purine
and pyrimidine bases face the inside of the helix, with guanine always opposite cytosine and adenine always opposite thymine.
These specific base pairs, referred to as complementary bases, are the steps, or treads, in our staircase analogy (Figure [Link]).

Figure [Link] DNA Double Helix. (a) This represents a computer-generated model of the DNA double helix. (b) This represents
a schematic representation of the double helix, showing the complementary bases.
The structure proposed by Watson and Crick provided clues to the mechanisms by which cells are able to divide into two identical,
functioning daughter cells; how genetic data are passed to new generations; and even how proteins are built to required
specifications. All these abilities depend on the pairing of complementary bases. Figure [Link] shows the two sets of base pairs
and illustrates two things. First, a pyrimidine is paired with a purine in each case, so that the long dimensions of both pairs are
identical (1.08 nm).

[Link] [Link]
Figure [Link] Complementary Base Pairing. Complementary bases engage in hydrogen bonding with one another: (a) thymine
and adenine; (b) cytosine and guanine.
If two pyrimidines were paired or two purines were paired, the two pyrimidines would take up less space than a purine and a
pyrimidine, and the two purines would take up more space, as illustrated in Figure [Link]. If these pairings were ever to occur, the
structure of DNA would be like a staircase made with stairs of different widths. For the two strands of the double helix to fit neatly,
a pyrimidine must always be paired with a purine. The second thing you should notice in Figure [Link] is that the correct pairing
enables formation of three instances of hydrogen bonding between guanine and cytosine and two between adenine and thymine.
The additive contribution of this hydrogen bonding imparts great stability to the DNA double helix.

Figure [Link] Difference in Widths of Possible Base Pairs

Summary
DNA is the nucleic acid that stores genetic information. RNA is the nucleic acid responsible for using the genetic information in
DNA to produce proteins.
Nucleotides are joined together to form nucleic acids through the phosphate group of one nucleotide connecting in an ester
linkage to the OH group on the third carbon atom of the sugar unit of a second nucleotide.
Nucleic acid sequences are written starting with the nucleotide having a free phosphate group (the 5′ end).
Two DNA strands link together in an antiparallel direction and are twisted to form a double helix. The nitrogenous bases face
the inside of the helix. Guanine is always opposite cytosine, and adenine is always opposite thymine.

[Link] [Link]
Concept Review Exercises
1.
a. Name the two kinds of nucleic acids.
b. Which type of nucleic acid stores genetic information in the cell?
2. What are complementary bases?
3. Why is it structurally important that a purine base always pair with a pyrimidine base in the DNA double helix?

Answers
1.
a. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
b. DNA
2. the specific base pairings in the DNA double helix in which guanine is paired with cytosine and adenine is paired with thymine
3. The width of the DNA double helix is kept at a constant width, rather than narrowing (if two pyrimidines were across from each
other) or widening (if two purines were across from each other).

Exercises
1. For this short RNA segment,
a. identify the 5′ end and the 3′ end of the molecule.
b. circle the atoms that comprise the backbone of the nucleic acid chain.
c. write the nucleotide sequence of this RNA segment.

2. For this short DNA segment,

a. identify the 5′ end and the 3′ end of the molecule.
b. circle the atoms that comprise the backbone of the nucleic acid chain.
c. write the nucleotide sequence of this DNA segment.

[Link] [Link]
3. Which nitrogenous base in DNA pairs with each nitrogenous base?
a. cytosine
b. adenine
c. guanine
d. thymine
4. Which nitrogenous base in RNA pairs with each nitrogenous base?
a. cytosine
b. adenine
c. guanine
d. thymine
5. How many hydrogen bonds can form between the two strands in the short DNA segment shown below?
5′ ATGCGACTA 3′ 3′ TACGCTGAT 5′
6. How many hydrogen bonds can form between the two strands in the short DNA segment shown below?
5′ CGATGAGCC 3′ 3′ GCTACTCGG 5′

Answers

1.
c. ACU

[Link] [Link]
 3.
a. guanine
b. thymine
c. cytosine
d. adenine

5. 22 (2 between each AT base pair and 3 between each GC base pair)

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

10: Solids, Liquids, and Gases, Solutions and energy

Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice because it converts from a solid to a gas directly, without going through the liquid phase, in a
process called sublimation. Thus, there is no messy liquid phase to worry about. Although it is a novelty, dry ice has some potential
dangers. Because it is so cold, it can freeze living tissues very quickly, so people handling dry ice should wear special protective
gloves.
We normally experience carbon dioxide (CO ) as a gas, but if it were cooled down to about −78°C, it would become a solid. The
2

everyday term for solid carbon dioxide is dry ice.

Why “dry” ice? Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice because it converts from a solid to a gas directly, without going through the
liquid phase, in a process called sublimation. Thus, there is no messy liquid phase to worry about. Although it is a novelty, dry ice
has some potential dangers. Because it is so cold, it can freeze living tissues very quickly, so people handling dry ice should wear
special protective gloves. The cold carbon dioxide gas is also heavier than air (because it is cold and more dense), so people in the
presence of dry ice should be in a well-ventilated area.

Figure 10.1: Dry ice. (CC BY SA 3.0 unported; ProjectManhattan).

Dry ice has several common uses. Because it is so cold, it is used as a refrigerant to keep other things cold or frozen (e.g., meats or
ice cream). In the medical field, dry ice is used to preserve medical specimens, blood products, and drugs. It also has
dermatological applications (e.g., freezing off warts). Organs for transplant are kept cool with dry ice until the recipient of the new
organ is ready for surgery. In this respect, carbon dioxide is much like water—more than one phase of the same substance has
significant uses in the real world.
10.1: Intermolecular Forces
10.2: Solubility and Pollution
10.3: Properties of Liquids
10.3.1: Water Cycle
10.3.2: Water Pollution
10.3.3: Biological Contamination of Water
10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water
10.3.5: Water Treatment
10.3.6: PBBs
10.4: Solids
10.4.1: Fats and Lipids in Bioamplification

1
 10.5: Prelude to Gases
10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases
10.6: Prelude to Solutions
10.6.1: Definitions
10.7: Introduction to energy
10.7.1: Energy and Chemical Bonds
10.7.2: Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
10.7.3: Phase Changes
10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
10.S: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Summary)

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10.1: Intermolecular Forces
 Learning Objective
Relate phase to intermolecular forces.

Why does a substance have the phase that it does? The preferred phase of a substance at a given set of conditions is a balance
between the energy of the particles and intermolecular forces (or intermolecular interactions) between the particles. If the forces
between particles are strong enough, the substance is a liquid or, if stronger, a solid. If the forces between particles are weak and
sufficient energy is present, the particles separate from each other, so the gas phase is the preferred phase. The energy of the
particles is mostly determined by temperature, so temperature is the main variable that determines what phase is stable at any given
point.
What forces define intermolecular interactions? There are several. A force present in all substances with electrons is the dispersion
force (sometimes called the London dispersion force, after the physicist Fritz London, who first described this force in the early
1900s). This interaction is caused by the instantaneous position of an electron in a molecule, which temporarily makes that point of
the molecule negatively charged and the rest of the molecule positively charged. In an instant, the electron is now somewhere else,
but the fleeting imbalance of electric charge in the molecule allows molecules to interact with each other. As you might expect, the
greater the number of electrons in a species, the stronger the dispersion force; this partially explains why smaller molecules are
gases and larger molecules are liquids and solids at the same temperature. (Mass is a factor as well.)
Molecules with a permanent dipole moment experience dipole-dipole interactions, which are generally stronger than dispersion
forces if all other things are equal. The oppositely charged ends of a polar molecule, which have partial charges on them, attract
each other (Figure 10.1.1). Thus, a polar molecule such as CH2Cl2 has a significantly higher boiling point (313 K, or 40°C) than a
nonpolar molecule like CF4 (145 K, or −128°C), even though it has a lower molar mass (85 g/mol vs. 88 g/mol).

Figure 10.1.1 : Dipole-Dipole Interactions. Oppositely charged ends of polar molecules attract each other.
2 ovals with partial positive left & right sides are attracted to each other. The right of oval 1 is attracted to the left of oval 2.
An unusually strong form of dipole-dipole interaction is called hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding is found in molecules with
an H atom bonded to an N atom, an O atom, or an F atom. Such covalent bonds are very polar, and the dipole-dipole interaction
between these bonds in two or more molecules is strong enough to create a new category of intermolecular force. Hydrogen
bonding is the reason water has unusual properties. For such a small molecule (its molar mass is only 18 g/mol), H2O has relatively
high melting and boiling points. Its boiling point is 373 K (100°C), while the boiling point of a similar molecule, H2S, is 233 K
(−60°C). This is because H2O molecules experience hydrogen bonding, while H2S molecules do not. This strong attraction
between H2O molecules requires additional energy to separate the molecules in the condensed phase, so its boiling point is higher
than would be expected. Hydrogen bonding is also responsible for water's ability as a solvent, its high heat capacity, and its ability
to expand when freezing; the molecules line up in such a way that there is extra space between the molecules, increasing its volume
in the solid state (Figure 10.1.2).

10.1.1 [Link]
 Figure 10.1.2 : Hydrogen Bonding. When water solidifies, hydrogen bonding between the molecules forces the molecules to line up
in a way that creates empty space between the molecules, increasing the overall volume of the solid. This is why ice is less dense
than liquid water.

 Example 10.1.1

Identify the most significant intermolecular force in each substance.

a. C3H8
b. CH3OH
c. H2S

Solution
1. Although C–H bonds are polar, they are only minimally polar. The most significant intermolecular force for this substance
would be dispersion forces.
2. This molecule has an H atom bonded to an O atom, so it will experience hydrogen bonding.
3. Although this molecule does not experience hydrogen bonding, the Lewis electron dot diagram and VSEPR indicate that it
is bent, so it has a permanent dipole. The most significant force in this substance is dipole-dipole interaction.

 Exercise 10.1.1

Identify the most significant intermolecular force in each substance.

a. HF
b. HCl

Answers
a. hydrogen bonding
b. dipole-dipole interactions

The preferred phase a substance adopts can change with temperature. At low temperatures, most substances are solids (only helium
is predicted to be a liquid at absolute zero). As the temperature increases, those substances with very weak intermolecular forces
become gases directly (in a process called sublimation, which will be discussed in Section 10.3). Substances with weak interactions
can become liquids as the temperature increases. As the temperature increases even more, the individual particles will have so
much energy that the intermolecular forces are overcome, so the particles separate from each other, and the substance becomes a
gas (assuming that their chemical bonds are not so weak that the compound decomposes from the high temperature). Although it is
difficult to predict the temperature ranges for which solid, liquid, or gas is the preferred phase for any random substance, all
substances progress from solid to liquid to gas (in that order) as temperature increases.

10.1.2 [Link]
Summary
All substances experience dispersion forces between their particles.
Substances that are polar experience dipole-dipole interactions.
Substances with covalent bonds between an H atom and N, O, or F atoms experience hydrogen bonding.
The preferred phase of a substance depends on the strength of the intermolecular force and the energy of the particles.

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[Link]

10.1.3 [Link]
10.2: Solubility and Pollution
A solution may be gases, liquids, or solids and is composed of a solute and solvent. The solvent is usually the part of the solution
that is present in the greatest amount. The solute is the substance that is dissolving in the solvent and is present in a smaller amount.
Solubility is the amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution for a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature to
produce a saturated solution.1 Solubility versus temperature dependent graphs are often created and show that for most ionic
substances their solubility increases with temperature. In addition, the solubility of ionic compounds at a particular temperature
varies due to interactions between the solute and solvent. In addition, solubility is affected by the intermolecular bonding that
occurs in the ionic compounds.
grams of solute
Solubility =
100 grams of solvent

Figure 10.2.1 . Solubility curve of ionic compounds.2

A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute for a given amount of solvent at a constant temperature. A saturated
solution is in a state of dynamic equilibrium; no additional solute will dissolve if added to the solvent. An unsaturated solution
contains less solute than a saturated solution; therefore it has the capacity to dissolve more solute. A supersaturated solution
contains more solute than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature. A supersaturated solution is made by adding additional
solute and heating the solution and slowly cooling undisturbed. Sometimes in order for crystallization to occur, a seed crystal must
be introduced and the crystallization process is quite fast and dramatic.

Figure 10.2.2 . Crystallization of a supersaturated solution after the addition of a seed crystal.3
The solubility of most solid and liquid solutions increases as the temperature increases. This is not true for gases; rather the
solubility of gases decreases as the temperature increases. The reason for the decrease in solubility is related to the movement of
the molecules. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. An increase in temperature
results in an increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules and an increase in thermal energy. The higher kinetic energy causes
more motion in the molecules, which causes the intermolecular attraction to decrease and the gas molecules of solute can escape
the solution.1 This can easily be seen when an open can of soda in placed at room temperature or in a cool refrigerator. If an
individual would taste the two cans, of soda the can at room temperature would taste very “flat” since more of the “fizz” which is
carbon dioxide has escaped the can. Boiled water also tastes “flat” because more of the oxygen gas has been removed.

10.2.1 [Link]
 Figure 10.2.3 . A graph of the solubility of gases versus temperature, showing that as the temperature of the solution increases the
solubility of a gas decreases.4
Thermal pollution occurs when the temperature of a natural body of water, such as, river, lake or ocean is altered. This alters the
natural environment and impacts the organisms that live or rely on an aquatic ecosystem. Thermal pollution is associated with
electrical power plants and industrial factories that that use fossil fuels or nuclear power; this results in the release of large amounts
of excess thermal energy.5 Water absorbs the energy and is converted to steam, which is used to turn turbines and generate
electricity. As some point, the water will need to be dumped back into nearby river, lake, or ocean and if not properly cooled, it can
increase the temperature of the natural body of water. Thermal pollution can also involve putting colder the normal water into a
nearby body of water.
Elevated water temperatures can also arise from deforestation and urbanization which causes changes in the landscape surrounding
a body of water. When trees surrounding a body of water are removed, the now unshaded water can increase its temperature by as
much as 10 oC. Thermal pollution can even result when the landscape away from the body of water is altered. These changes in
landscape may cause erosion, changes in water volume, and pollutants that may change the composition of the water. For example,
muddy water absorbs more energy from the sun than clear water.
Every response of an aquatic organism from incubation of the egg, to feeding activity, digestive and metabolic processes,
reproduction, geographic distribution, and even survival occurs due to the thermal range by their immediate environment. The
solubility of gases in water plays a major role in the survival of ectotherms, such as fish. Since an increase in temperature
contributes to a decline in the solubility of gases in water; water that is of a higher temperature lacks oxygen. Therefore, many fish
are only capable of existing in waters of a lower temperature where ample oxygen exists. Another problem that may occur due to
thermal pollution is a limited metabolic range of many aquatic organisms. Many living organisms have metabolic enzymes that
control the oxidation of organic food matter. Metabolic enzymes can only function in a narrow range of temperatures, and most
enzymes show an optimum temperature in which they reach maximum rate of catalytic activity.5 Small changes in temperature can
prove to be deadly for fish. Thermal pollution can also decrease the biodiversity of an ecosystem and allow for the creation of
environment that can be invaded by alien aquatic species that may disrupt or destroy an entire ecosystem.5
Sea turtles in the San Diego Bay are example of how temperature may have affected the metabolic rate of an organism. In 1956, an
electric power plant was built near the San Diego Bay, and is thought to be the reason for a colony of East Pacific green turtles
living in the Bay. These turtles chose this location as their habitat; in spite of the fact, that it is one of the busiest harbors in the
world. The power plant discharges the water that is 15 degrees above the normal temperature of the water in the Bay.6 Researchers
think that the warm water is the attraction for the turtles but due a decrease in oxygen in the water, the metabolic rate of the turtles
is increased. The Eastern Pacific green turtles in this region are supersized, with some weighing as much as 550 pounds.6 The sizes
of these turtles are unprecedented in their enormity and are almost the double the normal size records of the same species in other
habitats.6 Carl Mayhugli, a Prescott College graduate, is working on his Masters on the movements and habitats of these turtles. He
theorizes that the turtles are able to reach such massive size because the warmer water allows them to continue to forage for food
when most sea turtles due to cooler water enter a state of hibernation called torpor.6 The warm water allows eelgrass and algae to
grow which provides a supplement to the turtle’s normal diet of tube worms, sea hares, jellyfish and other slow-moving soft-bodied
sea creatures.6 The massive turtles are able to increase their food intake by increasing their herbivory diet. The power plant is set to
be decommissioned in the next several years but the hope is they will continue to keep the bay as their nesting location.
From ChemPRIME: 10.15: Saturated and Supersaturated Solutions

10.2.2 [Link]
References
1. Brown, T. Lemay, H., and Bursten, B. Chemistry the Central Science, 10th ed.; Pearson Education, Inc.: Upper Saddle River, NJ,
2006.
2. Solubility Curve image. [Link]/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_i.html (accessed July 13, 2011).
3. Crystallization image. [Link]/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_i.html (accessed July 13, 2011).
4. Solubility of Gases image. [Link]/~isidoro.../[Link] (accessed July 13, 2011).
5. EoEarth Organization. [Link] July 13, 2011).
6. Bahnsen, C. “Saving the Green Giants” The Environmental Magazine 2009, August 31, 14-16.

Contributors and Attributions

Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of
Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.

This page titled 10.2: Solubility and Pollution is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Ed Vitz, John
W. Moore, Justin Shorb, Xavier Prat-Resina, Tim Wendorff, & Adam Hahn.

10.2.3 [Link]
10.3: Properties of Liquids
 Learning Objective
Define the vapor pressure of liquids.
Explain the origin of both surface tension and capillary action.

There are some properties that all liquids, including water, have. All liquids have a certain portion of particles with enough energy
to enter the gas phase, and if these particles are at the surface of the liquid, they do so (Figure 10.3.1). The formation of a gas from
a liquid at temperatures below the boiling point is called evaporation. At these temperatures, the material in the gas phase is called
vapor, rather than gas; the term gas is reserved for when the gas phase is the stable phase.

Figure 10.3.1 : Evaporation. Some particles of a liquid have enough energy to escape the liquid phase to become a vapor.
If the available volume is large enough, eventually all the liquid will become vapor. But if the available volume is not enough,
eventually some of the vapor particles will reenter the liquid phase (Figure 10.3.2 Equilibrium). At some point, the number of
particles entering the vapor phase will equal the number of particles leaving the vapor phase, so there is no net change in the
amount of vapor in the system. We say that the system is at equilibrium. The partial pressure of the vapor at equilibrium is called
the vapor pressure of the liquid.

Figure 10.3.2 : Equilibrium. At some point, the number of particles entering the vapor phase will be balanced by the number of
particles returning to the liquid. This point is called equilibrium.
Understand that the liquid has not stopped evaporating. The reverse process—condensation—is occurring as fast as evaporation, so
there is no net change in the amount of vapor in the system. The term dynamic equilibrium represents a situation in which a
process still occurs, but the opposite process also occurs at the same rate, so that there is no net change in the system.
The vapor pressure for a substance is dependent on the temperature of the substance; as the temperature increases, so does the
vapor pressure. Figure 10.3.3 - Plots of Vapor Pressure versus Temperature for Several Liquids, is a plot of vapor pressure versus
temperature for several liquids. Having defined vapor pressure, we can also redefine the boiling point of a liquid: the temperature at
which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. The normal vapor pressure, then, is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure is 760 torr, or exactly 1 atm. Thus boiling points vary with surrounding pressure, a fact that
can have large implications on cooking foods at lower- or higher-than-normal elevations. Atmospheric pressure varies significantly
with altitude.

10.3.1 [Link]
 Figure 10.3.3 : Plots of Vapor Pressure versus Temperature for Several Liquids. The vapor pressure of a liquid depends on the
identity of the liquid and the temperature, as this plot shows.

 Example 10.3.1

Use Figure 10.3.3 to estimate the boiling point of water at 500 torr, which is the approximate atmospheric pressure at the top of
Mount Everest.

Solution
See the accompanying figure. Five hundred torr is between 400 and 600, so we extend a line from that point on the y-axis
across to the curve for water and then drop it down to the x-axis to read the associated temperature. It looks like the point on
the water vapor pressure curve corresponds to a temperature of about 90°C, so we conclude that the boiling point of water at
500 torr is 90°C.

By reading the graph properly, you can estimate the boiling point of a liquid at different temperatures.

10.3.2 [Link]
  Exercise 10.3.1

Use Figure 10.3.3 to estimate the boiling point of ethanol at 400 torr.

Answer
about 65°C

The vapor pressure curve for water is not exactly zero at the melting point 0°C. Even ice has a vapor pressure—that is why it
sublimes over time. However, the vapor pressures of solids are typically much lower than that of liquids. At −1°C, the vapor
pressure of ice is 4.2 torr. At a freezer temperature of 0°F (−17°C), the vapor pressure of ice is only 1.0 torr; so-called deep freezers
can get down to −23°C, where the vapor pressure of ice is only 0.6 torr.
All liquids share some other properties as well. Surface tension is an effect caused by an imbalance of forces on the atoms at the
surface of a liquid, as shown in Figure 10.3.4. The blue particle in the bulk of the liquid experiences intermolecular forces from all
around, as illustrated by the arrows. However, the yellow particle on the surface does not experience any forces above it because
there are no particles above it. This leads to an imbalance of forces, called surface tension.

Figure 10.3.4 Surface Tension. Surface tension comes from the fact that particles at the surface of a liquid do not experience
interactions from all directions, leading to an imbalance of forces on the surface.
Surface tension is responsible for several well-known behaviors of liquids, including water. Liquids with high surface tension tend
to bead up when present in small amounts (Figure 10.3.5).

Figure 10.3.5 Effects of Surface Tension © Thinkstock. Water on the surface of this apple beads up due to the effect of surface
tension.
Surface tension causes liquids to form spheres in free fall or zero gravity. Surface tension is also responsible for the fact that small
insects can "walk" on water. Because of surface tension, it takes energy to break the surface of a liquid, and if an object (such as an
insect) is light enough, there is not enough force due to gravity for the object to break through the surface, so the object stays on top
of the water (Figure 10.3.6). Carefully done, this phenomenon can also be illustrated with a thin razor blade or a paper clip.

10.3.3 [Link]
 Figure 10.3.6 Walking on Water. Small insects can actually walk on top of water because of surface tension effects. (Unsplash
License; Miguel Alcântara via unsplash)
The fact that small droplets of water bead up on surfaces does not mean that water—or any other liquid—does not interact with
other substances. Sometimes the attraction can be very strong. Adhesion is the tendency of a substance to interact with other
substances because of intermolecular forces, while cohesion is the tendency of a substance to interact with itself. If cohesive forces
within a liquid are stronger than adhesive forces between a liquid and another substance, then the liquid tends to keep to itself; it
will bead up. However, if adhesive forces between a liquid and another substance are stronger than cohesive forces, then the liquid
will spread out over the other substance, trying to maximize the interface between the other substance and the liquid. It is said that
the liquid wets the other substance.
Adhesion and cohesion are important for other phenomena as well. In particular, if adhesive forces are strong, then when a liquid is
introduced to a small-diameter tube of another substance, the liquid will move up or down in the tube, as if ignoring gravity.
Because tiny tubes are called capillaries, this phenomenon is called capillary action. For example, one type of capillary action,
capillary rise, is seen when water or water-based liquids rise up in thin glass tubes (like the capillaries sometimes used in blood
tests), forming an upwardly curved surface called a meniscus. Capillary action is also responsible for the "wicking" effect that
towels and sponges use to dry wet objects; the matting of fibers forms tiny capillaries that have good adhesion with water. Cotton is
a good material for this; polyester and other synthetic fabrics do not display similar capillary action, which is why you seldom find
rayon bath towels. A similar effect is observed with liquid fuels or melted wax and their wicks. Capillary action is thought to be at
least partially responsible for transporting water from the roots to the tops of trees, even tall ones.
On the other hand, some liquids have stronger cohesive forces than adhesive forces. In this case, in the presence of a capillary, the
liquid is forced down from its surface; this is an example of a type of capillary action called capillary depression. In this case, the
meniscus curves downward. Mercury has very strong cohesive forces; when a capillary is placed in a pool of mercury, the surface
of the mercury liquid is depressed (Figure 10.3.7).

Figure 10.3.7 : Capillary Action. (a) Capillary rise is seen when adhesion is strong, such as with water in a thin glass tube. (b)
Capillary depression is seen when cohesive forces are stronger than adhesive forces, such as with mercury and thin glass tubes.

10.3.4 [Link]
  Chemistry is Everywhere: Waxing a Car

Responsible car owners are encouraged to wax their cars regularly. In addition to making the car look nicer, it also helps
protect the surface, especially if the surface is metal. Why?
The answer has to do with cohesion and adhesion (and, to a lesser extent, rust). Water is an important factor in the rusting of
iron, sometimes used extensively in outer car bodies. Keeping water away from the metal is one way to minimize rusting. A
coat of paint helps with this. However, dirty or scratched paint can attract water, and adhesive forces will allow the water to
wet the surface, maximizing its contact with the metal and promoting rust.

Figure 10.3.8 : Waxing a car. Droplets of water on a freshly waxed car do not wet the car well because of low adhesion between
water and the waxed surface. This helps protect the car from rust. (Unsplash License; Yuvraj Singh via Unspash)
Wax is composed of long hydrocarbon molecules that do not interact well with water. (Hydrocarbons are compounds with C
and H atoms; for more information on hydrocarbons, see Chapter 16). That is, a thin layer of wax will not be wetted by water.
A freshly waxed car has low adhesive forces with water, so water beads up on the surface, as a consequence of its cohesion and
surface tension. This minimizes the contact between water and metal, thus minimizing rust.

Summary
All liquids evaporate.
If volume is limited, evaporation eventually reaches a dynamic equilibrium, and a constant vapor pressure is maintained.
All liquids experience surface tension, an imbalance of forces at the surface of the liquid.
All liquids experience capillary action, demonstrating either capillary rise or capillary depression in the presence of other
substances.

10.3: Properties of Liquids is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
10.4: Properties of Liquids by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

10.3.5 [Link]
10.3.1: Water Cycle
 Learning Objectives
Recall the percentages of fresh and salt water sources on Earth.
Know the processes and phases of the water (hydrologic) cycle.
Understand hydrologic terms: stream, pond, river, reservoir, wetland, aquifer, and ocean.
Recall the large consumers of water in the United States and in the world.

Water is composed of one oxygen atom bonded with two hydrogen atoms (H2O). Despite its simplicity, water has remarkable
properties. It expands when it freezes, has high surface tension (because of the polar nature of the molecules that stick together),
and has a high boiling point for a liquid. Without water, life might not be able to exist on Earth, and this planet would not have the
tremendous complexity and diversity that we see.

Figure [Link] : This Florentine Bell Tower is one of Furman University most beloved landmarks. The original Furman Bell Tower
was built in 1854 on what used to be the men's campus in Downtown Greenville. During that time,the bells rang to signal the start
of classes and to celebrate victories for the athletic teams. Image courtesy of Elizabeth R. Gordon.

Distribution of Earth's Water

Earth’s oceans contain 97% of the planet’s water, so just 3% is fresh water, water with low concentrations of salts (Figure
[Link]). The majority of the Earth's water can be classified as being saline (or salt containing). Most freshwater is trapped as ice

in the vast glaciers and ice sheets of Greenland. A storage location for water such as an ocean, glacier, pond, or atmosphere is
known as a reservoir. A water molecule may pass through a reservoir very quickly or may remain for much longer. The amount of
time a molecule stays in a reservoir is known as its residence time.

Figure [Link] : The distribution of Earth’s water. In the first bar, notice how only 2.5% of Earth's water is freshwater - the

[Link] [Link]
amount needed for life to survive. The middle bar shows the breakdown of freshwater. Almost all of it is locked up in ice and in the
ground. Only a little more than 1.2% of all freshwater is surface water, which serves most of life's [Link] right bar shows the
breakdown of surface freshwater. Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World Freshwater resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor),
1993 Water in Crises: A guide to the World's Freshwater Resources. The numbers are rounded.

The Hydrologic Cycle

Because Earth’s water is present in all three states, it can get into a variety of environments around the planet. The movement of
water around Earth’s surface is the hydrologic (water) cycle (Figure [Link]).

Figure [Link] : Because it is a cycle, the water cycle has no beginning and no end. Earth's water is always in movement, and the
natural water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the Earth. Water is always changing states between liquid, vapor, and ice, with these processes happening in the blink of
an eye and over millions of years.
The Sun, while many millions of kilometers away, provides the energy that drives the water cycle. It impacts the water cycle by
supplying the energy needed for evaporation. Most of Earth’s water is stored in the oceans where it can remain for hundreds or
thousands of years. Water changes from a liquid to a gas by evaporation to become water vapor. The Sun’s energy can evaporate
water from the ocean surface or from lakes, streams, or puddles on land. Only the water molecules evaporate; the salts remain in
the ocean or a freshwater reservoir.
The water vapor remains in the atmosphere until it undergoes condensation to become tiny droplets of liquid. The droplets gather
in clouds, which are blown around the globe by the wind. As the water droplets in the clouds collide and grow, they fall from the
sky as precipitation(rain, sleet, hail, or snow). Precipitation can fall back into the ocean and/or land surface.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : Snow is one form of precipitation and a key transport mechanism in the water cycle. Image courtesy of Elizabeth
R. Gordon
When water falls from the sky as rain it may enter streams and rivers that flow downward to oceans and lakes. Water that falls as
snow may sit on a mountain for several months. Snow may become part of the ice in a glacier, where it may remain for hundreds or
thousands of years. Snow and ice may go directly back into the air by sublimation, the process in which solid changes directly into
a gas without first becoming a liquid. Although you probably have not seen water vapor sublime from a glacier, you may have seen
dry ice sublime in the air.
Snow and ice slowly melt over time to become liquid water, which provides a steady flow of fresh water to streams, rivers, and
lakes below. A water droplet falling as rain could also become part of a stream or a lake. At the surface, the water may eventually
evaporate and reenter the atmosphere. A significant amount of water infiltrates into the ground. Soil moisture is an important
reservoir for water (Figure [Link]). Water may seep through dirt and rock below the soil through pores infiltrating the ground to
go into Earth’s groundwater system. Groundwater enters aquifers that may store fresh water for centuries. Alternatively, the water
may come to the surface through springs or find its way back to the oceans.
Water trapped in soil is important for plants to grow. Plants and animals depend on water to live and they also play a role in the
water cycle. Plants take up water from the soil and release large amounts of water vapor into the air through their leaves, a process
is known as transpiration.
It is important to note that water molecules cycle around. If climate cools and glaciers and ice caps grow, there is less water for the
oceans and sea level will fall. The reverse can also happen.

Components of the Hydrologic Cycle

Most precipitation falls in the form of rain, but there are other forms such as snow, hail, and sleet. Once it runs sufficiently, surface
water runoff is generated when the ground is saturated or impervious. Surface water is a major component of the hydrological
cycle and one that we interact with very regularly. It includes lakes, wetlands, storm water runoff (overland flow), ponds, potholes,
rivers and streams.

Streams and Rivers

A river forms from water moving from a higher altitude to lower altitude, under the force of gravity. When rain falls on land, it can
seep into the ground or become runoff (water running on the surface). If the water runs on the land surface, it can converge as it
moves towards lower elevation. The converging runoff can concentrate into single channels of conveyance called creeks, stream, or
rivers. Streams and rivers that join up to form a larger river are called tributaries, Figure [Link]. The land area drained by a river
and all its tributaries is called a watershed or river basin.
The area adjacent to a river that floods frequently is a called a flood plain. These regions temporarily store excess water during
storm events and frequently contain fertile soils. Properly functioning flood plains reduce the negative impacts of floods (by
reducing severity of flood) and they assist in filtering storm water which results in protecting the water quality of rivers. Also, flood
plains act as areas of recharge for groundwater.

[Link] [Link]
 What is a Floodplain?

In South Carolina, the Santee River system flows throughout the state (Figure [Link]). From North Carolina, the Saluda River
runs through the South Carolina upstate region. The Saluda River converges with the Broad River south of Columbia, South
Carolina. The combination of these two waterways form the Congaree River. Just north of Rock Hill, South Carolina, the Catawba
River enters into the Wateree Reservoir. Once this water flows to Columbia, the Catawba River becomes the Wateree River. All of
these rivers and water systems provide water for the upstate of South Carolina.

Figure [Link] : Large rivers of South Carolina (CC BY-SA 1.0; [Link]
Rivers are important for supplying water to the cities and populations of any state. In addition, rivers contain important biological
communities and provide recreational opportunities like swimming, fishing, and white water rafting. Large cities, communities,
factories, industries, and power stations are located along many rivers. It is, therefore, very important to protect the quality and
integrity of rivers all over the world.

Lakes,reservoirs, and ponds

If water flows to a place that is surrounded by higher land on all sides, a lake will form. A smaller version of this type of aquatic
system is called a pond. When dams are constructed to stop rivers from flowing, lakes are transformed into reservoirs. Once
constructed, reservoirs can provide water for consumption, cooling capacity for power plants, irrigation for agriculture, and
recreation activities.
In the South Carolina upstate, Hartwell Reservoir provides cooling water for Oconee Nuclear Reactor Station. In addition, many
South Carolina residents enjoy fishing, boating, and residing on the reservoir.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : Map of South Carolina Highway 101 (CC BY-SA 1.0 [Link]

Wetland
A wetland is an area which is home to standing water for notable parts of the year, has saturated soils for a large part of the year
and has plants that require large amounts of water to survive. Wetlands include swamps, marshes, and bogs. Wetlands are identified
using three characteristics: soils (water-saturated soils are present), hydrology (shallow water table) and vegetation (wetland plants
that are adapted to areas that are saturated with water for long periods of time). Wetlands are important areas of biological diversity
and productivity. These are also important areas where geochemical and biological cycles/ processes are consistently taking place.
For instance, wetlands are considered as areas of significant carbon sequestration (storage), which impacts global climate change.
They also act as filters for storm-water runoff before it enters rivers and lakes.

Oceans
As you have probably already guessed, oceans are an important component of the hydrologic cycle because they store majority of
all water on Earth (about 95%). Most of the major rivers drain into them. The five oceans covering the surface of the Earth are the
Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, Arctic and the Southern Ocean (Figure [Link]).
alt

Figure [Link] : The five oceans found on planet Earth. The Pacific Ocean is the largest. Source:
[Link]/wikiped...n_drainage.png
Approximately 90 % of the water that is evaporated into the hydrologic cycle comes from the ocean. The ocean contains many
forms of life uniquely adapted to survive in this habitat. Unfortunately, humans have degraded the oceans and their life through
pollution, excess fishing, carbon dioxide acidification, and resource exploitation.

Storage and Flow

Almost 99% of the available fresh water is found below the surface as groundwater. This resource results from recycling of water
in the hydrologic cycle. When precipitation falls, water travels on the surface and some can infiltrate into the ground. Groundwater
is replenished when water moves from the surface, through unsaturated rocks or sediment (unsaturated), all the way down the
saturated parts (saturated zone) in a process called infiltration and becomes groundwater (Figure [Link]). The top of the
saturated portion is called the water table, which is the boundary between saturated and unsaturated zone.
Groundwater is found in aquifers, which are bodies of rock or sediment that store (and yield) large amounts of usable water in
their pores. Aquifer productivity is controlled by porosity and permeability. Porosity is the percentage of open space in a rock or
sediment body. Permeability is the ability of subsurface material to transmit fluids. Groundwater is found in the saturated zone of a
rock body where all pores are filled with water. An important concept is that surface water always moves from higher elevation to
lower elevation while groundwater always moves from higher energy (hydraulic head) to lower energy.

[Link] [Link]
 Screenshot (123).png

Figure [Link] : Model of groundwater system showing the different components of an unconfined groundwater system:
[Link]
Groundwater will continue to flow until it emerges as a spring, or discharges into surface water bodies on the land or in the ocean.
To utilize groundwater, we drill holes (wells) into the ground and pump the water out.

Water Consumption
One of the most important natural resources is water. In some areas of the world, water sources are extremely limited or
contaminated. If a geographical area lacks this resource, then agriculture and industry will have difficulty producing goods and
foods. If water is contaminated, individuals who reside in these areas will be more likely to develop waterborne illnesses. Lack of
water limits a consumer's ability to drink, eat, and bathe.
The table below illustrates who uses the majority of water sources. Be sure to note the differences between the United States and
Global percentage applications.
Table [Link]: Water Use in the United States and Globally
Use United States Global

Agriculture 34% 70%

Domestic (drinking, bathing) 12% 10%

Industry 5% 20%

Power plant cooling 49% small

Contributors and Attributions

Template:ContribCandelaGeo
Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)

10.3.1: Water Cycle is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
8.1: Water Cycle is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
10.3.2: Water Pollution
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, students should be able to
understand the major kinds of water pollutants and how they degrade water quality
understand how and why the lack of safe drinking water in some parts of the world is a major problem
know what sewage treatment does and why it is important
know why it is more difficult to remediate groundwater pollution than surface water pollution
understand how we can work toward solving the crisis involving water pollution

The Water Pollution Crisis

The Module 7.3 described one aspect of the global water crisis, the water shortages that afflict many arid and densely populated
areas. The global water crisis also involves water pollution, because to be useful for drinking and irrigation, water must not be
polluted beyond certain thresholds. According to the World Health Organization, in 2008 approximately 880 million people in the
world (or 13% of world population) did not have access to improved (safe) drinking water (World Health Statistics, 2010) (See
Figure [Link]). At the same time, about 2.6 billion people (or 40% of world population) lived without improved sanitation (see
Figure [Link]), which is defined as having access to a public sewage system, septic tank, or even a simple pit latrine. Each year
approximately 1.7 million people die from diarrheal diseases associated with unsafe drinking water, inadequate sanitation, and poor
hygiene, e.g., hand washing with soap. Almost all of these deaths are in developing countries, and around 90% of them occur
among children under the age of 5 (see Figure [Link]). Compounding the water crisis is the issue of social justice; poor people
more commonly lack clean water and sanitation than wealthy people in similar areas. Globally, improving water, sanitation, and
hygiene could prevent up to 9% of all disease and 6% of all deaths. In addition to the global waterborne disease crisis, chemical
pollution from agriculture, industry, cities, and mining threatens global water quality. Some chemical pollutants have serious and
well-known health effects; however, many others have poorly known long-term health effects. In the U.S. currently more than
40,000 water bodies fit the definition of “impaired” set by EPA (See Figure [Link]), which means they could neither support a
healthy ecosystem nor meet water quality standards. In Gallup public polls conducted over the past decade Americans consistently
put water pollution and water supply as the top environmental concerns over issues such as air pollution, deforestation, species
extinction, and global warming.

Figure 10.3.2.1Proportion of Population by Country

Using Improved Drinking Water Sources in 2008. Improved drinking water sources, e.g., household connections, public standpipes,
boreholes, protected dug wells and springs, and rainwater collections, are defined as those more likely to provide safe water than
unimproved water sources, e.g., unprotected wells and springs, vendor-provided water, bottled water (unless water for other uses is
available from an improved source), and tanker truck-provided water. Source: World Health Organization

[Link] [Link]
 Figure 10.3.2.2Proportion of Population by Country
Using Improved Sanitation Facilities in 2008. Improved sanitation facilities, e.g., connection to public sewers or septic systems,
pour-flush latrines, pit latrines, and ventilated improved pit latrines, are defined as those more likely to be sanitary than unimproved
facilities, e.g., bucket latrines, public latrines, and open pit latrines. Source: World Health Organization

Figure 10.3.2.3Deaths by Country from Diarrhea

Caused by Unsafe Water, Unimproved Sanitation, and Poor Hygiene in Children Less than 5 Years Old, 2004. Source: World

Health Organization Figure 10.3.2.4Percentage of

Impaired Water Bodies in a Watershed by State in USA Based on US EPA Data in 2000. Map of watersheds containing impaired
water bodies from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 1998 list of impaired waters Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Water Chemistry Overview

Compared to other molecules of similar molecular weight, water (H2O) has unique physical properties including high values for
melting and boiling point, surface tension (water’s cohesion, or “stickiness”), and capacity to dissolve soluble minerals, i.e., act as a
solvent. These properties are related to its asymmetrical structure and polar nature, which means it is electrically neutral overall but
it has a net positive charge on the side with the two hydrogen atoms and a net negative charge on the oxygen side (see Figure
[Link]). This separation of the electrical charge within a water molecule results in hydrogen bondswith other water molecules,

[Link] [Link]
mineral surfaces (hydrogen bonding produces the water films on minerals in the unsaturated zone of the subsurface), and dissolved
ions (atoms with a negative or positive charge). Many minerals and pollutants dissolve readily in water because water forms
hydration shells (spheres of loosely coordinated, oriented water molecules) around ions.

Figure 10.3.2.5Structure of Water, Polar Charge of Water,

and Hydrogen Bonds between Water Molecules. Source: Michal Maňas at Wikimedia Commons
Any natural water contains dissolved chemicals; some of these are important human nutrients, while others can be harmful to
human health. The abundance of a water pollutant is commonly given in very small concentration units such as parts per million
(ppm) or even parts per billion (ppb). An arsenic concentration of 1 ppm means 1 part of arsenic per million parts of water. This is
equivalent to one drop of arsenic in 50 liters of water. To give you a different perspective on appreciating small concentration units,
converting 1 ppm to length units is 1 cm (0.4 in) in 10 km (6 miles) and converting 1 ppm to time units is 30 seconds in a year.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) represent the total amount of dissolved material in water. Average TDS (salinity) values for rainwater,
river water, and seawater are about 4 ppm, 120 ppm, and 35,000 ppm. As discussed in Module 5.2, the most important processes
that affect the salinity of natural waters are evaporation, which distills nearly pure water and leaves the dissolved ions in the
original water, and chemical weathering, which involves mineral dissolution that adds dissolved ions to water. Fresh water is
commonly defined as containing less than either 1,000 or 500 ppm TDS, but the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
recommends that drinking water not exceed 500 ppm TDS or else it will have an unpleasant salty taste.

Water Pollution Overview

Water pollution is the contamination of water by an excess amount of a substance that can cause harm to human beings and the
ecosystem. The level of water pollution depends on the abundance of the pollutant, the ecological impact of the pollutant, and the
use of the water. Pollutants are derived from biological, chemical, or physical processes. Although natural processes such as
volcanic eruptions or evaporation sometimes can cause water pollution, most pollution is derived from human, land-based activities
(see Figure [Link]). Water pollutants can move through different water reservoirs, as the water carrying them progresses through
stages of the water cycle (see Figure [Link]). Water residence time (the average time that a water molecule spends in a water
reservoir) is very important to pollution problems because it affects pollution potential. Water in rivers has a relatively short
residence time, so pollution usually is there only briefly. Of course, pollution in rivers may simply move to another reservoir, such
as the ocean, where it can cause further problems. Groundwater is typically characterized by slow flow and longer residence time,
which can make groundwater pollution particularly problematic. Finally, pollution residence time can be much greater than the
water residence time because a pollutant may be taken up for a long time within the ecosystem or absorbed onto sediment.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure 10.3.2.6Water Pollution. Obvious water pollution in the form of
floating debris; invisible water pollutants sometimes can be much more harmful than visible ones. Source: Stephen Codrington at

Wikimedia Commons Figure 10.3.2.7Sources of

Water Contamination. Sources of some water pollutants and movement of pollutants into different water reservoirs of the water
cycle. Source: U.S. Geological Survey
Pollutants enter water supplies from point sources, which are readily identifiable and relatively small locations, or nonpoint
sources, which are large and more diffuse areas. Point sources of pollution include animal “factory” farms that raise a large number
and high density of livestock such as cows, pigs, and chickens (see Figure [Link]) and discharge pipes from a factories or sewage
treatment plants. Combined sewer systems that have a single set of underground pipes to collect both sewage and storm water
runoff from streets for wastewater treatment can be major point sources of pollutants. During heavy rain, storm water runoff may
exceed sewer capacity, causing it to back up and spilling untreated sewage into surface waters (see Figure [Link]). Nonpoint
sources of pollution include agricultural fields, cities, and abandoned mines. Rainfall runs over the land and through the ground,
picking up pollutants such as herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizer from agricultural fields and lawns; oil, antifreeze, car detergent,
animal waste, and road salt from urban areas; and acid and toxic elements from abandoned mines. Then, this pollution is carried
into surface water bodies and groundwater. Nonpoint source pollution, which is the leading cause of water pollution in the U.S., is

[Link] [Link]
usually much more difficult and expensive to control than point source pollution because of its low concentration, multiple sources,
and much greater volume of water.

Figure 10.3.2.8A Commercial Meat Chicken

Production House. This chicken factory farm is a possible major point source of water pollution. Source: Larry Rana at Wikimedia

Commons Figure 10.3.2.9Combined Sewer System.

A combined sewer system is a possible major point source of water pollution during heavy rain due to overflow of untreated
sewage. During dry weather (and small storms), all flows are handled by the publicly owned treatment works (POTW). During
large storms, the relief structure allows some of the combined stormwater and sewage to be discharged untreated to an adjacent
water body. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency at Wikimedia Commons

Types of Water Pollutants

Oxyden-demanding waste is an extremely important pollutant to ecosystems. Most surface water in contact with the atmosphere
has a small amount of dissolved oxygen, which is needed by aquatic organisms for cellular respiration. Bacteria decompose dead
organic matter (chemically represented in a simplified way as CH2O) and remove dissolved oxygen (O2) according to the following
reaction:

C H 2O + O2 → C O2 + H 2O

Too much decaying organic matter in water is a pollutant because it removes oxygen from water, which can kill fish, shellfish, and
aquatic insects. The amount of oxygen used by aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) bacterial decomposition of organic matter is
called biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The major source of dead organic matter in most natural waters is sewage; grass and
leaves are smaller sources. An unpolluted water body with respect to oxygen is a turbulent river that flows through a natural forest.
Turbulence continually brings water in contact with the atmosphere where the O2 content is restored. The dissolved oxygen content
in such a river ranges from 10 to 14 ppm O2, BOD is low, and clean-water fish, e.g., bass, trout, and perch dominate. A polluted
water body with respect to oxygen is a stagnant deep lake in an urban setting with a combined sewer system. This system favors a
high input of dead organic carbon from sewage overflows and limited chance for water circulation and contact with the

[Link] [Link]
atmosphere. In such a lake, the dissolved O2 content is ≤5 ppm O2, BOD is high, and low O2-tolerant fish, e.g., carp and catfish
dominate.
Excessive plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P), are pollutants closely related to oxygen-demanding waste.
Aquatic plants require about 15 nutrients for growth, most of which are plentiful in water. N and P are called limiting nutrients,
because they usually are present in water at low concentrations and therefore restrict the total amount of plant growth. This
explains why N and P are major ingredients in most fertilizer. High concentrations of N and P from human sources (mostly
agricultural and urban runoff including fertilizer, sewage, and P-based detergent) can cause cultural eutrophication, which involves
the rapid growth of aquatic plants, particularly algae, called an algal bloom. Thick mats of floating and rooted green or sometimes
red algae (see Figure [Link]) create water pollution, damage the ecosystem by clogging fish gills and blocking sunlight, and
damage lake aesthetics by making recreation difficult and creating an eyesore. A small percentage of algal species produce toxins
that can kill fish, mammals, and birds, and may cause human illness; explosive growths of these algae are called harmful algal
blooms (see Figure [Link]). When the prolific algal layer dies, it becomes oxygen-demanding waste, which can create very low
O2 water (<~2 ppm O2), called hypoxia or dead zone because it causes death to organisms that are unable to leave that
environment. An estimated 50% of lakes in North America, Europe, and Asia are negatively impacted by cultural eutrophication. In
addition, the size and number of marine hypoxic zones have grown dramatically over the past 50 years (see Figure [Link]),
including a very large dead zone located offshore Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Cultural eutrophication and hypoxia are difficult
to combat, because they are caused primarily by nonpoint source pollution, which is difficult to regulate, and N and P, which are
difficult to remove from wastewater.

Figure 10.3.2.10Algal Bloom in River in Sichuan, China. Algal

blooms can present problems for ecosystems and human society. Source: Felix Andrews via Wikimedia Commons

[Link] [Link]
 Figure 10.3.2.11Harmful Algal Bloom. Harmful
algal bloom with deep red color. Source: Kai Schumann via National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Figure 10.3.2.12Aquatic Dead Zones. Zones of

hypoxia shown as red circles. Black dots show hypoxia zones of unknown size, brown shading shows population density, and blue
shading shows density of particulate organic carbon, an indicator of organic productivity. Source: Robert Simmon & Jesse Allen at
NASA Earth Observatory via Wikimedia Commons
Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms, e.g., viruses, bacteria, parasitic worms, and protozoa, which cause a variety of
intestinal diseases such as dysentery, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and cholera. Pathogens are the major cause of the water pollution
crisis discussed at the beginning of this section. Unfortunately nearly a billion people around the world are exposed to waterborne
pathogen pollution daily and around 1.5 million children mainly in underdeveloped countries die every year of waterborne diseases
from pathogens (see Figure [Link]). Pathogens enter water primarily from human and animal fecal waste due to inadequate
sewage treatment. In many underdeveloped countries, sewage is discharged into local waters either untreated or after only
rudimentary treatment. In developed countries untreated sewage discharge can occur from overflows of combined sewer systems,
poorly managed livestock factory farms, and leaky or broken sewage collection systems (see Figure [Link]). Water with
pathogens can be remediated by adding chlorine or ozone, by boiling, or by treating the sewage in the first place.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure 10.3.2.13Overflowing Sanitary Sewer. A manhole cover
blown off by a June 2006 sanitary sewer overflow in Rhode Island. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency via Wikimedia
Commons
Oil spills are another kind of organic pollution. Oil spills can result from supertanker accidents such as the Exxon Valdez in 1989,
which spilled 10 million gallons of oil into the rich ecosystem of offshore south Alaska and killed massive numbers of animals. The
largest marine oil spill was the Deepwater Horizon disaster, which began with a natural gas explosion (see Figure [Link]) at an
oil well 65 km offshore of Louisiana and flowed for 3 months in 2010, releasing an estimated 200 million gallons of oil. The worst
oil spill ever occurred during the Persian Gulf war of 1991, when Iraq deliberately dumped approximately 200 million gallons of
oil in offshore Kuwait and set more than 700 oil well fires that released enormous clouds of smoke and acid rain for over nine
months. During an oil spill on water, oil floats to the surface because it is less dense than water, and the lightest hydrocarbons
evaporate, decreasing the size of the spill but polluting the air. Then, bacteria begin to decompose the remaining oil, in a process
that can take many years. After several months only about 15% of the original volume may remain, but it is in thick asphalt lumps,
a form that is particularly harmful to birds, fish, and shellfish. Cleanup operations can include skimmer ships that vacuum oil from
the water surface (effective only for small spills), controlled burning (works only in early stages before the light, ignitable part
evaporates but also pollutes the air), dispersants (detergents that break up oil to accelerate its decomposition, but some dispersants
may be toxic to the ecosystem), and bioremediation (adding microorganisms that specialize in quickly decomposing oil, but this
can disrupt the natural ecosystem).

Figure 10.3.2.14Deepwater Horizon Explosion.

Boats fighting the fire from an explosion at the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in Gulf of Mexico offshore Louisiana on April 20,
2010. Source: United States Coast Guard via Wikimedia Commons
Toxic chemicals involve many different kinds and sources, primarily from industry and mining. General kinds of toxic chemicals
include hazardous chemicals, which are a wide variety of synthetic organic and inorganic chemicals such as acids, bases, cyanide,
and a class of compounds called persistent organic pollutants that includes DDT (pesticide), dioxin (herbicide by-product), and

[Link] [Link]
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls, which were used as a liquid insulator in electric transformers). Persistent organic pollutants are
long-lived in the environment, accumulate through the food chain (bioaccumulation), and can be toxic. Another category of toxic
chemicals includes radioactive materials such as cesium, iodine, uranium, and radon gas, which can result in long-term exposure to
radioactivity if it gets into the body. A final group of toxic chemicals is heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, and
chromium, which can accumulate through the food chain. Heavy metals are commonly produced by industry and at metallic ore
mines. Arsenic and mercury are discussed in more detail below. The US EPA regulates 83 contaminants in drinking water to ensure
a safe public water supply. Similarly, at the international level the World Health Organization has drinking water standards for a
variety of contaminants.
Arsenic (As) has been famous as an agent of death for many centuries. In large doses arsenic causes cancer and can be fatal. Only
recently have scientists recognized that health problems can be caused by drinking small arsenic concentrations in water over a
long time. It attacks the central nervous system and can damage the respiratory system, bladder, lungs, liver, and kidneys. It enters
the water supply naturally from weathering of As-rich minerals and from human activities such as coal burning and smelting of
metallic ores. The worst case of arsenic poisoning occurred in the densely populated impoverished country of Bangladesh, which
had experienced 100,000s of deaths from diarrhea and cholera each year from drinking surface water contaminated with pathogens
due to improper sewage treatment. In the 1970s the United Nations provided aid for millions of shallow water wells, which resulted
in a dramatic drop in pathogenic diseases. Unfortunately, many of the wells produced water naturally rich in arsenic. Tragically,
there are an estimated 77 million people (about half of the population) who inadvertently may have been exposed to toxic levels of
arsenic in Bangladesh as a result. The World Health Organization has called it the largest mass poisoning of a population in history.
Mercury (Hg) is used in a variety of electrical products, such as dry cell batteries, fluorescent light bulbs, and switches, as well as
in the manufacture of paint, paper, vinyl chloride, and fungicides. In the methylmercury form (CH3Hg+) it is highly toxic; ≥ 1 ppb
of methylmercury represents water contaminated with mercury. Mercury concentrates in the food chain, especially in fish, in a
process caused biomagnification (see Sidebar Biomagnification). It acts on the central nervous system and can cause loss of sight,
feeling, and hearing as well as nervousness, shakiness, and death. Like arsenic, mercury enters the water supply naturally from
weathering of Hg-rich minerals and from human activities such as coal burning and metal processing. A famous mercury poisoning
case in Minamata, Japan involved methylmercury-rich industrial discharge that caused high Hg levels in fish. People in the local
fishing villages ate fish up to three times per day for over 30 years, which resulted in over 2,000 deaths. During that time the
responsible company and national government did little to mitigate, help alleviate, or even acknowledge the problem.
Biomagnification
Biomagnification represents the processes in an ecosystem that cause greater concentrations of a chemical, such as methylmercury,
in organisms higher up the food chain. Mercury and methylmercury are present in only very small concentrations in seawater;
however, at the base of the food chain algae absorb methylmercury. Then, small fish eat the algae, large fish and other organisms
higher in the food chain eat the small fish, and so on. Fish and other aquatic organisms absorb methylmercury rapidly but eliminate
it slowly from the body. Therefore, each step up the food chain increases the concentration from the step below (see Figure
[Link]). Largemouth bass can concentrate methylmercury up to 10 million times over the water concentration and fish-eating

birds can concentrate it even higher. Other chemicals that exhibit biomagnification are DDT, PCBs, and arsenic.
illustration of Biomagnification Figure 10.3.2.15An illustrative example of biomagnification of mercury from water through the food chain
and into a bird's egg. Source: U.S. Geological Survey
Other water pollutants include sediment and heat. Muddy water is bad for drinking but even worse for underwater plants that need
sunlight for photosynthesis. Much of the sediment in water bodies is derived from the erosion of soil, so it also represents a loss of
agricultural productivity. Thermal pollution involves the release of heated waters from power plants and industry to surface water,
causing a drop in the dissolved O2 content, which can stress fish.
Hard water contains abundant calcium and magnesium, which reduces its ability to develop soapsuds and enhances scale (calcium
and magnesium carbonate minerals) formation on hot water equipment. Water softeners remove calcium and magnesium, which
allows the water to lather easily and resist scale formation. Hard water develops naturally from the dissolution of calcium and
magnesium carbonate minerals in soil; it does not have negative health effects in people.
Groundwater pollution can occur from underground sources and all of the pollution sources that contaminate surface waters.
Common sources of groundwater pollution are leaking underground storage tanks for fuel, septic tanks, agricultural activity, and
landfills. Common groundwater pollutants include nitrate, pesticides, volatile organic compounds, and petroleum products.
Polluted groundwater can be a more serious problem than polluted surface water because the pollution in groundwater may go
undetected for a long time because usually it moves very slowly. As a result, the pollution in groundwater may create a

[Link] [Link]
contaminant plume, a large body of flowing polluted groundwater (see Figure [Link]), making cleanup very costly. By the time
groundwater contamination is detected, the entity responsible for the pollution may be bankrupt or nonexistent. Another
troublesome feature of groundwater pollution is that small amounts of certain pollutants, e.g., petroleum products and organic
solvents, can contaminate large areas. In Denver, Colorado 80 liters of several organic solvents contaminated 4.5 trillion liters of
groundwater and produced a 5 km long contaminant plume. Most groundwater contamination occurs in shallow, unconfined
aquifers located near the contamination source. Confined aquifers are less susceptible to pollution from the surface because of
protection by the confining layer. A major threat to groundwater quality is from underground fuel storage tanks. Fuel tanks
commonly are stored underground at gas stations to reduce explosion hazards. Before 1988 in the U.S. these storage tanks could be
made of metal, which can corrode, leak, and quickly contaminate local groundwater. Now, leak detectors are required and the metal
storage tanks are supposed to be protected from corrosion or replaced with fiberglass tanks. Currently there are around 600,000
underground fuel storage tanks in the U.S. and over 30% still do not comply with EPA regulations regarding either release
prevention or leak detection.

Figure 10.3.2.16Contaminant Plume in

Groundwater. Mapping how a contaminant plume will migrate once it reaches groundwater requires understanding of the
pollutant's chemical properties, local soil characteristics, and how permeable the aquifer is. Source: United States Geological
Survey

Sustainable Solutions to the Water Pollution Crisis?

Resolution of the global water pollution crisis described at the beginning of this section requires multiple approaches to improve
the quality of our fresh water and move towards sustainability. The most deadly form of water pollution, pathogenic
microorganisms that cause waterborne diseases, kills almost 2 million people in underdeveloped countries every year. The best
strategy for addressing this problem is proper sewage (wastewater) treatment. Untreated sewage is not only a major cause of
pathogenic diseases, but also a major source of other pollutants, including oxygen-demanding waste, plant nutrients (N and P), and
toxic heavy metals. Wastewater treatment is done at a sewage treatment plant in urban areas and through a septic tank system in
rural areas.
The main purpose of a sewage treatment plant is to remove organic matter (oxygen-demanding waste) and kill bacteria; special
methods also can be used to remove plant nutrients and other pollutants. The numerous processing steps at a conventional sewage
treatment plant (see Figure [Link]) include pretreatment (screening and removal of sand and gravel), primary treatment (settling
or floatation to remove organic solids, fat, and grease), secondary treatment (aerobic bacterial decomposition of organic solids),
tertiary treatment (bacterial decomposition of nutrients and filtration), disinfection (treatment with chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet light,
or bleach), and either discharge to surface waters (usually a local river) or reuse for some other purpose, such as irrigation, habitat
preservation, and artificial groundwater recharge. The concentrated organic solid produced during primary and secondarytreatment
is called sludge, which is treated in a variety of ways including landfill disposal, incineration, use as fertilizer, and anaerobic
bacterial decomposition, which is done in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic decomposition of sludge produces methane gas, which
can be used as an energy source. To reduce water pollution problems, separate sewer systems (where street runoff goes to rivers
and only wastewater goes to a wastewater treatment plant) are much better than combined sewer systems, which can overflow and
release untreated sewage into surface waters during heavy rain. Some cities such as Chicago, Illinois have constructed large
underground caverns and also use abandoned rock quarries to hold storm sewer overflow. After the rain stops, the stored water goes
to the sewage treatment plant for processing.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure 10.3.2.17Steps at a Sewage Treatment Plant.
The numerous processing steps at a conventional sewage treatment plant include pretreatment (screening and removal of sand and
gravel), primary treatment (settling or floatation to remove organic solids, fat, and grease), secondary treatment (aerobic bacterial
decomposition of organic solids), tertiary treatment (bacterial decomposition of nutrients and filtration), disinfection (treatment
with chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet light, or bleach), and either discharge to surface waters (usually a local river) or reuse for some
other purpose, such as irrigation, habitat preservation, and artificial groundwater recharge. Source: Leonard [Link] Wikipedia
A septic tank system is an individual sewage treatment system for homes in rural and even some urban settings. The basic
components of a septic tank system (see Figure [Link]) include a sewer line from the house, a septic tank (a large container
where sludge settles to the bottom and microorganisms decompose the organic solids anaerobically), and the drain field (network of
perforated pipes where the clarified water seeps into the soil and is further purified by bacteria). Water pollution problems occur if
the septic tank malfunctions, which usually occurs when a system is established in the wrong type of soil or maintained poorly.

Figure 10.3.2.18Septic System. Septic tank system for sewage treatment. Source:
United States Geological Survey
For many developing countries, financial aid is necessary to build adequate sewage treatment facilities; however, the World Health
Organization estimates an estimated cost savings of between $3 and $34 for every $1 invested in clean water delivery and
sanitation (Water for Life, 2005). The cost savings are from health care savings, gains in work and school productivity, and deaths
prevented. Simple and inexpensive techniques for treating water at home include chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection.
Another alternative is to use constructed wetlands technology (marshes built to treat contaminated water), which is simpler and
cheaper than a conventional sewage treatment plant.

[Link] [Link]
Bottled water is not a sustainable solution to the water crisis, despite exponential growth in popularity in the U.S. and the world.
Bottled water is not necessarily any safer than the U.S. public water supply, it costs on average about 700 times more than U.S. tap
water, and every year it uses approximately 200 billion plastic and glass bottles that have a relatively low rate of recycling.
Compared to tap water, it uses much more energy, mainly in bottle manufacturing and long-distance transportation. If you don’t
like the taste of your tap water, then please use a water filter instead of bottled water!

Figure 10.3.2.19Storm Drain. Curbside storm drain

receiving urban runoff. Source: By Robert Lawton via Wikimedia Commons
Additional sustainable solutions to the water pollution crisis include legislation to eliminate or greatly reduce point sources of water
pollution. In the U.S., the Clean Water Act of 1972 and later amendments led to major improvements in water quality (see Sidebar
Clean Water Act). Nonpoint sources of water pollution, e.g., agricultural runoff and urban runoff (see Figure [Link]), are much
harder to regulate because of their widespread, diffuse nature. There are many construction and agricultural practices that reduce
polluted runoff including no-till farming and sediment traps. Artificial aeration or mechanical mixing can remediate lakes with
oxygen depletion. Specific things that we can do to reduce urban runoff include the following: keep soil, leaves, and grass clippings
off driveways, sidewalks, and streets; don't pour used motor oil, antifreeze, paints, pesticides, or any household hazardous chemical
down the storm sewer or drain; recycle used motor oil; use hazardous waste disposal programs offered by the community; compost
your organic waste; don't use fertilizers and herbicides on your lawn; and flush pet waste down the toilet.
Clean Water Act
During the early 1900s rapid industrialization in the U.S. resulted in widespread water pollution due to free discharge of waste into
surface waters. The Cuyahoga River in northeast Ohio caught fire numerous times (see Figure [Link]), including a famous fire
in 1969 that caught the nation’s attention. In 1972 Congress passed one of the most important environmental laws in U.S. history,
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which is more commonly called the Clean Water Act. The purpose of the Clean Water Act
and later amendments is to maintain and restore water quality, or in simpler terms to make our water swimmable and fishable. It
became illegal to dump pollution into surface water unless there was formal permission and U.S. water quality improved
significantly as a result. More progress is needed because currently the EPA considers over 40,000 U.S. water bodies as impaired,
most commonly due to pathogens, metals, plant nutrients, and oxygen depletion. Another concern is protecting groundwater
quality, which is not yet addressed sufficiently by federal law.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure 10.3.2.20Cuyahoga River on Fire. Source: National Oceanic and
Atmospheric
Sometimes slow flow through a soil can naturally purify groundwater because some pollutants, such as P, pesticides, and heavy
metals, chemically bind with surfaces of soil clays and iron oxides. Other pollutants are not retained by soil particles: These include
N, road salt, gasoline fuel, the herbicide atrazine, tetrachloroethylene (a carcinogenic cleaning solvent used in dry cleaning), and
vinyl chloride. In other cases, slow groundwater flow can allow bacteria to decompose dead organic matter and certain pesticides.
There are many other ways to remediate polluted groundwater. Sometimes the best solution is to stop the pollution source and
allow natural cleanup. Specific treatment methods depend on the geology, hydrology, and pollutant because some light
contaminants flow on top of groundwater, others dissolve and flow with groundwater, and dense contaminants can sink below
groundwater. A common cleanup method called pump and treat involves pumping out the contaminated groundwater and treating it
by oxidation, filtration, or biological methods. Sometimes soil must be excavated and sent to a landfill. In-situ treatment methods
include adding chemicals to immobilize heavy metals, creating a permeable reaction zone with metallic iron that can destroy
organic solvents, or using bioremediation by adding oxygen or nutrients to stimulate growth of microorganisms.

Review Questions
1. What are the major kinds of water pollutants and how do they degrade water quality?
2. How would you rank the water pollution problems described in this chapter? Why?
3. Why is untreated sewage such an important water pollutant to remediate?
4. What should society learn from the case history of Love Canal?
5. Why are people facing a crisis involving water pollution and how can we solve it?

References
Water for Life: Making it Happen (2005) World Health Organization and UNICEF. Retrieved from
[Link]
World Health Statistics (2010) World Health Organization. Retrieved from
[Link]

Glossary
arsenic
A type of water pollutant that can be fatal in large doses and can cause health problems in small doses over a long time.

biochemical oxygen demand

The amount of oxygen used by aerobic (in presence of oxygen) bacterial decomposition of organic matter.

bioremediation
Method of groundwater remediation involving the addition oxygen or nutrients. to stimulate growth of microorganisms, which
decompose an organic pollutant.

bottled water

[Link] [Link]
 Drinking water packaged in plastic bottles or glass bottles, bottled water is not a sustainable solution to the water crisis because
of the nonrenewable energy and material resources involved in manufacturing and transporting it.

combined sewer systems

A single set of underground pipes used to collect both sewage and. storm water runoff from streets for wastewater treatment.

constructed wetland
Marsh built to treat contaminated water.

contaminant plume
A large body of flowing polluted groundwater.

cultural eutrophication
Rapid aquatic plant growth, particularly algae, in a surface water body.

excessive plant nutrient

A type of water pollutant involving a limiting plant nutrient that usually is present in water at low concentrations and therefore
restricts the total amount of plant growth, examples include nitrogen and phosphorous.

hard water
Water with abundant calcium and magnesium, which reduces its ability to develop soapsuds and enhances scale; hard water
does not have negative health effects in people.

heat
A type of water pollutant that causes a drop in the dissolved oxygen content, which can stress fish.

heavy metal
A type of water pollutant involving elements such as lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, and chromium, which can accumulate
through the food chain.

hypoxia
Very low oxygen water due to prolific growth of algae, algal death, and then decomposition, also called dead zone.

mercury
A type of water pollutant that acts on the central nervous system and can cause loss of sight, feeling, and hearing as well as
nervousness, shakiness, and death.

nonpoint source (of water pollution)

Large and diffuse location where a pollution source occurs.

oil spill
A type of organic water pollutant involving the release of liquid petroleum into the environment due to human activity.

oxygen-demanding waste
A type of water pollutant involving abundant dead organic matter.

pathogens
Disease-causing microorganisms, e.g., viruses, bacteria, parasitic worms, and protozoa, which cause a variety of intestinal
diseases such as dysentery, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and cholera.

persistent organic pollutant

A group of organic water pollutants that are long-lived in the environment, accumulate through the food chain, and can be toxic.

point source (of water pollution)

Readily identifiable and relatively small location where a pollution source occurs.

[Link] [Link]
sediment
A type of water pollutant that degrades drinking water and can kill underwater plants that need sunlight for photosynthesis.

septic tank system

An individual sewage treatment system for homes in rural and even some urban settings.

sewage treatment plant

A facility that processes wastewater with the main goal of removing organic matter (oxygen-demanding waste) and killing
bacteria.

sludge
Concentrated organic solid produced during primary and secondarytreatment of sewage treatment.

solvent
Capacity of a liquid such as water to dissolve soluble minerals.

total dissolved solids

Total amount of dissolved material in water, typically reported in parts per million (ppm) units.

toxic chemical
A type of organic water pollutant involving chemicals with a severe human health risk.

underground fuel storage tank

A type of water pollutant if it leaks.

water pollution
Contamination of water by an excess amount of a substance that can cause harm to human beings and the ecosystem.

This page titled 10.3.2: Water Pollution is shared under a CC BY license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Heriberto Cabezas
(GALILEO Open Learning Materials) .
5.4: Water Pollution by Heriberto Cabezas is licensed CC BY 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
10.3.3: Biological Contamination of Water
 Learning Objectives
Identify the three categories of pathogens that produce water-borne diseases.
Provide one example of each pathogen, typical sources, and health problems.
Summarize how water-borne diseases can be prevented and treated.
Recall areas of the world where water is not properly sanitized.
List foods and beverages that need to be avoided when using water that is not sanitized.
Recall how long to boil water if under an advisory.
Realize that boiling does not remove inorganics, metals, or organics.
Besides boiling, discuss the chemical sanitation process of how to sanitize water at home (EPA method below).

Water Borne Diseases

If water is not cleaned properly, residents of a community can contract various illnesses. Viruses, bacteria, and parasites can enter a
water supply unknowingly. All three of these species are pathogenic, or disease-causing. In the United States, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) quantifies and monitors these pathogens in water systems that serve at least 200 consumers. The EPA
classifies these contaminants as being microorganisms (even though a biologist might dispute this terminology).

CGCHealth Clean Water Campaign Belé…

Belé…

Video [Link] : The Coalition for Global Community Health is working within existing social structures in Belén, Iquitos, Peru to
uphold the human rights of the community members. We speak directly with community members in an open forum to learn about
their needs, desires, and ideas for creating an opportunity to change their communities for the better
Approximately 829,000 people die each year due to developing diarrheal illnesses from water based illnesses. Of the number, over
297,000 of these fatalities are children under five years of age. From a worldwide perspective, 785 million lack access to an
improved water source. That is, this large group of people do not extract their water from a household connection, public standpipe,
borehole/protected well, protected spring, or rainwater collection. Implementing water sanitation and hygiene for people who live
in these countries could prevent at least 9.1% of the global disease burden and 6.3% of all deaths.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] :This young girl was collecting water from a sacred pond in Ogi, Nigeria, but she won't get Guinea worm because
the water had been treated, and steps had been installed, so people couldn't contaminate the water. Creator: CDC/ The Carter
Center. (Copyright, Public Health Library).
One of the many waterborne pathogens that can be contracted by drinking unclean water is Giardiasis. The picture below shows
how a person might contract Giardiasis from giardia, a parasite. This particular pathogen can live in a body up to six months. Once
detected through a stool sample, a patient can be prescribed specific antibiotics like Flagyl to treat the infection. Unfortunately,
there is no vaccine for preventing Giardiasis.

Figure [Link] : The life cycle of Giardia.

The table below shows water-borne diseases that can result from viruses, bacteria, and parasites. In some cases, vaccines are
available. When eating, drinking, or swimming, it is important to be aware of how you could be affected by these pathogens.
Sanitation of drinking water with chlorine-based compounds reduces the power of these pathogens. In addition, proper handling of
foods and beverages could reduce your risk of developing one or more of the following health problems.
Table [Link] : Pathogens that cause waterborne illnesses.

[Link] [Link]
 Pathogen Name Pathogen Type Source Health problem Prevention/Treatment

Fecal contamination and Vomiting, diarrhea, and

Giardia Parasite Medication afterward
uncooked food cramps

Vomiting, diarrhea, fever,

Cryptosporidium Parasite Fecal contamination Medication afterward
and cramps

High fever, stomach pains,

Typhoid Bacteria Fecal contamination Vaccination/Antibiotics
headache, and rash

E. coli Bacteria Fecal contamination Diarrhea and cramps Fluids

Found naturally in heated Causes Legionnaires (a

Legionella Bacteria Medications afterward
water type of pneumonia)

Related to fecal
contamination or Vaccine/Rehydration,
Cholera Bacteria Diarrhea
undercooked or raw antibiotics, and Zinc
shellfish

Contaminated food and Vomiting, dark urine, and

Hepatitis A Virus Vaccination/Fluids
water yellowing of the eyes.

Polio Virus Fecal contamination Flu symptoms, paralysis Vaccination

When traveling to places that do not have comprehensive water sanitation procedures, it is important to avoid certain foods and
beverages. Ice and tap water should be avoided to reduce risk of exposure to pathogens. In addition, vegetables and fruits that do
not have a peel could cause water borne illness. If possible, purchase bottled water from a reputable company (Nestle is common in
Asia and South America)

Deadly Parasites Invade City's Water Sy…

Sy…

Center for Disease Control (CDC) Sanitizing Information

Water advisories may be declared if sanitation is compromised. In these situations, boiling, halogen disinfection, or filtration could
be utilized to make water potable (drinkable). The Centers for Disease Control has developed a document to compare these
different methods of sanitation. Look below to see the most effective ways to make water safe.

[Link] [Link]
Halogen based solids can be purchased at most home improvement stores, pool stores, Walmart, and Target. These chemicals will
alter taste and smell of water. These chemicals are also needed when properly sanitizing a pool or a hot tub. Halogen tablets are
quite cheap and an effective way for sanitizing any type of water.

 EPA: EMERGENCY DISINFECTION OF DRINKING WATER

In an emergency situation where regular water service has been interrupted – like a hurricane, flood, or water pipe breakage –
local authorities may recommend using only bottled water, boiled water, or disinfected water until regular water service is
restored. The instructions below show you how to boil and disinfect water to kill most disease-causing microorganisms that
may be present in the water. However, boiling or disinfection will not destroy other contaminants, such as heavy metals, salts,
and most other chemicals.

ONLY USE WATER THAT HAS BEEN PROPERLY DISINFECTED FOR DRINKING,
COOKING, MAKING ANY PREPARED DRINK, WASHING DISHES, AND FOR
BRUSHING TEETH.
Use bottled water or water you have properly prepared and stored as an emergency water supply.
Boil water, if you do not have bottled water. Boiling is sufficient to kill pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoa (WHO,
2015).
If water is cloudy, let it settle and filter it through a clean cloth, paper towel, or coffee filter.

[Link] [Link]
 Bring water to a rolling boil for at least one minute. At altitudes above 5,000 feet (1,000 meters), boil water for three
minutes.
Let the water cool naturally and store it in clean containers with covers.
To improve the flat taste of boiled water, add one pinch of salt to each quart or liter of water, or pour the water from one
clean container to another several times.
Disinfect water using household bleach, if you can’t boil water. Only use regular, unscented chlorine bleach products that are
suitable for disinfection and sanitization as indicated on the label. The label may say that the active ingredient contains 6 or
8.25% of sodium hypochlorite. Do not use scented, color safe, or bleaches with added cleaners.
If water is cloudy, let it settle and filter it through a clean cloth, paper towel, or coffee filter.
Locate a clean dropper from your medicine cabinet or emergency supply kit.
Locate a fresh liquid chlorine bleach or liquid chlorine bleach that is stored at room temperatures for less than one year.
Use the table on the next page as a guide to decide how much bleach you should add to the water, for example, add 8 drops
of 6 % bleach or 6 drops of 8.25% bleach to each gallon of water. Double the amount of bleach if the water is cloudy,
colored, or very cold.
Stir and let stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor. If it doesn’t, repeat the dosage and let stand
for another 15 minutes before use.
If the chlorine taste is too strong, pour the water from one clean container to another and let it stand for a few hours before
use.

Volume of Water Amount of 6% Bleach to Add† Amount of 8.25% Bleach to Add†

1 quart/liter 2 drops 2 drops

1 gallon 8 drops 6 drops

2 gallons 16 drops (1/4 tsp.) 12 drops (1/4 tsp.)

4 gallons 1/3 tsp. 1/4 tsp.

8 gallons 2/3 tsp. 1/2 tsp.

†Bleach may contain 6 or 8.25% sodium hypochlorite

ADDITIONAL WATER GUIDANCE FOR EMERGENCIES

Prepare and store an emergency water supply. Visit the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) website for
additional guidance on preparing and storing an emergency water supply.
Look for other sources of water in and around your home. Although bottled water is your best choice, you may be able to
find other sources of water by melting ice cubes or draining your hot water tank or pipes. You can also use river or lake water.
It is generally better to use flowing water than still, stagnant water. However, do not use water with floating material in it or
water that has a dark color or questionable odor. Regardless of the source, treat the water by following the instructions above.
If you have a well on your property that has been flooded, make sure to disinfect and test the well water after the flood. Contact
your state or local health department for advice or go here.
Consider how the water looks and how to filter it if needed. Disinfection does not work as well when water is cloudy or
colored. If water is cloudy, let it settle. Then filter the water through a clean cloth, paper towel, or coffee filter. Store the settled
and filtered water in clean containers with covers
OTHER DISINFECTION METHODS
If you don’t have liquid bleach, you can use one of the other disinfection methods described below.
Granular calcium hypochlorite. The first step is to make a chlorine solution that you will use to disinfect your water. For
your safety, do it in a ventilated area and wear eye protection. Add one heaping teaspoon (approximately ¼ ounce) of high-
test granular calcium hypochlorite (HTH) to two gallons of water and stir until the particles have dissolved. The mixture
will produce a chlorine solution of approximately 500 milligrams per liter. To disinfect water, add one part of the chlorine
solution to every 100 parts of water you are treating. This is about the same as adding 1 pint (16 ounces) of the chlorine
solution to 12.5 gallons of water. If the chlorine taste is too strong, pour the water from one clean container to another and

[Link] [Link]
 let it stand for a few hours before use. CAUTION: HTH is a very powerful oxidant. Follow the instructions on the label for
safe handling and storage of this chemical.
Common household iodine (or “tincture of iodine”). You may have iodine in your medicine cabinet or first aid kit. Add five
drops of 2% tincture of iodine to each quart or liter of water that you are disinfecting. If the water is cloudy or colored, add
10 drops of iodine. Stir and let the water stand for at least 30 minutes before use.
Water disinfection tablets. You can disinfect water with tablets that contain chlorine, iodine, chlorine dioxide, or other
disinfecting agents. These tablets are available online or at pharmacies and sporting goods stores. Follow the instructions on
the product label as each product may have a different strength.
Safe Drinking Water Hotline: 1-800-426-4791 [Link]/drink/hotline

 Example [Link]
1. Do all waterborne pathogens cause stomach illnesses?
2. If your community is under a water advisory, then how long should you boil tap water to kill pathogens?
3. Vaccinations and preventive medications can protect you from which pathogens?
4. When properly diluted, which common household cleaner can sanitize tap water?

Answer
1. Legionella bacteria causes respiratory problems. Also, hepatitis and polio viruses do not produce stomach illnesses.
2. Water should be boiled rigorously for at least one minute to kill most pathogens.
3. Vaccines can be used to prevent: hepatitis, typhoid, cholera, and polio. In the United States, most children have been
vaccinated from hepatitis and polio. When traveling to destinations that lack sanitized water, it would be beneficial to
request prescription medications from your health care professional. Refer to the chart above regarding which diseases
can be treated with medications.
4. A diluted (watered down) form of bleach (sodium hypochlorite) can be used to sanitize water. Please note the different
types of bleach that can be purchased. In addition, do not use color safe or scented bleach.

References
1. World Health Organization. Drinking-water ([Link])
2. The Center For Disease Control. Global WASH Fast Facts | Global Water, Sanitation and Hygiene | Healthy Water | CDC

Contributors and Attributions

Elizabeth R. Gordon (Furman University)

This page titled 10.3.3: Biological Contamination of Water is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Elizabeth Gordon.
8.3: Biological Contamination of Water by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water
 Learning Objectives
Realize how combustion processes affect water sources.
Define the pH and composition of acid rain (three specific formulas/names).
Know the precursors of acid rain.
Recall the environmental and biological effects of acid rain.
Understand the differences between hard and soft water.
Connect inorganic water contaminants with biological and environmental issues.
Know the sources of inorganic and organic contaminants.
Differentiate between organic and inorganic substances when given a formula.

The US Safe Drinking Water Act defines the term "contaminant" as meaning any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological
substance or matter in water. Therefore, the "contaminant" definition very broadly applies as being anything other than water
molecules. Drinking water may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. Some drinking
water contaminants may be harmful if consumed at certain levels in drinking water while others may be harmless. The presence of
contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk.

Air Pollutants
Water can become contaminated at any part of the water cycle. Air pollution can affect water vapor and water liquid. Combustion
sources like vehicles and power plants generate compounds like NOxs , SOxs , CO, CO , and other various inorganic and organic
2

volatile organic compounds (VOC) species. Some of these compounds can become soluble in water. This could affect pH (or
acidity) level of water surface water. Rain water with a pH below 5.6 is considered to be acid rain.

Figure [Link] : pH scale. (Copyright; OpenStax College via Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site.
[Link]
Normally, the pH of water is a neutral value (or pH= 7). When NOxs , SOxs , CO, CO enter the water cycle, then the pH level is
2

lowered below 7.0. If these gases are absorbed in rain clouds, then acid rain results. Specific acids involved in acid rain are sulfuric
(H2SO4), nitric (HNO3), and carbonic (H2CO3). This environmental problem affects living organisms and building materials.
Acid solutions can corrode metals and make them soluble as well.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : pH of rainwater over the continental United States.
In the United States, the northeast has the most problems with acid rain. Concentrated populations that use electrical energy and
vehicles contribute greatly to the pH reduction of rainwater. Reducing gaseous output requires capping combustion sources
(vehicles and power plants). Acidity in rain is measured by collecting samples of rain and measuring its pH. To find the distribution
of rain acidity, weather conditions are monitored and rain samples are collected at sites all over the country. The areas of greatest
acidity (lowest pH values) are located in the Northeastern United States. This pattern of high acidity is caused by a large number of
cities, the dense population, and the concentration of power and industrial plants in the Northeast. In addition, the prevailing wind
direction brings storms and pollution to the Northeast from the Midwest, and dust from the soil and rocks in the Northeastern
United States is less likely to neutralize acidity in the rain.

 Acid rain from sulfuric acid

However, the majority of acid rain is accounted for by the presence of sulfuric acid (H 2
SO
4
).

SO (g) + O (g) ⟶ SO (g)

2 2 3

Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfuric acid

SO (g) + H O ⟶ H SO ([Link])
3 2 2 4

Although sulfuric acid may be produced naturally in small quantities from biological decay and volcanic activity, it is produced
almost entirely by human activity, especially the combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels in power plants.

Figure [Link] : Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO

2
and NOx play a significant role in acid rain). (public
domain; EPA)

[Link] [Link]
  Acid rain from nitric acid

Some of acid rain is accounted for by nitric acid (HNO ) that originates from natural processes, but especially from high-
3

temperature air combustion, such as occurs in car engines and power plants, that produces large amounts of NO gas. This gas
then forms nitric acid via several steps. First nitric oxide (NO) is formed during lightning storms by the reaction of nitrogen
and oxygen

N (g) + O (g) ⟶ 2 NO(g) ([Link])

2 2

and NO is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO ) 2

1
NO(g) + O (g) ⟶ NO (g) ([Link])
2 2 2

NO (g)
2
then reacts with water droplets to generate nitric acid (HNO ) 3

3 NO (g) + H O(l) ⟶ 2 HNO (aq) + NO(g)

2 2 3

Table [Link] : Source of Water contamination in the United States

Combustion products Sources

CO2 and CO Combustion of any material (any fuel or tree)

High-temperature combustion of any fuel ( gas, diesel, or coal), a

NOX (NO2 and NO3)
product of lightning

SOx (SO2 and SO3) Combustion of sulfur-based fuels (diesel and coal), volcanic release

Combustion of any carbon-based fuel (gas, diesel, or coal), fumes from

VOC (volatile organic compound)
paints or solvents

Inorganic Contaminants
Solubility of these species can be determined by consulting a solubility table (e.g., Table 4.7.1). These chemicals might be naturally
present in a water source. Industry and agriculture also use and dispose of these types of chemicals as well. In determining the
source of any pollutant, it is helpful to know a region's geology and proximity to chemical consumers. In this section, we will focus
on a few inorganic species that can affect drinking water quality.

Hard Water
When water is described as being hard, then this means it has a large concentration of minerals. The ions that contribute to this
problem are calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), carbonate (CO3)2-, and iron (Fe2+/Fe3+). Hard water is not toxic, but can affect
industrial processes. These ions will bond together to form insoluble salts that are called precipitates. Building up of these newly
formed solids is called scale. Precipitates can collect in boilers, cooling towers, and any equipment that employs water. This
buildup can affect how the equipment works by damaging it internally.

 Video: Hard Water

Watch this video below to get an idea of what hard water is.

[Link] [Link]
 What's the Difference Between Hard …

[Link]
1. What chemical species cause hard water?
2. How does hard water affect industry?
3. Hard water is known to contribute to the formation of kidney stones. How else can this type of water affect the body?

Soft Water
Soft water does not contain an excessive amount of alkaline minerals. Instead, potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) ions are present.
Soft water does not form scale but does produce excessive lathers with soap. Although industry and consumers prefer soft water,
the sodium content can affect health if ingested at a high concentration.

Figure [Link] : Hardness of groundwater from domestic wells, a USGS study. A study from the National Water-Quality
Assessment (NAWQA) Program assessed water-quality conditions for about 2,100 domestic wells across the United States. (Public
Domain; USGS).

Eutrophication
When pollutants enter a water system they originate from either point or non-point sources. If a single identifiable source can be
located, then the pollutant originated from a point source. In contrast, non point sources indirectly contaminant water, air, or soil.
Examples of non-point sources would be run-off and acid rain. Obviously, non-point pollutants are more difficult to regulate.

[Link] [Link]
In agriculture, nitrates (NO3)- are used as fertilizers. Farmers can choose to use synthetic or natural (manure) nitrates. Regulating
concentrations of these species could be difficult if all sources are not investigated and monitored. An excessive amount of these
substances leads to eutrophication. Many nitrate (NO3)- and phosphate (PO4)3- containing compounds are soluble in water. Once
dissolved, these substances can travel to lakes and ponds. Here, these chemicals activate plants and algae to grow. Overgrowth of
plant-life in water can inhibit oxygen from entering the water. As a result, aquatic animals are more likely to die in this
environment. In addition, decomposition of organic material (once living) will be slow and smelly.

Figure [Link] : Algal bloom in village river. Taken in a small village in mountains near Chengdu, Sichuan, China. (CC BY-SA
3.0; River algae Sichuan - Trophic state index - Wikipedia)
Eutrophication can be halted in phosphate (PO4)3- contamination is controlled. This involves limiting the use of some fertilizers
and removing phosphates from detergents. Reducing nitrates can be a more challenging task. All compounds containing this
polyatomic ion are extremely soluble. Moreover, controlling nitrate concentration from fecal material can be difficult.

Nitrates in Columbus water cause alert

Toxic Inorganic Species

Some inorganic compounds are quite soluble in water. If an aquatic system is acid, then solubility of these types of species can
change. Lead and mercury based compounds are not as soluble as those in group IA of the periodic table. When the pH of water
becomes acid, many of these once insoluble compounds now become dissolved and visually undetectable.

[Link] [Link]
Lead (Action Level is 0.015 ppm)
Occupational exposure to lead is one of the most prevalent overexposures. Industries with high potential exposures include
construction work, most smelter operations, radiator repair shops, and firing ranges. Other sources of lead based compounds
include house paint (from before 1978), toys (older than 1976 or from abroad), pipes, faucets, jewelry, wet batteries (gasoline
engine based), pottery, and Kohl/Kajol eyeliners.

Figure [Link] : Lead and drinking water. (Copyright; City of Portland)

Gasoline products may contain lead compounds to diminish knocking of a combustion engine. These additives increase the octane
level of a fuel which enables the engine to burn more effectively. Unfortunately, releasing lead-based fumes can impair a person's
nervous system. In addition, other disorders and diseases (kidney issues, gastrointestinal problems, growth delays, anemia, and
learning difficulties) will become more prevalent in an area that has signification combustion of lead based fuels. Children will be
more impacted by lead poisoning than adults. Often, the damage done to this group of people is irreversible. By the early 1970's,
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) started focusing on phasing out leaded fuel products. By the mid 1980's, most US
vehicles used only unleaded fuels. The EPA banned lead based fuel in 1996. Today, only the aviation industry and off-road vehicles
are allowed to use leaded fuel in the United States.

Figure [Link] : ead warning on a gas pump at Keeler's Korner, Lynnwood, Washington. Keeler's Korner, a former grocery store
and gas station (built 1927) listed on the National Register of Historic Places, listed 1982, NRHP listing #82004287. (CC-BY-SA
3.0; [Link]

[Link] [Link]
Arsenic (0.010 ppm or 10 ppb)
Common sources of exposure to higher-than-average levels of arsenic include near or in hazardous waste sites and areas with high
levels naturally occurring in soil, rocks, and water.

Figure [Link] :This map shows estimates of how many private domestic well users in each county may be drinking water with
levels of arsenic of possible concern for human health.(µg/L, micrograms per liter) (USGS; Arsenic and Drinking Water | U.S.
Geological Survey ([Link]))
Arsenic compounds can be found in lead/copper smelting processes, lumber pressurizing (copper chromated arsenate compounds
are no longer used in the United States) and pesticide applications (organic arsenic compounds are used to treat cotton fields and
orchards). Exposure to high levels of arsenic can cause skin lesions, neurological problems, gastrointestinal/live illnesses, various
cancers, and death.

A clean water solution for Bangladesh's …

Mercury (0.002 ppm)

Common sources of mercury exposure include mining, production, and transportation of mercury, as well as mining and refining of
gold and silver ores. High mercury exposure results in permanent nervous system and kidney damage. Once inorganic mercury
enters aquatic systems, it can transform into organic mercury or organometallic mercury. An example of one of these compounds is
methyl mercury (CH3Hg). This type of compound is quite toxic and has bioaccumulation effects.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : This figure shows some common sources of mercury, the conversion to toxic methylmercury and the outline of
EPA consumption recommendations for certain types of fish based on mercury levels. (Copyright; Bretwood Higman, Ground
Truth [Link] [Link]

Cadmium (0.005 ppm)

Cadmium is an extremely toxic metal that exists naturally in the Earth's crust as a common. Agricultural crops absorb cadmium
compounds from the soil. The average person is exposed to cadmium through the consumption of plant based food, burning of
cadmium based materials (air pollution), and drinking of tap water. Tobacco consumers receive additional cadmium when they
smoke. Lastly, artists might use cadmium based pigments for dramatic colors in their paintings.

Figure [Link] : The Berkeley Pit, an open pit copper mine in Butte, Montana. (Copyright; User:Cybergrl23 via Wikipedica
Commons)
At industrial workplaces, cadmium can be introduced to the atmosphere when any metal ore is being processed or smelted. Some
forms of steel and batteries (Ni-Cd) contain cadmium mixtures. Several deaths from acute exposure have occurred among welders
who have unsuspectingly welded on cadmium-containing alloys or with silver solders. This chemical substance is carcinogenic and
causes a signature painful bone disease. Lastly, cadmium exposure can cause significant damage to kidneys.

Uranium (30 ppb)

Natural deposits of this element are found in the earth crust are sometimes associated with mountainous regions of the world. In the
United States, uranium ores can be found in the western part of the country. If uranium becomes soluble, then it can leach or move
to other locations contaminating water and soil nearby.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : Your Health: Uranium and Radiation on the Navajo Nation. ([Link]; Health Effects of Uranium | US EPA)
Enriched U-235 (2-5%) is used for fuel in all US commercial nuclear power plants. Waste products of fuel use are stored for long
periods of time above ground at most nuclear reactor facilities. Fuel waste can be stored in a wet or dry environment. Either method
requires isolation from humans and the environment since the waste will be radioactive for a long time. Enriched U-235 (90%) was
fuel for the Little Boy atomic bomb which was dropped over Hiroshima in 1945. At the time, purification of this form of uranium
was difficult and costly. This resulted in the production of only one uranium type atomic weapon.

Organic Chemical Concerns

Dioxin (3.0 x 10-8 ppm)
Dioxins are mainly byproducts of industrial practices. They are produced through a variety of incineration processes, including
improper municipal waste incineration and burning of trash, and can be released into the air during natural processes, such as forest
fires and volcanoes. Dioxins are also produced in the bleaching process used by the paper industry. These chemicals have been
classified as Persistent Organic Polluters (POPS) because of their long residual life-times in the environment. These compounds are
fat soluble and will accumulate in fatty tissues of living organisms which in turn affects the health of the food chain.

Dioxin based compounds harm hormonal and reproductive systems. In addition, immunity disorders and chloroacne can result if
someone has been exposed to these types of chemicals. A famous case of intentional dioxin (TCDD) poisoning involved a former
Ukrainian presidential candidate named Vicktor Yushchenko. In 2004, environmental toxicologists in Austria detected extremely
high concentrations of dioxins in Yushchenko's blood. Also, medical experiments noted the change in his complexion before and
after the poisoning. For more information regarding this incident, please click here.
When synthesizing Agent Orange (a herbicide used before and during the Vietnam War), chemists simultaneously and
unintentionally produced dioxin. Exposure to this chemical derivative increased cancer rates to those exposed.

[Link] [Link]
 What Is Agent Orange? | History

(PCB) Polychlorinated Biphenyls (5.0 x 10-4 ppm)

Once used as electrical insulators, the United States produced this family of compounds from the late 1930's through the 1970's.
These compounds did not decompose, conduct electricity, and could withstand high temperature environments. For these reasons,
PCBs were commonly incorporated into electrical transformers, fluorescent lights, capacitors and older household appliances
(televisions and refrigerators).

Figure [Link] : Structures of dioxin-like PCBs.. (Copyright; User:Leyo via Own work based on: M. Van den Berg et al. (2006).
"The 2005 World Health Organization Reevaluation of Human and Mammalian Toxic Equivalency Factors for Dioxins and Dioxin-
Like Compounds". Toxicological Sciences 93 (2): 223–241. DOI:10.1093/toxsci/kfl055. PMID 16829543.)
These compounds are classified as human carcinogens. In certain concentrations, PCB exposure can manifest as chloracne. Chronic
exposure to PCBs can cause liver and central nervous system damage. Lastly, PCBs can cause reproductive issues as well.

[Link]

References
1. [Link]/ntp/roc/content/profiles/[Link]
2. Lead Poisoning: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis ([Link])
3. End Of Leaded Gasoline: World Has Stopped Using Toxic Additive : NPR
4. Arsenic | ToxFAQs™ | ATSDR ([Link])
5. Learn about Dioxin | US EPA

[Link] [Link]
This page titled 10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by Elizabeth Gordon.
8.4: Chemical Contamination of Water by Elizabeth Gordon is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

[Link] [Link]
10.3.5: Water Treatment
Water treatment is` a process of making water suitable for its application or returning its natural state. Thus, water treatment
required before and after its application. The required treatment depends on the application. For example, treatment of greywater
(from bath, dish and wash water) differs from the black water (from flush toilets). Composting toilet is not allowed in urban
dwelling. Yet, composting toilets are used in a 30,000-square-foot office complex at the Institute of Asian Research, University of
British Columbia.
Water treatment involves science, engineering, business, and art. The treatment may include mechanical, physical, biological, and
chemical methods. As with any technology, science is the foundation, and engineering makes sure that the technology works as
designed. The appearance and application of water is an art.
In terms of business, RGF Environmental, Water Energy Technologies, Aquasana Store, Vitech, Recalyx Industrial SDN BHD and
PACE Chemicals ltd are some of many companies that offer various processes for water treatment. Millipore, a Fisher Scientific
partner, offers many lines of products to produce ultrapure water, using a combination of active charcoal membranes, and reverse
osmosis filter. Internet sites of these companies offer useful information regarding water.
An environmental scientist or consultant matches the service provider, modify if necessary, with the requirement.
Natural Water includes some discussion on hard and soft water. Softening hard water for boiler, cooler, and domestic
application is discussed therein. These treatments prepare water so that it is suitable for the applications.
Water Biology deals with water and biology. Drinking water is part of making water suitable for living. Thus, this link gives
some considerations to drinking water problems.
There are many different industry types, and waters from various sources are usually treated before and after their applications.
Pre-application treatment and wastewater treatment offer a special opportunity or challenge. Only a general consideration will
be given to some industrial processes.
General municipal and domestic wastewater treatment converts used water (waste) into environmentally acceptable water or
even drinking water. Every urban centre requires such a facility.

General Wastewater Treatment

Water is a renewable resource. All water treatments involve the removal of solids, bacteria, algae, plants, inorganic compounds,
and organic compounds. Removal of solids is usually done by filtration and sediment. Bacteria digestion is an important process to
remove harmful pollutants. Converting used water into environmentally acceptable water or even drinking water is wastewater
treatment
Water in the Great Lakes Region is an organization dealing with the water resources. Ontario Clean Water Agency (OCWA) is a
provincial Crown corporation in business to provide environmentally responsible and cost-efficient water and wastewater services.
It currently operates more than 400 facilities for 200 municipalities. This web site provides information on water and water
treatment.
In April 1993, 403,000 people in Milwaukee were ill as a result of cryptosporidium contaimination of water due to spring run off.
This outbreak caused the more stringent regulations to be implemented in the public dringking water system. The measures were
aimed at removing cryptosporidium.
In May 2000, due to torrential downpour surface water got into shallow wells in a small town Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. On May
17, some residents complained of fever, bloody diarrhea and vomiting. This was know as the Walkerton E. Coli Outbreak. Nearly
half of the population of the town fell ill, and several people died due to the E. Coli O157:H7 infection. A public inquiry
recommended many measures to prevent similar outbreaks. These measures were aimed at eliminating E. Coli.

Sewage Treatment
As a general discussion, let us look at a typical process in sewage treatment. A flow diagram for a general sewage treatment plant
from Water Education, Department of Computer Science, University of Exeter, U.K., is shown below:

[Link] [Link]
Sewage is SCREENED to remove large solid chunks, which are disposed in LANDFILL SITE. It flows over to the SETTLEMENT
TANK to let the fine particles to settle. The settlement is called the activated SLUDGE. The supernatant is then PERCOLATING
FILTERED and/or AERATED. The water can be filtered again, and then disinfected (chlorinated in most cases). When there is no
other complication, the water is returned to nature back to the ecological cycle.
The SLUDGE removed from the settlement is composed of living biological material. A portion of it may be returned to the
AERATION TANK, but the raw SLUDGE is digested by both microorganism. Anaerobic (without oxygen) and aerobic (with air)
bacteria digestions are used. At the digestion stage, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane gases are evolved. Volume of the
digested sludge is reduced, and it is acceptable as a fertilizer supplement in farming.

Wastewater Treatment
Although the sewage water may be discharged back to the ecological system after AERATED DIGESTION and PERCOLATING
FILTRATION, but in some cases, further treatment is required. Some general consideration of water treatment is given below.
A rather recent book, Chemistry of Water Treatment by S.D. Faust and O.M. Aly, 2nd Ed. (1998) [TD433 F38 1998], addresses the
problem of quality natural and treated water.
The first three chapters discuss the criteria and standards for drinking water quality, organic compounds in waters, taste and order
of water. Understandably, the standards change over the years. So are the standards of treated waters. Guidelines are available from
government agencies such as Environment Canada which is equivalent to U.S. Public Health Service and the Environment
Protection Agency (EPA). We have talked about drinking water in Water Biology.
Next seven chapters deal with the removal of the following:
organics and inorganics by activated carbon
particulate matter by coagulation
particulate matter by filtration and sedimentation
hardness and other scale-forming substances
inorganic contaminants
corrosive substances
pathogenic (disease producing) bacteria, viruses, and protozoans (microorganisms).
There is a chapter dealing with aeration

[Link] [Link]
These items cover the chemistry, biology, and physics involved in the treatment of water. Some of these topics have been discussed
in chemistry of water, physical properties of water, biology of water, and natural water. Introductions are going to be given to some
selected topics below.

Treatment by Activated Carbon

Treatment by activated carbon is mostly due to adsorption or absorption. When a chemical species is adhered to the surface of a
solid, it is an adsorption. When partial chemical bonds are formed between adsorbed species or when the absorbate got into the
channels of the solids, we call it absorption. However, these two terms are often used to mean the same, because to distinguish one
from type from the other is very difficult.
Application of activated charcoal for the removal of undesirable order and taste in drinking water has been recognized at the dawn
of civilization. Using bone char and charred vegetation, gravel, and sand for the filtration of water for domestic application has
been practised for thousands of years. Active research and production of activated charcoal was accelerated during the two world
wars. The use of poison gas prompted the development of masks. They are still in use today.
Charcoal absorbs many substances, ranging from colored organic particulates to inorganic metal ions. Charcoal has been used to
remove the colour of raw sugar from various sources.
Charcoal consists of microcrystallites of graphite. The particles are so small in charcoal that they were
considered amorphous. The crystal structure of graphite consists of layers of hexagonal networks,
stacked on top of each other. Today, making activated carbon is a new and widely varied industry.
Other molecules attach themselves to the porous surface and dangling carbons in these
microcrystallites.
Carbon containing substances are charred at less than 900 K to produce carbon in the manufacture of
activated carbon. However, the carbon is activated at 1200 K using oxidizing agent to selectively
oxidize portions of the char to produce pores in the material. Because of the special process to produce
used, these materials with high surface to mass ratio, they are called activated carbon rather than
activated charcoal. Factors affecting the absorption are particle size, surface area, pore structure, acidity
(pH), temperature, and the nature of the material to be absorbed. Usually, adsorption (absorption) equilibria and rate of adsorption
must be considered for effective applications.

Coagulation, Flucculation and Sedimentation

Natural and wastewater containing small particulates. They are suspended in water forming a colloid. These particles carry the
same charges, and repulsion prevents them from combining into larger particulates to settle. Thus, some chemical and physical
techniques are applied to help them settle. The phenomenon is known as coagulation. A well known method is the addition of
electrolyte. Charged particulates combine with ions neutralizing the charges. The neutral particulates combine to form larger
particles, and finally settle down.
Another method is to use high-molecular-weight material to attract or trap the particulates and settle down together. Such a process
is called flocculation. Starch and multiply charged ions are often used.
Historically, dirty water is cleaned by treating with alum, Al2(SO4)3.12 H2O, and lime, Ca(OH)2. These electrolytes cause the pH of
the water to change due to the following reactions:
Al2(SO4)3.12 H2O, -> Al(aq)3+ + 3 SO4(aq)2- + 12 H2O
SO4(aq)2- + H2O -> HSO4(aq)- + OH- (causing pH change)
Ca(OH)2 -> Ca(aq)2+ + 2 OH- (causing pH change)
The slightly basic water causes Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3 and Fe(OH)2 to precipitate, bringing the small particulates with them and the
water becomes clear. Some records have been found that Egyptians and Romans used these techniques as early as 2000 BC.
Suspension of iron oxide particulates and humic organic matter in water gives water the yellow muddy appearance. Both iron oxide
particulates and organic matter can be removed from coagulation and flocculation. The description given here is oversimplified,
and many more techniques have been applied in the treatment of water. Coagulation is a major application of lime in the treatment
of wastewater.
Other salts such as iron sulfates Fe2(SO4)3 and FeSO4, chromium sulfate Cr2(SO4)3, and some special polymers are also useful.
Other ions such as sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and potassium also affect the coagulation process. So do temperature,

[Link] [Link]
pH, and concentration.
Disposal of coagulation sludge is a concern, however.
Sedimentation let the water sit around to let the floculated or coagulated particles to settle out. It works best with relatively dense
particles (e.g. silt and minerals), while flotation works better for lighter particles (e.g. algae, color). A settling tank should be big
enough so that it takes a long time (ideally 4 hours +) to get through. Inlets and outlets are designed so the water moves slowly in
the tank. Long and narrow channels are installed to let the water to snake its way through the tank. The settled particles, sludge,
must occasionally be removed from the tanks. The water is next ready to be filtered. Sedimentation is used in pre-treatment and
wastewater treatment.

Filtration
Filtration is the process of removing solids from a fluid by passing it through a porous medium. Coarse, medium, and fine porous
media have been used depending on the requirement. The filter media are artificial membranes, nets, sand filter, and high
technological filter systems. The choice of filters depends on the required filtering speed and the cleanness requirement. The flow
required for filtration can be achieved using gravity or pressure. In pressure filtration, one side of the filter medium is at higher
pressure than that of the other so that the filter plane has a pressure drop. Some portion of this filter type must be enclosed in a
container.
The process of removing the clogged portion of the filter bed by reversing the flow through the bed and washing out the solid is
called back washing. During this process, the solid must be removed out of the system, but otherwise the filters must be either
replaced or taken out of service to be cleaned.
Aqua-Rain manufacture water filters as shown here. This unit consists of four filters. Regarding the
filtering system, its technical info gave the following statement.
At the heart of the AquaRain™ Water Filtration System are Marathonr State-of-the-art ceramic
elements utilizing a long-proven filtration process that is over 100 years old which will safely
remove dangerous waterborne pathogens such as cysts (Cryptospordium, Giardia lamblia) and
bacteria (E. coli, Samonelli typhus, etc...). These innovative Marathonr ceramic elements are
also filled with a high grade silvered granulated activated carbon (GAC). The GAC reduces
pesticides, chemicals, chlorine, tastes & odors, while leaving the naturally occurring minerals
found in the water unaffected.
The units are designed for emergency and perhaps undeveloped countries.
AquaSelect of Mississauga has a pitcher water filter system, and its cartridge contains hundreds of high efficiency activated carbon
and ion exchange beads, its web site claims. Brita filters is very popular.

Aeration
Bringing air into intimate contact with water for the purpose of exchanging certain components between the two phases is called
aeration. Oxygenation is one of the purposes of aeration. Others are removal of volatile organic substances, hydrogen sulfide,
ammonia, and volatile organic compounds.
A gas or substance dissolved in water may further react with water. Such a reaction is called hydration. Ionic substance dissolve
due to hydration, for example:
+ −
HCl(g) + xH O −
↽⇀
− H(H O) + Cl (aq) ([Link])
2 2 x

+ −
H S−
↽⇀
− H (aq) + HS (aq) ([Link])
2

These reactions are reversible, and aeration may also causes dehydration resulting in releasing the gas from water. Henry's law is
applicable to this type of equilibrium for consideration. Methods of aeration are
Diffused aeration - Air bubbles through water.
Spray aeration - Water is sprayed through air.
Multiple-tray aeration - Water flows through several trays to mix with air.
Cascade aeration - Water flows downwards over many steps in the form of thin water falls.
Air stripping - A combination of multiple tray and cascade technique plus random packed blocks causing water to mix
thoroughly with air.

[Link] [Link]
Reverse Osmosis Water Filter System
In the following discussion, a dilute solution and a concentrated solution are
considered. The dilute solution can be a clean water whereas the concentrated
solution contains undesirable solute (electrolyte or others).
When a compartment containing a dilute solution is connected to another
compartment containing a concentrated solution by a semipermeable membrane,
water molecules move from the dilute solution to concentrated solution. This
phenomenon is called osmosis. Pig bladders are natural semipermeable
membranes. As the water molecules migrate through the semipermeable
membrane, water level in the solution will increase until the (osmotic) pressure prevents a net migration of water molecules in one
direction. A pressure equivalent to the height difference is called the osmotic pressure. The illustration given on the right is from
the PurePro, one of the many companies that manufacture reverse osmosis water filter devices. Millipore also use this technique.
By applying pressure in the higher concentration solution, water molecules migrate from
a high concentration solution to a low concentration solution. This method is called
reverse osmosis water filter system. The concept of reverse osmosis is illustrated in the
diagram here from PurePro.
In this technique, the membrane must be able to tolerate the high pressure, and prevent
solute molecules to pass through. Regarding membranes, PurePro made the following
statement:
Semipermeable membranes have come a long way from the natural pig bladders used in the earlier osmosis experiments.
Before the 1960's, these membranes were too inefficient, expensive, and unreliable for practical applications outside the
laboratory. Modern advances in synthetic materials have generally solved these problems, allowing membranes to become
highly efficient at rejecting contaminants, and making them tough enough to withstand the greater pressures necessary for
efficient operation.
This technology certainly works, and it has been used to convert salt (ocean or sea) water into fresh water. With this technique, the
water with higher concentration is discharged. Thus, this technology is costly in regions where the water cost is high. Free Drinking
Water also uses reverse osmosis filter system for domestic applications.

Industrial Wastewater Treatment

The Environment Canada's (Atlantic Region) Waste Management and Remediation Section contains links to detailed information
on the programs and activities relating to Petroleum and Allied Petroleum Storage Tank Systems, Ocean Disposal, Contaminated
Sites, and Hazardous Waste Disposal Advice for the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and
Prince Edward Island. It also contains links to sites within and outside of Environment Canada with related information.

Contributors and Attributions

Chung (Peter) Chieh (Professor Emeritus, Chemistry @ University of Waterloo)

This page titled 10.3.5: Water Treatment is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Chung (Peter)
Chieh.

[Link] [Link]
10.3.6: PBBs
Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs)
The Michigan Chemical Company in St. Louis, Michigan produced two chemicals, ok they produced more than two but this story
involves only two. One day in early 1973, there was a shortage of preprinted paper bag containers which led to misidentification of
materials. Ten to twenty 50-pound bags of polybrominated biphenyl, specifically BP-6, accidentally being sent to Michigan Farm
Bureau Services in place of NutriMaster, a magnesium oxide cattle feed supplement. Of course these two chemical compounds
look similar enough that the mix up was not discovered. Well it was not discovered until April 1974 and by that time PBB had
entered the food chain through milk, other dairy products, beef products, and contaminated swine, sheep, chickens and eggs.

So what are PBBs?

They are a class of biphenyl compounds with one to ten hydrogen atoms replaced by bromine. There are 209 possible compounds,
referred to as PBB congeners, which differ in the number and position of the bromine atoms on the two phenyl rings.

PBBs with three or more bromines are solids with low volatility and the volatility decreases further as more hydrogens are
replaced. PBBs are very stable. They are insoluble in water but readily soluble in fat.

So what do these properties of PBBs mean for organisms that consume them?
Because PBBs are fat soluble, when PBBs are ingested, such as in the contaminated feed, the organism assimilates the PBBs in fat
cells in the body. They are very stable and will remain in the fat cells.
What happens if an organism consumes another meal containing PBB contaminates?
Termed bioaccumulation, the organism now has two doses of PBB in its fat cells.
Let's say some mice ate contaminated feed. What would you predict about the barn cat that fed on the mice?
Termed Ecological magnification, organisms higher in the food chain will assimilate larger quantities of fat soluble toxins.
What concerns would you have for new mothers and their young? What would you recommend?
Breast feeding passes fat cells in the mother's milk along to the baby. Since these toxins are accumulated in fat cells, the toxins
would also be passed along.
So what was the fallout from Michigan's accidental chemical switch?
Failure to identify the mix up early on resulted in widespread contamination of farm animals requiring the destruction of thousands
of contaminated livestock cattle, hogs and sheep, millions of poultry. Approximately 865 tons of animal feed, 17,790 pounds of
cheese, 2630 pounds of butter, 34000 pounds of dry milk and nearly 5 million eggs were destroyed. A large number of health
problems have been reported by people consuming contaminated food. Tests on people in the area, livestock and livestock
products, soil and water have been conducted on a regular basis to track presence and concentrations of PBBs. It has been found
that this compound is persistent in fat tissue and soils, especially those high in clay. (Di Carlo)
From ChemPRIME: 8.8: Aromatic Hydrocarbons

References:
EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM); Scientific Opinion on Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs) in Food.
EFSA Journal 2010; 8(10):1789. [151 pp.]. doi:10.2903/[Link].2010.1789. Available online: [Link]/efsajournal
Di Carlo, Frederick, Joseph Seifter, and Vincent DeCarlo. "Assessment of the Hazards of Polybrominated Biphenyls."
Environmental Health Perspectives 23. (1978): 351-365. Web. 28 Jul 2011.
<[Link]

Contributors and Attributions

Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of
Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.

[Link] [Link]
This page titled 10.3.6: PBBs is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Ed Vitz, John W. Moore, Justin
Shorb, Xavier Prat-Resina, Tim Wendorff, & Adam Hahn.

[Link] [Link]
10.4: Solids
 Learning Objective
Describe the general properties of a solid.
Describe the six different types of solids.

A solid is like a liquid in that particles are in contact with one another. Solids are unlike liquids in that the intermolecular forces are
strong enough to hold the particles in place. At low enough temperatures, all substances are solids (helium is the lone exception),
but the temperature at which the solid state becomes the stable phase varies widely among substances, from 20 K (−253°C) for
hydrogen to over 3,900 K (3,600°C) for carbon.
The solid phase has several characteristics. First, solids maintain their shape. They do not fill their entire containers like gases do,
and they do not adopt the shape of their containers like liquids do. They cannot be easily compressed like gases can, and they have
relatively high densities.
Solids may also demonstrate a variety of properties. For example, many metals can be beaten into thin sheets or drawn into wires,
while compounds such as NaCl will shatter if they are struck. Some metals, such as sodium and potassium, are rather soft, while
others, such as diamond, are very hard and can easily scratch other substances. Appearances differ as well: most metals are shiny
and silvery, but sulfur (a nonmetal) is yellow, and ionic compounds can take on a rainbow of colors. Solid metals conduct
electricity and heat, while ionic solids do not. Many solids are opaque, but some are transparent. Some dissolve in water, but some
do not. Figure 10.4.1, shows two solids that exemplify the similar and dissimilar properties of solids.

Figure 10.4.1 : Properties of Solids. (a) Sodium metal is silvery, soft, opaque, and conducts electricity and heat well. (b) NaCl is
transparent, hard, colorless, and does not conduct electricity or heat well in the solid state. These two substances illustrate the range
of properties that solids can have. Source: Photo on left courtesy of Images of Elements, [Link]
[Link]/[Link]. Photo on right courtesy of Choba Poncho,
[Link]/wiki/File:Sodiumchloride_crystal_01.jpg.
Solids can have a wide variety of physical properties. We will review the different types of solids and the bonding that gives them
their properties.
First, we must distinguish between two general types of solids. An amorphous solid is a solid with no long-term structure or
repetition. Examples include glass and many plastics, both of which are composed of long chains of molecules with no order from
one molecule to the next. A crystalline solid is a solid that has a regular, repeating three-dimensional structure. A crystal of NaCl
(Figure 10.4.1) is one example: at the atomic level, NaCl is composed of a regular three-dimensional array of Na+ ions and Cl−
ions.
There is only one type of amorphous solid. However, there are several different types of crystalline solids, depending on the
identity of the units that compose the crystal.
An ionic solid is a crystalline solid composed of ions (even if the ions are polyatomic). NaCl is an example of an ionic solid
(Figure 10.4.2 - An Ionic Solid). The Na+ ions and Cl− ions alternate in three dimensions, repeating a pattern that goes on
throughout the sample. The ions are held together by the attraction of opposite charges—a very strong force. Hence most ionic
solids have relatively high melting points; for example, the melting point of NaCl is 801°C. Ionic solids are typically very brittle.
To break them, the very strong ionic attractions need to be broken; a displacement of only about 1 × 10−10 m will move ions next

10.4.1 [Link]
to ions of the same charge, which results in repulsion. Ionic solids do not conduct electricity in their solid state; however, in the
liquid state and when dissolved in some solvent, they do conduct electricity. This fact originally promoted the idea that some
substances exist as ionic particles.

Figure 10.4.2 : An Ionic Solid. NaCl is a solid composed of a three-dimensional array of alternating Na+ ions (green) and Cl− ions
(purple) held together by the attraction of opposite charges.
A molecular solid is a crystalline solid whose components are covalently bonded molecules. Many molecular substances,
especially when carefully solidified from the liquid state, form solids where the molecules line up with a regular fashion similar to
an ionic crystal, but they are composed of molecules instead of ions. Because the intermolecular forces between molecules are
typically less strong than in ionic solids, molecular solids typically melt at lower temperatures and are softer than ionic solids. Ice is
an example of a molecular solid. In the solid state, the molecules line up in a regular pattern (Figure 10.4.3). Some very large
molecules, such as biological molecules, will form crystals only if they are very carefully solidified from the liquid state or, more
often, from a dissolved state; otherwise, they will form amorphous solids.

Figure 10.4.3 : Molecular Solids. Water molecules line up in a regular pattern to form molecular solids. The dotted lines show how
the polar O–H covalent bonds in one molecule engage in hydrogen bonding with other molecules. The O atoms are red, and the H
atoms are white.
Some solids are composed of atoms of one or more elements that are covalently bonded together in a seemingly never-ending
fashion. Such solids are called covalent network solids. Each piece of the substance is essentially one huge molecule, as the
covalent bonding in the crystal extends throughout the entire crystal. The two most commonly known covalent network solids are
carbon in its diamond form and silicon dioxide (SiO2). Figure 10.4.4 - Covalent Network Solids, shows the bonding in a covalent
network solid. Generally, covalent network solids are poor conductors of electricity, although their ability to conduct heat is
variable: diamond is one of the most thermally conductive substances known, while SiO2 is about 100 times less thermally
conductive. Most covalent network solids are very hard, as exemplified by diamond, which is the hardest known substance.
Covalent network solids have high melting points by virtue of their network of covalent bonds, all of which would have to be
broken for them to transform into a liquid. Indeed, covalent network solids are among the highest-melting substances known: the
melting point of diamond is over 3,500°C, while the melting point of SiO2 is around 1,650°C. These characteristics are explained
by the network of covalent bonds throughout the sample.

10.4.2 [Link]
 Figure 10.4.4 : Covalent Network Solids. Diamond is a covalent network solid, with each C atom making four covalent bonds to
four other C atoms. A diamond is essentially one huge molecule.
A metallic solid is a solid with the characteristic properties of a metal: shiny and silvery in color and a good conductor of heat and
electricity. A metallic solid can also be hammered into sheets and pulled into wires. A metallic solid exhibits metallic bonding, a
type of intermolecular interaction caused by the sharing of the s valence electrons by all atoms in the sample. It is the sharing of
these valence electrons that explains the ability of metals to conduct electricity and heat well. It is also relatively easy for metals to
lose these valence electrons, which explains why metallic elements usually form cations when they make compounds.

 Example 10.4.1

Predict the type of crystal exhibited by each solid.

a. MgO
b. Ag
c. CO2
Solution
a. A combination of a metal and a nonmetal makes an ionic compound, so MgO would exist as ionic crystals in the solid state.
b. Silver is a metal, so it would exist as a metallic solid in the solid state.
c. CO2 is a covalently bonded molecular compound. In the solid state, it would form molecular crystals. (You can actually see
the crystals in dry ice with the naked eye.)

 Exercise 10.4.1

Predict the type of crystal exhibited by each solid.

a. I2
b. Ca(NO3)2
Answers
a. molecular crystals
b. ionic crystals

 Food and Drink Application: The Rocks We Eat

The foods and beverages we eat and drink all have different phases: solid, liquid, and gas. (How do we ingest gases?
Carbonated beverages have gas, which sometimes cause a person to belch.) However, among the solids we eat, three in
particular are, or are produced from, rocks. Yes, rocks!

10.4.3 [Link]
 The first one is NaCl, or common salt. Salt is the only solid that we ingest that is actually mined as a rock (hence the term rock
salt; it really is a rock). Salt provides both Na+ ions and Cl− ions, both of which are necessary for good health. Salt preserves
food, a function that was much more important before the days of modern food preparation and storage. The fact that saltiness
is one of the major tastes the tongue can detect suggests a strong evolutionary link between ingesting salt and survival. There is
some concern today that there is too much salt in the diet; it is estimated that the average person consumes at least three times
as much salt daily as is necessary for proper bodily function.
The other two rocks we eat are related: sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). However, we do not
mine these substances directly from the ground; we mine trona, whose chemical formula is Na3H(CO3)2. This substance is
dissolved in water and treated with CO2 gas to make either Na2CO3 or NaHCO3. Another process, called the Solvay process,
is also used to make Na2CO3. In the Solvay process, NH3 and CO2 are added to solutions of NaCl to make NaHCO3 and
NH4Cl; the NaHCO3 precipitates and is heated to produce Na2CO3. Either way, we get these two products from the ground
(i.e., rocks).
NaHCO3 is also known as baking soda, which is used in many baked goods. Na2CO3 is used in foods to regulate the acid
balance. It is also used in laundry (where it is called washing soda) to interact with other ions in water that tend to reduce
detergent efficiency.

Figure 10.4.5 : Salt Mining © Thinkstock. Salt mining can be at the surface or below ground. Here salt is mined from surface
deposits. Part of the processing facility can be seen in the background.

Summary
Solids can be divided into amorphous solids and crystalline solids.
Crystalline solids can be ionic, molecular, covalent network, or metallic.

10.4: Solids is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
10.5: Solids by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]

10.4.4 [Link]
10.4.1: Fats and Lipids in Bioamplification
One important consequence of the hydrophobic character of lipids is the concentration of nonpolar substances along ecological
food chains, a process known as bioamplification. As an example, consider organisms in an aqueous environment such as a river
or lake. Any substance which is more soluble in living tissues than in the surrounding water will tend to concentrate in even the
simplest plants and animals. These plants and animals are often the food supply for more complex life forms—a food supply which
contains a greater concentration of the substance in question. As we proceed up the food chain to larger predatory animals, the
concentrations of some substances can be increased by factors of 10 000 or more.
What kinds of substances are likely to undergo bioamplification? Clearly those which are more soluble in living systems. Since the
surroundings are dilute aqueous solutions while organisms contain both aqueous and lipid phases, nonpolar substances which
dissolve in lipids are most likely to be concentrated. This is a problem with DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), and other
long-lived synthetic organic compounds. It also applies to metal ions which can combine with organic groups to form uncharged
molecules. A good example of such an organometallic compound involves mercury. Certain aquatic microorganisms can convert
relatively inert mercury metal into chloromethylmercury(II) (commonly known as methylmercuric chloride):

Since the charge of Hg2+ is neutralized by Cl3– and Cl–, this organometallic compound is quite soluble in lipid tissues.
Concentration of mercury along aquatic food chains has led to several episodes where hundreds of Japanese people whose diet
consisted mainly of fish became ill and many died. It also accounts for the relatively high level of mercury observed in some
species of fish taken from the Great Lakes of the United States and Canada.
Humans and other organisms do have mechanisms for eliminating toxic and otherwise undesirable organic substances. A wide
variety of enzymes in the human liver can convert hydrophobic molecules to more polar forms which are less soluble in lipid
tissues and more readily excreted. However, there is often a problem with synthetic substances which have been synthesized by
chemists and whose structures are quite different from any the liver enzymes are equipped to handle. As in the case of the ABS
detergents, the reactions which decompose such substances may be relatively slow. If they are not converted into structures which
can be eliminated easily, even small quantities may remain in the body for long periods, sometimes causing chronic illness. It is for
this reason that toxic effects of synthetic organic or organometallic chemicals should be thoroughly tested before large quantities
are released to the environment.
From ChemPRIME:20.3: Fats and Lipids

Contributors and Attributions

Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina (University of
Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.

This page titled 10.4.1: Fats and Lipids in Bioamplification is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Ed Vitz, John W. Moore, Justin Shorb, Xavier Prat-Resina, Tim Wendorff, & Adam Hahn.

[Link] [Link]
10.5: Prelude to Gases
Perhaps one of the most spectacular chemical reactions involving a gas occurred on May 6, 1937, when the German airship
Hindenburg exploded on approach to the Naval Air Station in Lakehurst, New Jersey. The actual cause of the explosion is still
unknown, but the entire volume of hydrogen gas used to float the airship, about 200,000 m3, burned in less than one minute.
Thirty-six people, including one on the ground, were killed. Hydrogen is the lightest known gas. Any balloon filled with hydrogen
gas will float in air if its mass is not too great. This makes hydrogen an obvious choice for flying machines based on balloons—
airships, dirigibles, and blimps.

The German airship Hindenburg (left) was one of the largest airships ever built.
However, it was filled with hydrogen gas and exploded in Lakehurst, New Jersey, at
the end of a transatlantic voyage in May 1937 (right).
However, hydrogen also has one obvious drawback—it burns in air according to the well-known chemical equation:

2 H (g) + O (g) → 2 H O(ℓ)

2 2 2

So although hydrogen is an obvious choice, it is also a dangerous choice. Helium gas is also lighter than air and has 92% of the
lifting power of hydrogen. Why, then, was helium not used in the Hindenburg? In the 1930s, helium was much more expensive. In
addition, the best source of helium at the time was the United States, which banned helium exports to pre–World War II Germany.
Today all airships use helium, a legacy of the Hindenburg disaster.

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chemistry.

10.5.1 [Link]
10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases
 Learning Objectives
State the major concepts behind the kinetic theory of gases.
Relate the general properties of gases to the kinetic theory.

Gases were among the first substances studied in terms of the modern scientific method, which was developed in the 1600s. It did
not take long to recognize that gases all shared certain physical behaviors, suggesting that all gases could be described by one all-
encompassing theory. Today, that theory is the kinetic theory of gases. The kinetic theory of gases is based on the following
statements:
1. Gases consist of tiny particles of matter that are in constant motion.
2. Gas particles are constantly colliding with each other and the walls of a container. These collisions are elastic—that is, there is
no net loss of energy from the collisions.
3. Gas particles are separated by large distances, with the size of a gas particle tiny compared to the distances that separate them.
4. There are no interactive forces (i.e., attraction or repulsion) between the particles of a gas.
5. The average speed of gas particles is dependent on the temperature of the gas.
Figure [Link] shows a representation of how we mentally picture the gas phase.

Figure [Link] : The Kinetic Theory of Gases. The kinetic theory of gases describes this state of matter as composed of tiny
particles in constant motion, with a lot of distance between the particles.
This model of gases explains some of the physical properties of gases. Because most of a gas is empty space, a gas has a low
density and can expand or contract under the appropriate influence. The fact that gas particles are in constant motion means that
two or more gases will always mix, as the particles from the individual gases move and collide with each other.
An ideal gas is a gas that exactly follows the statements of the kinetic theory. Unfortunately, real gases are not ideal. Many gases
deviate slightly from agreeing perfectly with the kinetic theory of gases. However, most gases adhere to the statements, and the
kinetic theory of gases is well accepted by the scientific community.
The physical behavior of gases is explained by the kinetic theory of gases.
An ideal gas adheres exactly to the kinetic theory of gases.

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10.6: Prelude to Solutions
More than 70% of the earth's surface is covered by a very important solution—seawater. It is likely that without seawater, no life
would exist on Earth.
At its simplest, seawater is mostly H2O. However, about 3.5% of seawater is dissolved solids—mostly NaCl—but other ions as
well. Table 10.6.1 lists the percentage by mass of the various ions in seawater. Because it is highly likely that life on Earth
originated in the oceans, it should not be surprising that many bodily fluids resemble seawater, especially blood. Table 10.6.1 also
lists the percentage by mass of ions in a typical sample of blood.
Table 10.6.1 : Percentage by Mass of Ions in Seawater and Blood
Ion Percentage in Seawater Percentage in Blood

Na+ 2.36 0.322

Cl− 1.94 0.366

Mg2+ 0.13 0.002

SO42− 0.09 -

K+ 0.04 0.016

Ca2+ 0.04 0.0096

HCO3− 0.002 0.165

HPO42−, H2PO4− - 0.01

Most ions are more abundant in seawater than they are in blood, with some notable exceptions. There is far more hydrogen
carbonate ion (HCO3−) in blood than in seawater; indeed, it is the third most common ion in blood. This difference is significant
because the HCO3− ion and some related species [CO32−, CO2(aq)] have an important role in controlling the acid-base properties
of blood. Although there is a negligible amount of the two hydrogen phosphate ions (HPO42− and H2PO4−) in seawater, there is a
small amount in blood, where these ions affect acid-base properties. Another notable difference is that blood has a negligible
amount of the sulfate ion (SO42−), but this ion is present in seawater. Gold is present in seawater—but only a tiny amount. A
current estimate of the amount of gold is about 1 part per every 1 × 1013 parts of seawater, which makes the extraction of gold
from seawater unfeasible. However, it does mean that there are about 1.4 × 1014 g of gold in the world's oceans!

Figure 10.6.1 : Gold in the Ocean. There are approximately 1.4 × 1014 g of gold in the oceans, but extracting it effectively is
beyond current technologies. (CC SA-BY; Evgeni Dinev, Flickr.)
A solution is a homogeneous mixture: a mixture of two or more substances that are so intimately mixed that the mixture behaves in
many ways like a single substance. Many chemical reactions occur when the reactants are dissolved in solution. In this chapter, we

10.6.1 [Link]
will introduce concepts that are applicable to solutions and the chemical reactions that occur in them.

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[Link]

10.6.2 [Link]
10.6.1: Definitions
 Learning Objective
Learn some terminology involving solutions.
Recognize which terminology is qualitative and which terminology is quantitative.
Explain why certain substances dissolve in other substances.

The major component of a solution is called the solvent. The minor component of a solution is called the solute. "Major" and
"minor" indicate which component has the greater or lesser presence by mass or moles, respectively. Sometimes this becomes
confusing, especially when considering substances with very different molar masses. We will confine the discussion here to
solutions for which the major component and the minor component are obvious.
Solutions exist for every possible phase of the solute and the solvent. Salt water, for example, is a solution of solid NaCl in liquid
water; soda water is a solution of gaseous CO2 in liquid water, while air is a solution of a gaseous solute (O2) in a gaseous solvent
(N2). In all cases, however, the overall phase of the solution is the same phase as the solvent.

 Example [Link]: Sugar Water

A solution is made by dissolving 1.00 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) in 100.0 g of liquid water. Identify the solvent and solute in
the resulting solution.

Solution
Either by mass or by moles, the obvious minor component is sucrose, so it is the solute. Water—the majority component—is
the solvent. The fact that the resulting solution is the same phase as water also suggests that water is the solvent.

 Exercise [Link]
A solution is made by dissolving 3.33 g of HCl(g) in 40.0 g of liquid methyl alcohol (CH3OH). Identify the solvent and solute
in the resulting solution.

Answer
solute: HCl(g); solvent: CH3OH

One important concept of solutions is in defining how much solute is dissolved in a given amount of solvent. This concept is called
concentration. Various words are used to describe the relative amounts of solute. Dilute describes a solution that has very little
solute, while concentrated describes a solution that has a lot of solute. One problem is that these terms are qualitative; they
describe more or less but not exactly how much.
In most cases, only a certain maximum amount of solute can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent. This maximum amount is
called the solubility of the solute. It is usually expressed in terms of the amount of solute that can dissolve in 100 g of the solvent at
a given temperature. Table [Link] lists the solubilities of some simple ionic compounds. These solubilities vary widely: NaCl can
dissolve up to 31.6 g per 100 g of H2O, while AgCl can dissolve only 0.00019 g per 100 g of H2O.
Table [Link] : Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds
Solute Solubility (g per 100 g of H2O at 25°C)

AgCl 0.00019

CaCO3 0.0006

KBr 70.7

NaCl 36.1

[Link] [Link]
 Solute Solubility (g per 100 g of H2O at 25°C)

NaNO3 94.6

When the maximum amount of solute has been dissolved in a given amount of solvent, we say that the solution is saturated with
solute. When less than the maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a given amount of solute, the solution is unsaturated. These
terms are also qualitative terms because each solute has its own solubility. A solution of 0.00019 g of AgCl per 100 g of H2O may
be saturated, but with so little solute dissolved, it is also rather dilute. A solution of 36.1 g of NaCl in 100 g of H2O is also
saturated but rather concentrated. Ideally, we need more precise ways of specifying the amount of solute in a solution. We will
introduce such ways in Section 11.3.
In some circumstances, it is possible to dissolve more than the maximum amount of a solute in a solution. Usually, this happens by
heating the solvent, dissolving more solute than would normally dissolve at regular temperatures, and letting the solution cool
down slowly and carefully. Such solutions are called supersaturated solutions and are not stable; given an opportunity (such as
dropping a crystal of solute in the solution), the excess solute will precipitate from the solution.
It should be obvious that some solutes dissolve in certain solvents but not others. NaCl, for example, dissolves in water but not in
vegetable oil. Beeswax dissolves in liquid hexane but not water. What is it that makes a solute soluble in some solvents but not
others?
The answer is intermolecular interactions. The intermolecular interactions include London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole
interactions, and hydrogen bonding (as described in Chapter 10). From experimental studies, it has been determined that if
molecules of a solute experience the same intermolecular forces that the solvent does, the solute will likely dissolve in that solvent.
So, NaCl—a very polar substance because it is composed of ions—dissolves in water, which is very polar, but not in oil, which is
generally nonpolar. Nonpolar wax dissolves in nonpolar hexane but not in polar water. This concept leads to the general rule that
"like dissolves like" for predicting whether a solute is soluble in a given solvent. However, this is a general rule, not an absolute
statement, so it must be applied with care.

 Example [Link]: Polar and Nonpolar Solvents

Would I2 be more soluble in CCl4 or H2O? Explain your answer.

Solution
I2 is nonpolar. Of the two solvents, CCl4 is nonpolar and H2O is polar, so I2 would be expected to be more soluble in CCl4.

 Exercise [Link]

Would C3H7OH be more soluble in CCl4 or H2O? Explain your answer.

Answer
H2O because both experience hydrogen bonding

Summary
Solutions are composed of a solvent (major component) and a solute (minor component).
Concentration is the expression of the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent and can be described by several qualitative
terms.
Solubility is a specific amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent.
"Like dissolves like" is a useful rule for deciding if a solute will be soluble in a solvent.

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11.2: Definitions by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]
chemistry.

[Link] [Link]
10.7: Introduction to energy
It takes energy to launch a spaceship into space. If it takes 1 energy unit to warm 0.25 g of water by 1°C, then it takes over 15,100
energy units to put that 0.25 g of water into earth orbit. The most powerful engines designed to lift rockets into space were part of
the Saturn V rocket, that was built by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The rocket had three stages,
with the first stage having the capability to launch about 3.5 million kg of mass. About 2.3 million kg was the actual fuel for the
first stage; rockets in space have the unpleasant task of having to take their own chemicals with them to provide thrust.

Figure 10.7.1 : Saturn V SA-513 lifts off to boost the Skylab Orbital Workshop into Earth orbit. It takes a lot of energy to launch a
rocket into space. The Saturn V rocket used five of the most powerful engines ever built to take its initial step into orbit. (Public
Domain; NASA)
Having to carry its own fuel puts a lot of mass burden on an engine in space. This is why NASA is developing other types of
engines to minimize fuel mass. An ion thruster uses xenon atoms that have had at least one electron removed from their atoms. The
resulting ions can be accelerated by electric fields, causing a thrust. Because xenon atoms are very large for atoms, the thrusting
efficiency is high even though the actual thrust is low. Because of this, ion engines are useful only in space.

Figure 10.7.2 : An Ion Thruster. Ion drives have low thrust, but high efficiency. They have already been used on several space
missions, including NASA's Deep Space 1 spacecraft and Japan's Hayabusa asteroid sampling probe. Source: Photo courtesy of
NASA, [Link]/wiki/File:Ion_Engine_Test_Firing_-_GPN-[Link].
Energy is a very important quantity in science and the world around us. Although most of our energy ultimately comes from the
sun, much of the energy we use on a daily basis is rooted in chemical reactions. The gasoline in your car, the electricity in your
house, the food in your diet—all provide substances for chemical reactions to provide energy (gasoline, food) or are produced from

10.7.1 [Link]
chemical reactions (electricity, about 50% of which is generated by burning coal). As such, it is only natural that the study of
chemistry involves energy.

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chemistry.

10.7.2 [Link]
10.7.1: Energy and Chemical Bonds
 Learning Objectives
Define energy and distinguish the different types of energy, potential and kinetic.

Chemical changes and their accompanying changes in energy are important parts of our everyday world (Figure [Link]). The
macronutrients in food (proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) undergo metabolic reactions that provide the energy to keep our bodies
functioning. We burn a variety of fuels (gasoline, natural gas, coal) to produce energy for transportation, heating, and the
generation of electricity. Industrial chemical reactions use enormous amounts of energy to produce raw materials (such as iron and
aluminum). Energy is then used to manufacture those raw materials into useful products, such as cars, skyscrapers, and bridges.

Figure [Link] : The energy involved in chemical changes is important to our daily lives: (a) A cheeseburger for lunch provides the
energy you need to get through the rest of the day; (b) the combustion of gasoline provides the energy that moves your car (and
you) between home, work, and school; and (c) coke, a processed form of coal, provides the energy needed to convert iron ore into
iron, which is essential for making many of the products we use daily. (credit a: modification of work by “Pink Sherbet
Photography”/Flickr; credit b: modification of work by Jeffery Turner).
Over 90% of the energy we use comes originally from the sun. Every day, the sun provides the earth with almost 10,000 times the
amount of energy necessary to meet all of the world’s energy needs for that day. Our challenge is to find ways to convert and store
incoming solar energy so that it can be used in reactions or chemical processes that are both convenient and nonpolluting. Plants
and many bacteria capture solar energy through photosynthesis. We release the energy stored in plants when we burn wood or plant
products such as ethanol. We also use this energy to fuel our bodies by eating food that comes directly from plants or from animals
that got their energy by eating plants. Burning coal and petroleum also releases stored solar energy: These fuels are fossilized plant
and animal matter.

Energy
Energy can be defined as the capacity to supply heat or do work. One type of work (w) is the process of causing matter to move
against an opposing force. For example, we do work when we inflate a bicycle tire—we move matter (the air in the pump) against
the opposing force of the air surrounding the tire.
Like matter, energy comes in different types. One scheme classifies energy into two types: potential energy, the energy an object
has because of its relative position, composition, or condition, often referred to as stored energy, and kinetic energy, the energy
that an object possesses because of its motion. Water at the top of a waterfall or dam has potential energy because of its position;
when it flows downward through generators, it has kinetic energy that can be used to do work and produce electricity in a
hydroelectric plant (Figure [Link]). A battery has potential energy because the chemicals within it can produce electricity that
can do work.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : (a) Water that is higher in elevation, for example, at the top of Victoria Falls, has a higher potential energy than
water at a lower elevation. As the water falls, some of its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. (b) If the water flows
through generators at the bottom of a dam, such as the Hoover Dam shown here, its kinetic energy is converted into electrical
energy. (credit a: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson; credit b: modification of work by “curimedia”/Wikimedia commons).
Energy can be converted from one form into another, but all of the energy present before a change occurs always exists in some
form after the change is completed. This observation is expressed in the law of conservation of energy: during a chemical or
physical change, energy can be neither created nor destroyed, although it can be changed in form. (This is also one version of the
first law of thermodynamics, as you will learn later.)
When one substance is converted into another, there is always an associated conversion of one form of energy into another. Heat is
usually released or absorbed, but sometimes the conversion involves light, electrical energy, or some other form of energy. For
example, chemical energy (a type of potential energy) is stored in the molecules that compose gasoline. When gasoline is
combusted within the cylinders of a car’s engine, the rapidly expanding gaseous products of this chemical reaction generate
mechanical energy (a type of kinetic energy) when they move the cylinders’ pistons.
According to the law of conservation of matter (seen in an earlier chapter), there is no detectable change in the total amount of
matter during a chemical change. When chemical reactions occur, the energy changes are relatively modest and the mass changes
are too small to measure, so the laws of conservation of matter and energy hold well. However, in nuclear reactions, the energy
changes are much larger (by factors of a million or so), the mass changes are measurable, and matter-energy conversions are
significant. This will be examined in more detail in a later chapter on nuclear chemistry. To encompass both chemical and nuclear
changes, we combine these laws into one statement: The total quantity of matter and energy in the universe is fixed.

10.7.1: Energy and Chemical Bonds is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
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[Link] [Link]
10.7.2: Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
 Learning Objectives
Use bond dissociation energies to calculate enthalpy change or heat of reaction.
Determine if a chemical process is exothermic or endothermic.

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

Endothermic and exothermic reactions can be thought of as having energy as either a reactant of the reaction or a product.
Endothermic reactions require energy, so energy is a reactant. Heat flows from the surroundings to the system (reaction mixture)
and the enthalpy of the system increases (ΔH is positive). As discussed in the previous section, heat is released (considered a
product) in an exothermic reaction, and the enthalpy of the system decreases (ΔH is negative).
In the course of an endothermic process, the system gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of the surroundings
decreases (gets cold). A chemical reaction is exothermic if heat is released by the system into the surroundings. Because the
surroundings is gaining heat from the system, the temperature of the surroundings increases. See Figure [Link].

Figure [Link] : (A) Endothermic reaction. (B) Exothermic reaction.

Endothermic Reaction: When 1 mol of calcium carbonate decomposes into 1 mol of calcium oxide and 1 mol of carbon dioxide,
177.8 kJ of heat is absorbed. Because the heat is absorbed by the system, the 177.8 kJ is written as a reactant. The ΔH is positive

for an endothermic reaction.

CaCO (s) → CaO (s) + CO (g) ΔH = +177.8 kJ ([Link])

3 2

Exothermic Reaction: When methane gas is combusted, heat is released, making the reaction exothermic. Specifically, the
combustion of 1 mol of methane releases 890.4 kilojoules of heat energy. This information can be shown as part of the balanced
equation in two ways. First, the amount of heat released can be written in the product side of the reaction. Another way is to write
the ΔH information with a negative sign, −890.4 kJ.

CH (g) + 2 O (g) → CO (g) + 2 H O (l) ΔH = −890.4 kJ ([Link])

4 2 2 2

 Example [Link]
Is each chemical reaction exothermic or endothermic?
a. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(ℓ) + 213 kcal
b. N2(g) + O2(g) + 45 kcal → 2NO(g)

[Link] [Link]
 Solution
a. Because energy (213 kcal) is a product, energy is given off by the reaction. Therefore, this reaction is exothermic.
b. Because energy (45 kcal) is a reactant, energy is absorbed by the reaction. Therefore, this reaction is endothermic.

 Exercise [Link]
Is each chemical reaction exothermic or endothermic?
a. H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF (g) + 130 kcal
b. 2C(s) + H2(g) + 5.3 kcal → C2H2(g)

Answer

a. The energy (130 kcal) is produced, hence the reaction is exothermic

b. The energy (5.3 kcal) is supplied or absorbed to react, hence, the reaction is
endothermic

Energy Diagrams
Endothermic and exothermic reactions can be visually represented by energy-level diagrams like the ones in Figure [Link]. In
endothermic reactions, the reactants have higher bond energy (stronger bonds) than the products. Strong bonds have lower
potential energy than weak bonds. Hence, the energy of the reactants is lower than that of the products. This type of reaction is
represented by an "uphill" energy-level diagram shown in Figure 10.7.2.2A. For an endothermic chemical reaction to proceed, the
reactants must absorb energy from their environment to be converted to products.
In an exothermic reaction, the bonds in the product have higher bond energy (stronger bonds) than the reactants. In other words, the
energy of the products is lower than the energy of the reactants, hence is energetically downhill, shown in Figure 10.7.2.2B.
Energy is given off as reactants are converted to products. The energy given off is usually in the form of heat (although a few
reactions give off energy as light). In the course of an exothermic reaction, heat flows from the system to its surroundings, and thus,
gets warm.

Figure 10.7.2.2A : Endothermic Reactions Figure 10.7.2.2B : Exothermic Reactions

Table [Link] : Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic Reactions Exothermic Reactions

Heat is absorbed by reactants to form products. Heat is released.

[Link] [Link]
 Endothermic Reactions Exothermic Reactions

Heat is absorbed from the surroundings; as a result, the surroundings

Heat is released by the reaction to surroundings; surroundings feel hot.
get cold.

ΔHrxn is positive ΔHrxn is negative

The bonds broken in the reactants are stronger than the bonds formed in The bonds formed in the products are stronger than the bonds broken in
the products. the reactants.

The reactants are lower in energy than the products. The products are lower in energy than the reactants.

Represented by an "uphill" energy diagram. Represented by an "downhill" energy diagram

Concept Review Exercises

1. What is the connection between energy and chemical bonds?
2. Why does energy change during the course of a chemical reaction?
3. Two different reactions are performed in two identical test tubes. In reaction A, the test tube becomes very warm as the reaction
occurs. In reaction B, the test tube becomes cold. Which reaction is endothermic and which is exothermic? Explain.
4. Classify "burning paper" as endothermic or exothermic processes.

Answers
1. Chemical bonds have a certain energy that is dependent on the elements in the bond and the number of bonds between the
atoms.
2. Energy changes because bonds rearrange to make new bonds with different energies.
3. Reaction A is exothermic because heat is leaving the system making the test tube feel hot. Reaction B is endothermic because
heat is being absorbed by the system making the test tube feel cold.
4. "Burning paper" is exothermic because burning (also known as combustion) releases heat

Key Takeaways
Atoms are held together by a certain amount of energy called bond energy.
Energy is required to break bonds. Energy is released when chemical bonds are formed because atoms become more stable.
Chemical processes are labeled as exothermic or endothermic based on whether they give off or absorb energy, respectively.

10.7.2: Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

[Link] [Link]
10.7.3: Phase Changes
 Learning Objectives
To calculate the energy changes that accompany phase changes.

We take advantage of changes between the gas, liquid, and solid states to cool a drink with ice cubes (solid to liquid), cool our
bodies by perspiration (liquid to gas), and cool food inside a refrigerator (gas to liquid and vice versa). We use dry ice, which is
solid CO2, as a refrigerant (solid to gas), and we make artificial snow for skiing and snowboarding by transforming a liquid to a
solid. In this section, we examine what happens when any of the three forms of matter is converted to either of the other two. These
changes of state are often called phase changes. The six most common phase changes are shown in Figure [Link].

Figure [Link] : Enthalpy changes that accompany phase transitions are indicated by purple and green arrows. (CC BY-SA-NC;
anoymous)
Purple arrows indicate heatingfrom solid to gas, solid to liquid, and liquid to gas. Green arrows indicate cooling from gas to solid,
gas to liquid, and liquid to solid.

Energy Changes That Accompany Phase Changes

Phase changes are always accompanied by a change in the energy of a system. For example, converting a liquid, in which the
molecules are close together, to a gas, in which the molecules are, on average, far apart, requires an input of energy (heat) to give
the molecules enough kinetic energy to allow them to overcome the intermolecular attractive forces. The stronger the attractive
forces, the more energy is needed to overcome them. Solids, which are highly ordered, have the strongest intermolecular
interactions, whereas gases, which are very disordered, have the weakest. Thus any transition from a more ordered to a less ordered
state (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or solid to gas) requires an input of energy; it is endothermic. Conversely, any transition from a
less ordered to a more ordered state (liquid to solid, gas to liquid, or gas to solid) releases energy; it is exothermic. The energy
change associated with each common phase change is shown in Figure [Link].

ΔH is positive for any transition from a more ordered to a less ordered state and negative
for a transition from a less ordered to a more ordered state.
Previously, we defined the enthalpy changes associated with various chemical and physical processes. The melting points and
molar enthalpies of fusion (ΔH ), the energy required to convert from a solid to a liquid, a process known as fusion (or
f us

melting), as well as the normal boiling points and enthalpies of vaporization (ΔH ) of selected compounds are listed in Table
vap

[Link].

Table [Link] : Melting and Boiling Points and Enthalpies of Fusion and Vaporization for Selected Substances. Values given under 1 atm. of
external pressure.

[Link] [Link]
 Substance Melting Point (°C) ΔHfus (kJ/mol) Boiling Point (°C) ΔHvap (kJ/mol)

N2 −210.0 0.71 −195.8 5.6

HCl −114.2 2.00 −85.1 16.2

Br2 −7.2 10.6 58.8 30.0

CCl4 −22.6 2.56 76.8 29.8

CH3CH2OH (ethanol) −114.1 4.93 78.3 38.6

CH3(CH2)4CH3 (n-
−95.4 13.1 68.7 28.9
hexane)

H2O 0 6.01 100 40.7

Na 97.8 2.6 883 97.4

NaF 996 33.4 1704 176.1

The substances with the highest melting points usually have the highest enthalpies of fusion; they tend to be ionic compounds that
are held together by very strong electrostatic interactions. Substances with high boiling points are those with strong intermolecular
interactions that must be overcome to convert a liquid to a gas, resulting in high enthalpies of vaporization. The enthalpy of
vaporization of a given substance is much greater than its enthalpy of fusion because it takes more energy to completely separate
molecules (conversion from a liquid to a gas) than to enable them only to move past one another freely (conversion from a solid to
a liquid).

Less energy is needed to allow molecules to move past each other than to separate them
totally.

Figure [Link] : The Sublimation of solid iodine. When solid iodine is heated at ordinary atmospheric pressure, it sublimes. When
the I2 vapor comes in contact with a cold surface, it deposits I2 crystals. Figure used with permission from Wikipedia.
The direct conversion of a solid to a gas, without an intervening liquid phase, is called sublimation. The amount of energy required
to sublime 1 mol of a pure solid is the enthalpy of sublimation (ΔHsub). Common substances that sublime at standard temperature
and pressure (STP; 0°C, 1 atm) include CO2 (dry ice); iodine (Figure [Link]); naphthalene, a substance used to protect woolen
clothing against moths; and 1,4-dichlorobenzene. As shown in Figure [Link], the enthalpy of sublimation of a substance is the
sum of its enthalpies of fusion and vaporization provided all values are at the same T; this is an application of Hess’s law.
ΔHsub = ΔHf us + ΔHvap ([Link])

Fusion, vaporization, and sublimation are endothermic processes; they occur only with the absorption of heat. Anyone who has
ever stepped out of a swimming pool on a cool, breezy day has felt the heat loss that accompanies the evaporation of water from
the skin. Our bodies use this same phenomenon to maintain a constant temperature: we perspire continuously, even when at rest,
losing about 600 mL of water daily by evaporation from the skin. We also lose about 400 mL of water as water vapor in the air we
exhale, which also contributes to cooling. Refrigerators and air-conditioners operate on a similar principle: heat is absorbed from
the object or area to be cooled and used to vaporize a low-boiling-point liquid, such as ammonia or the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and the hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs). The vapor is then transported to a different location and compressed, thus releasing and

[Link] [Link]
dissipating the heat. Likewise, ice cubes efficiently cool a drink not because of their low temperature but because heat is required to
convert ice at 0°C to liquid water at 0°C.

Temperature Curves
The processes on the right side of Figure [Link]—freezing, condensation, and deposition, which are the reverse of fusion,
sublimation, and vaporization—are exothermic. Thus heat pumps that use refrigerants are essentially air-conditioners running in
reverse. Heat from the environment is used to vaporize the refrigerant, which is then condensed to a liquid in coils within a house
to provide heat. The energy changes that occur during phase changes can be quantified by using a heating or cooling curve.

Heating Curves
Figure [Link] shows a heating curve, a plot of temperature versus heating time, for a 75 g sample of water. The sample is initially
ice at 1 atm and −23°C; as heat is added, the temperature of the ice increases linearly with time. The slope of the line depends on
both the mass of the ice and the specific heat (Cs) of ice, which is the number of joules required to raise the temperature of 1 g of
ice by 1°C. As the temperature of the ice increases, the water molecules in the ice crystal absorb more and more energy and vibrate
more vigorously. At the melting point, they have enough kinetic energy to overcome attractive forces and move with respect to one
another. As more heat is added, the temperature of the system does not increase further but remains constant at 0°C until all the ice
has melted. Once all the ice has been converted to liquid water, the temperature of the water again begins to increase. Now,
however, the temperature increases more slowly than before because the specific heat capacity of water is greater than that of ice.
When the temperature of the water reaches 100°C, the water begins to boil. Here, too, the temperature remains constant at 100°C
until all the water has been converted to steam. At this point, the temperature again begins to rise, but at a faster rate than seen in
the other phases because the heat capacity of steam is less than that of ice or water.

Figure [Link] : A Heating Curve for Water. This plot of temperature shows what happens to a 75 g sample of ice initially at 1 atm
and −23°C as heat is added at a constant rate: A–B: heating solid ice; B–C: melting ice; C–D: heating liquid water; D–E:
vaporizing water; E–F: heating steam.
Thus the temperature of a system does not change during a phase change. In this example, as long as even a tiny amount of ice is
present, the temperature of the system remains at 0°C during the melting process, and as long as even a small amount of liquid
water is present, the temperature of the system remains at 100°C during the boiling process. The rate at which heat is added does
not affect the temperature of the ice/water or water/steam mixture because the added heat is being used exclusively to overcome the
attractive forces that hold the more condensed phase together. Many cooks think that food will cook faster if the heat is turned up
higher so that the water boils more rapidly. Instead, the pot of water will boil to dryness sooner, but the temperature of the water
does not depend on how vigorously it boils.

The temperature of a sample does not change during a phase change.

[Link] [Link]
If heat is added at a constant rate, as in Figure [Link], then the length of the horizontal lines, which represents the time during
which the temperature does not change, is directly proportional to the magnitude of the enthalpies associated with the phase
changes. In Figure [Link], the horizontal line at 100°C is much longer than the line at 0°C because the enthalpy of vaporization
of water is several times greater than the enthalpy of fusion.
A superheated liquid is a sample of a liquid at the temperature and pressure at which it should be a gas. Superheated liquids are not
stable; the liquid will eventually boil, sometimes violently. The phenomenon of superheating causes “bumping” when a liquid is
heated in the laboratory. When a test tube containing water is heated over a Bunsen burner, for example, one portion of the liquid
can easily become too hot. When the superheated liquid converts to a gas, it can push or “bump” the rest of the liquid out of the test
tube. Placing a stirring rod or a small piece of ceramic (a “boiling chip”) in the test tube allows bubbles of vapor to form on the
surface of the object so the liquid boils instead of becoming superheated. Superheating is the reason a liquid heated in a smooth cup
in a microwave oven may not boil until the cup is moved, when the motion of the cup allows bubbles to form.

Cooling Curves
The cooling curve, a plot of temperature versus cooling time, in Figure [Link] plots temperature versus time as a 75 g sample of
steam, initially at 1 atm and 200°C, is cooled. Although we might expect the cooling curve to be the mirror image of the heating
curve in Figure [Link], the cooling curve is not an identical mirror image. As heat is removed from the steam, the temperature
falls until it reaches 100°C. At this temperature, the steam begins to condense to liquid water. No further temperature change occurs
until all the steam is converted to the liquid; then the temperature again decreases as the water is cooled. We might expect to reach
another plateau at 0°C, where the water is converted to ice; in reality, however, this does not always occur. Instead, the temperature
often drops below the freezing point for some time, as shown by the little dip in the cooling curve below 0°C. This region
corresponds to an unstable form of the liquid, a supercooled liquid. If the liquid is allowed to stand, if cooling is continued, or if a
small crystal of the solid phase is added (a seed crystal), the supercooled liquid will convert to a solid, sometimes quite suddenly.
As the water freezes, the temperature increases slightly due to the heat evolved during the freezing process and then holds constant
at the melting point as the rest of the water freezes. Subsequently, the temperature of the ice decreases again as more heat is
removed from the system.

Figure [Link] : A Cooling Curve for Water. This plot of temperature shows what happens to a 75 g sample of steam initially at 1
atm and 200°C as heat is removed at a constant rate: A–B: cooling steam; B–C: condensing steam; C–D: cooling liquid water to
give a supercooled liquid; D–E: warming the liquid as it begins to freeze; E–F: freezing liquid water; F–G: cooling ice.
Supercooling effects have a huge impact on Earth’s climate. For example, supercooling of water droplets in clouds can prevent the
clouds from releasing precipitation over regions that are persistently arid as a result. Clouds consist of tiny droplets of water, which
in principle should be dense enough to fall as rain. In fact, however, the droplets must aggregate to reach a certain size before they
can fall to the ground. Usually a small particle (a nucleus) is required for the droplets to aggregate; the nucleus can be a dust
particle, an ice crystal, or a particle of silver iodide dispersed in a cloud during seeding (a method of inducing rain). Unfortunately,
the small droplets of water generally remain as a supercooled liquid down to about −10°C, rather than freezing into ice crystals that

[Link] [Link]
are more suitable nuclei for raindrop formation. One approach to producing rainfall from an existing cloud is to cool the water
droplets so that they crystallize to provide nuclei around which raindrops can grow. This is best done by dispersing small granules
of solid CO2 (dry ice) into the cloud from an airplane. Solid CO2 sublimes directly to the gas at pressures of 1 atm or lower, and the
enthalpy of sublimation is substantial (25.3 kJ/mol). As the CO2 sublimes, it absorbs heat from the cloud, often with the desired
results.

The Thermodynamics of Phase Changes

A Video Discussing the Thermodynamics of Phase Changes. Video Source: The Thermodynamics of Phase Changes,
YouTube(opens in new window) [[Link]]

 Example [Link]: Cooling Tea

If a 50.0 g ice cube at 0.0°C is added to 500 mL of tea at 20.0°C, what is the temperature of the tea when the ice cube has just
melted? Assume that no heat is transferred to or from the surroundings. The density of water (and iced tea) is 1.00 g/mL over
the range 0°C–20°C, the specific heats of liquid water and ice are 4.184 J/(g•°C) and 2.062 J/(g•°C), respectively, and the
enthalpy of fusion of ice is 6.01 kJ/mol.
Given: mass, volume, initial temperature, density, specific heats, and ΔH f us

Asked for: final temperature

Strategy
Substitute the given values into the general equation relating heat gained (by the ice) to heat lost (by the tea) to obtain the final
temperature of the mixture.

Solution
When two substances or objects at different temperatures are brought into contact, heat will flow from the warmer one to the
cooler. The amount of heat that flows is given by

q = m Cs ΔT

where q is heat, m is mass, C is the specific heat, and ΔT is the temperature change. Eventually, the temperatures of the two
s

substances will become equal at a value somewhere between their initial temperatures. Calculating the temperature of iced tea
after adding an ice cube is slightly more complicated. The general equation relating heat gained and heat lost is still valid, but
in this case we also have to take into account the amount of heat required to melt the ice cube from ice at 0.0°C to liquid water
at 0.0°C.
The amount of heat gained by the ice cube as it melts is determined by its enthalpy of fusion in kJ/mol:

q = nΔHf us

For our 50.0 g ice cube:

[Link] [Link]
 1 mol
qice = 50.0g ⋅ ⋅ 6.01 kJ/mol
18.02 g

= 16.7 kJ

Thus, when the ice cube has just melted, it has absorbed 16.7 kJ of heat from the tea. We can then substitute this value into the
first equation to determine the change in temperature of the tea:
1.00 g
qtea = −16, 700J = 500mL ⋅ ⋅ 4.184J/(g ∙ °C )ΔT
1 mL

ΔT = −7.98°C = Tf − Ti

Tf = 12.02°C

This would be the temperature of the tea when the ice cube has just finished melting; however, this leaves the melted ice still at
0.0°C. We might more practically want to know what the final temperature of the mixture of tea will be once the melted ice has
come to thermal equilibrium with the tea. To determine this, we can add one more step to the calculation by plugging in to the
general equation relating heat gained and heat lost again:
qice = −qtea

qice = mice Cs ΔT = 50.0g ⋅ 4.184J/(g ∙ °C ) ⋅ (Tf − 0.0°C )

= 209.2J/°C ⋅ Tf

qtea = mtea Cs ΔT = 500g ⋅ 4.184J/(g ∙ °C ) ⋅ (Tf − 12.02°C ) = 2092J/°C ⋅ Tf − 25, 150J

209.2J/°C ⋅ Tf = −2092J/°C ⋅ Tf + 25, 150J

2301.2J/°C ⋅ Tf = 25, 150J

Tf = 10.9°C

The final temperature is in between the initial temperatures of the tea (12.02 °C) and the melted ice (0.0 °C), so this answer
makes sense. In this example, the tea loses much more heat in melting the ice than in mixing with the cold water, showing the
importance of accounting for the heat of phase changes!

 Exercise [Link]: Death by Freezing

Suppose you are overtaken by a blizzard while ski touring and you take refuge in a tent. You are thirsty, but you forgot to bring
liquid water. You have a choice of eating a few handfuls of snow (say 400 g) at −5.0°C immediately to quench your thirst or
setting up your propane stove, melting the snow, and heating the water to body temperature before drinking it. You recall that
the survival guide you leafed through at the hotel said something about not eating snow, but you cannot remember why—after
all, it’s just frozen water. To understand the guide’s recommendation, calculate the amount of heat that your body will have to
supply to bring 400 g of snow at −5.0°C to your body’s internal temperature of 37°C. Use the data in Example [Link]

Answer
200 kJ (4.1 kJ to bring the ice from −5.0°C to 0.0°C, 133.6 kJ to melt the ice at 0.0°C, and 61.9 kJ to bring the water from
0.0°C to 37°C), which is energy that would not have been expended had you first melted the snow.

Summary
Fusion, vaporization, and sublimation are endothermic processes, whereas freezing, condensation, and deposition are exothermic
processes. Changes of state are examples of phase changes, or phase transitions. All phase changes are accompanied by changes
in the energy of a system. Changes from a more-ordered state to a less-ordered state (such as a liquid to a gas) are endothermic.
Changes from a less-ordered state to a more-ordered state (such as a liquid to a solid) are always exothermic. The conversion of a
solid to a liquid is called fusion (or melting). The energy required to melt 1 mol of a substance is its enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfus).
The energy change required to vaporize 1 mol of a substance is the enthalpy of vaporization (ΔHvap). The direct conversion of a
solid to a gas is sublimation. The amount of energy needed to sublime 1 mol of a substance is its enthalpy of sublimation (ΔHsub)

[Link] [Link]
and is the sum of the enthalpies of fusion and vaporization. Plots of the temperature of a substance versus heat added or versus
heating time at a constant rate of heating are called heating curves. Heating curves relate temperature changes to phase transitions.
A superheated liquid, a liquid at a temperature and pressure at which it should be a gas, is not stable. A cooling curve is not
exactly the reverse of the heating curve because many liquids do not freeze at the expected temperature. Instead, they form a
supercooled liquid, a metastable liquid phase that exists below the normal melting point. Supercooled liquids usually crystallize
on standing, or adding a seed crystal of the same or another substance can induce crystallization.

10.7.3: Phase Changes is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
11.4: Phase Changes is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

[Link] [Link]
10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
 Learning Objectives
To understand the basics of a one-component phase diagram as a function of temperature and pressure in a closed system.
To be able to identify the triple point, the critical point, and four regions: solid, liquid, gas, and a supercritical fluid.

The state exhibited by a given sample of matter depends on the identity, temperature, and pressure of the sample. A phase diagram
is a graphic summary of the physical state of a substance as a function of temperature and pressure in a closed system.

Introduction
A typical phase diagram consists of discrete regions that represent the different phases exhibited by a substance (Figure [Link]).
Each region corresponds to the range of combinations of temperature and pressure over which that phase is stable. The combination
of high pressure and low temperature (upper left of Figure [Link]) corresponds to the solid phase, whereas the gas phase is
favored at high temperature and low pressure (lower right). The combination of high temperature and high pressure (upper right)
corresponds to a supercritical fluid.

Figure [Link] : A Typical Phase Diagram for a Substance That Exhibits Three Phases—Solid, Liquid, and Gas—and a
Supercritical Region

The solid phase is favored at low temperature and high pressure; the gas phase is favored at high temperature and low pressure.

The lines in a phase diagram correspond to the combinations of temperature and pressure at which two phases can coexist in
equilibrium. In Figure [Link], the line that connects points A and D separates the solid and liquid phases and shows how the
melting point of a solid varies with pressure. The solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium all along this line; crossing the line
horizontally corresponds to melting or freezing. The line that connects points A and B is the vapor pressure curve of the liquid,
which we discussed in Section 11.5. It ends at the critical point, beyond which the substance exists as a supercritical fluid. The line
that connects points A and C is the vapor pressure curve of the solid phase. Along this line, the solid is in equilibrium with the
vapor phase through sublimation and deposition. Finally, point A, where the solid/liquid, liquid/gas, and solid/gas lines intersect, is
the triple point; it is the only combination of temperature and pressure at which all three phases (solid, liquid, and gas) are in
equilibrium and can therefore exist simultaneously. Because no more than three phases can ever coexist, a phase diagram can never
have more than three lines intersecting at a single point.
Remember that a phase diagram, such as the one in Figure [Link], is for a single pure substance in a closed system, not for a
liquid in an open beaker in contact with air at 1 atm pressure. In practice, however, the conclusions reached about the behavior of a
substance in a closed system can usually be extrapolated to an open system without a great deal of error.

[Link] [Link]
The Phase Diagram of Water
Figure [Link] shows the phase diagram of water and illustrates that the triple point of water occurs at 0.01°C and 0.00604 atm
(4.59 mmHg). Far more reproducible than the melting point of ice, which depends on the amount of dissolved air and the
atmospheric pressure, the triple point (273.16 K) is used to define the absolute (Kelvin) temperature scale. The triple point also
represents the lowest pressure at which a liquid phase can exist in equilibrium with the solid or vapor. At pressures less than
0.00604 atm, therefore, ice does not melt to a liquid as the temperature increases; the solid sublimes directly to water vapor.
Sublimation of water at low temperature and pressure can be used to “freeze-dry” foods and beverages. The food or beverage is
first cooled to subzero temperatures and placed in a container in which the pressure is maintained below 0.00604 atm. Then, as the
temperature is increased, the water sublimes, leaving the dehydrated food (such as that used by backpackers or astronauts) or the
powdered beverage (as with freeze-dried coffee).

Figure [Link] : Two Versions of the Phase Diagram of Water. (a) In this graph with linear temperature and pressure axes, the
boundary between ice and liquid water is almost vertical. (b) This graph with an expanded scale illustrates the decrease in melting
point with increasing pressure. (The letters refer to points discussed in Example [Link] ).
The phase diagram for water illustrated in Figure 10.7.4.2b shows the boundary between ice and water on an expanded scale. The
melting curve of ice slopes up and slightly to the left rather than up and to the right as in Figure [Link]; that is, the melting point
of ice decreases with increasing pressure; at 100 MPa (987 atm), ice melts at −9°C. Water behaves this way because it is one of the
few known substances for which the crystalline solid is less dense than the liquid (others include antimony and bismuth).
Increasing the pressure of ice that is in equilibrium with water at 0°C and 1 atm tends to push some of the molecules closer
together, thus decreasing the volume of the sample. The decrease in volume (and corresponding increase in density) is smaller for a
solid or a liquid than for a gas, but it is sufficient to melt some of the ice.
In Figure 10.7.4.2b point A is located at P = 1 atm and T = −1.0°C, within the solid (ice) region of the phase diagram. As the
pressure increases to 150 atm while the temperature remains the same, the line from point A crosses the ice/water boundary to point
B, which lies in the liquid water region. Consequently, applying a pressure of 150 atm will melt ice at −1.0°C. We have already
indicated that the pressure dependence of the melting point of water is of vital importance. If the solid/liquid boundary in the phase
diagram of water were to slant up and to the right rather than to the left, ice would be denser than water, ice cubes would sink,
water pipes would not burst when they freeze, and antifreeze would be unnecessary in automobile engines.

 Ice Skating: An Incorrect Hypothesis of Phase Transitions

Until recently, many textbooks described ice skating as being possible because the pressure generated by the skater’s blade is
high enough to melt the ice under the blade, thereby creating a lubricating layer of liquid water that enables the blade to slide
across the ice. Although this explanation is intuitively satisfying, it is incorrect, as we can show by a simple calculation.

[Link] [Link]
 Pressure from ice skates on ice. from [Link].
Recall that pressure (P) is the force (F) applied per unit area (A):
F
P =
A

To calculate the pressure an ice skater exerts on the ice, we need to calculate only the force exerted and the area of the skate
blade. If we assume a 75.0 kg (165 lb) skater, then the force exerted by the skater on the ice due to gravity is

F = mg

where m is the mass and g is the acceleration due to Earth’s gravity (9.81 m/s2). Thus the force is
2 2
F = (75.0 kg)(9.81 m/ s ) = 736 (kg ∙ m)/ s = 736N

If we assume that the skate blades are 2.0 mm wide and 25 cm long, then the area of the bottom of each blade is
−3 −2 −4 2
A = (2.0 × 10 m)(25 × 10 m) = 5.0 × 10 m

If the skater is gliding on one foot, the pressure exerted on the ice is
736 N
6 2 6
P = = 1.5 × 10 N /m = 1.5 × 10 P a = 15 atm
−4 2
5.0 × 10 m

The pressure is much lower than the pressure needed to decrease the melting point of ice by even 1°C, and experience indicates
that it is possible to skate even when the temperature is well below freezing. Thus pressure-induced melting of the ice cannot
explain the low friction that enables skaters (and hockey pucks) to glide. Recent research indicates that the surface of ice,
where the ordered array of water molecules meets the air, consists of one or more layers of almost liquid water. These layers,
together with melting induced by friction as a skater pushes forward, appear to account for both the ease with which a skater
glides and the fact that skating becomes more difficult below about −7°C, when the number of lubricating surface water layers
decreases.

 Example [Link]: Water

Referring to the phase diagram of water in Figure [Link]:

a. predict the physical form of a sample of water at 400°C and 150 atm.
b. describe the changes that occur as the sample in part (a) is slowly allowed to cool to −50°C at a constant pressure of 150
atm.
Given: phase diagram, temperature, and pressure
Asked for: physical form and physical changes

Strategy:
A. Identify the region of the phase diagram corresponding to the initial conditions and identify the phase that exists in this
region.
B. Draw a line corresponding to the given pressure. Move along that line in the appropriate direction (in this case cooling) and
describe the phase changes.

[Link] [Link]
 Solution:
a. A Locate the starting point on the phase diagram in part (a) in Figure [Link]. The initial conditions correspond to point A,
which lies in the region of the phase diagram representing water vapor. Thus water at T = 400°C and P = 150 atm is a gas.
b. B Cooling the sample at constant pressure corresponds to moving left along the horizontal line in part (a) in Figure
[Link]. At about 340°C (point B), we cross the vapor pressure curve, at which point water vapor will begin to condense

and the sample will consist of a mixture of vapor and liquid. When all of the vapor has condensed, the temperature drops
further, and we enter the region corresponding to liquid water (indicated by point C). Further cooling brings us to the
melting curve, the line that separates the liquid and solid phases at a little below 0°C (point D), at which point the sample
will consist of a mixture of liquid and solid water (ice). When all of the water has frozen, cooling the sample to −50°C takes
us along the horizontal line to point E, which lies within the region corresponding to solid water. At P = 150 atm and T =
−50°C, therefore, the sample is solid ice.

 Exercise [Link]

Referring to the phase diagram of water in Figure [Link], predict the physical form of a sample of water at −0.0050°C as the
pressure is gradually increased from 1.0 mmHg to 218 atm.

Answer
The sample is initially a gas, condenses to a solid as the pressure increases, and then melts when the pressure is increased
further to give a liquid.

The Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide

In contrast to the phase diagram of water, the phase diagram of CO2 (Figure [Link]) has a more typical melting curve, sloping up
and to the right. The triple point is −56.6°C and 5.11 atm, which means that liquid CO2 cannot exist at pressures lower than 5.11
atm. At 1 atm, therefore, solid CO2 sublimes directly to the vapor while maintaining a temperature of −78.5°C, the normal
sublimation temperature. Solid CO2 is generally known as dry ice because it is a cold solid with no liquid phase observed when it is
warmed.

Dry ice (CO2

) sublimed in air under room temperature and pressure. from Wikipedia.
(s)

Also notice the critical point at 30.98°C and 72.79 atm. Supercritical carbon dioxide is emerging as a natural refrigerant, making it
a low carbon (and thus a more environmentally friendly) solution for domestic heat pumps.

[Link] [Link]
 Figure [Link] : The Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide. Note the critical point, the triple point, and the normal sublimation
temperature in this diagram.
The triple point is at -57.57 degrees C and 5.11 atm. The critical point is at 30.98 degree C and 72.79 atm.

The Critical Point

As the phase diagrams above demonstrate, a combination of high pressure and low temperature allows gases to be liquefied. As we
increase the temperature of a gas, liquefaction becomes more and more difficult because higher and higher pressures are required to
overcome the increased kinetic energy of the molecules. In fact, for every substance, there is some temperature above which the gas
can no longer be liquefied, regardless of pressure. This temperature is the critical temperature (Tc), the highest temperature at which
a substance can exist as a liquid. Above the critical temperature, the molecules have too much kinetic energy for the intermolecular
attractive forces to hold them together in a separate liquid phase. Instead, the substance forms a single phase that completely
occupies the volume of the container. Substances with strong intermolecular forces tend to form a liquid phase over a very large
temperature range and therefore have high critical temperatures. Conversely, substances with weak intermolecular interactions have
relatively low critical temperatures. Each substance also has a critical pressure (Pc), the minimum pressure needed to liquefy it at
the critical temperature. The combination of critical temperature and critical pressure is called the critical point. The critical
temperatures and pressures of several common substances are listed in Figure [Link].
Figure [Link] : Critical Temperatures and Pressures of Some Simple Substances
Substance Tc (°C) Pc (atm)

NH3 132.4 113.5

CO2 31.0 73.8

CH3CH2OH (ethanol) 240.9 61.4

He −267.96 2.27

Hg 1477 1587

CH4 −82.6 46.0

N2 −146.9 33.9

H2O 374.0 217.7

High-boiling-point, nonvolatile liquids have high critical temperatures and vice versa.

Supercritical Fluids

[Link] [Link]
 Phase Diagrams

A Video Discussing Phase Diagrams. Video Source: Phase Diagrams(opens in new window) [[Link]]

10.7.4: Phase Diagrams is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
11.6: Phase Diagrams is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

[Link] [Link]
10.S: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Summary)
intermolecular forces – forces that exist between molecules

11.1: A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

The state of a substance depends on the balance between the kinetic energy of the individual particles (molecules or atoms) and the
intermolecular forces. The kinetic energy keeps the molecules apart and moving around, and is a function of the temperature of the
substance and the intermolecular forces try to draw the particles together.
gases
average kinetic energy of the molecules is larger than average energy of attractions between molecules
lack of strong attractive forces allows gases to expand
liquids
denser than gases
have a definite volume
attractive forces not strong enough to keep molecules from moving allowing liquids to hold shape of container
solids
intermolecular forces hold molecules together and keep them from moving
not very compressible
crystalline – solids with highly ordered structures
Gas, Liquid and Solid
Gas assumes both the volume and shape of container is compressible diffusion within a gas occurs rapidly flows readily

Assumes the shape of the portion of the container it occupies Does not expand to fill container Is virtually incompressible
Liquid
Diffusion within a liquid occurs slowly Flows readily
Retains its own shape and volume Is virtually incompressible Diffusion within a solid occurs extremely slowly Does not
Solid
flow

state of substance depends on balance between the kinetic energies of the particles and interparticle energies of attraction
kinetic energies depends on temperature and tend to keep particles apart and moving
interparticle attractions draw particles together
condensed phases – liquids and solids because particles are close together compared to gases
increase temperature forces molecules to be closer together ® increase in strength of intermolecular forces

11.2: Intermolecular Forces

Molecules in liquids are held to other molecules by intermolecular interactions, which are weaker than the intramolecular
interactions that hold molecules and polyatomic ions together. The three major types of intermolecular interactions are dipole–
dipole interactions, London dispersion forces (these two are often referred to collectively as van der Waals forces), and hydrogen
bonds.
intermolecular forces weaker than ionic or covalent bonds
many properties of liquids reflect strengths of intermolecular forces
three types of intermolecular forces: dipole-dipole forces, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen-bonding forces
also called van der Waals forces
less than 15% as strong as covalent or ionic bonds
electrostatic in nature, involves attractions between positive and negative species

11.2.1 Ion-Dipole Forces

Ion-Dipole Force – exists between an ion and partial charge at one end of a polar molecule
Polar molecules are dipoles
magnitude of attraction increases as either the charge of ion or magnitude of dipole moment increases

10.S.1 [Link]
11.2.2 Dipole-Dipole Forces
dipole-dipole force – exists between neutral polar molecules
effective only when polar molecules are very close together
weaker than ion-dipole forces
for molecules of approximately equal mass and size, the strengths of intermolecular attractions increase with increasing polarity
increase dipole moment ® increase boiling point

11.2.3 London Dispersion Forces

interparticle forces that exist between nonpolar atoms or molecules
motion of electrons can create an instantaneous dipole moment
molecules have to be very close together
polarizability – ease in which the charge distribution in a molecule can be distorted
greater polarizability ® more easily electron cloud can be distorted to give momentary dipole
larger molecules have greater polarizability
London dispersion forces increase with increasing molecular size
Dispersion forces increase in strength with increasing molecular weight
Molecular shape affects intermolecular attractions
greater surface contact ® greater boiling point and London dispersion forces
dispersion forces operate between all molecules
comparing relative strengths of intermolecular attractions:
1) comparable molecular weights and shapes = equal dispersion forces
differences in magnitudes of attractive forces due to differences in strengths of dipole-dipole attractions
most polar molecule has strongest attractions
2) differing molecular weights = dispersion forces tend to be the decisive ones
differences in magnitudes of attractive forces associated with differences in molecular weights
most massive molecular has strongest attractions

11.2.4 Hydrogen Bonding

hydrogen bonding – special type of intermolecular attraction that exists between the hydrogen atom in a polar bond and an
unshared electron pair on a nearby electronegative ion or atom
hydrogen bond with F, N, and O is polar
density of ice is lower than that of liquid water
when water freezes the molecules assume the ordered open arrangement ® makes ice less dense than water
a given mass of ice has a greater volume than the same mass of water
structure of ice allows the maximum number of hydrogen bonding interactions to exist

11.2.5 Comparing Intermolecular Forces

dispersion forces found in all substances
strengths of forces increase with increases molecular weight and also depend on shape
dipole-dipole forces add to effect of dispersion forces and found in polar molecules
hydrogen bonds tend to be strongest intermolecular force

11.3: Some Properties of Liquids

Surface tension, capillary action, and viscosity are unique properties of liquids that depend on the nature of intermolecular
interactions. Surface tension is the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid. Surfactants are molecules that reduce
the surface tension of polar liquids like water. Capillary action is the phenomenon in which liquids rise up into a narrow tube
called a capillary. The viscosity of a liquid is its resistance to flow.
two properties of liquids: viscosity and surface tension

10.S.2 [Link]
11.3.1 Viscosity
viscosity – resistance of a liquid to flow
the greater the viscosity the more slowly the liquid flows
measured by timing how long it takes a certain amount of liquid to flow through a thin tube under gravitational forces
can also be measured by how long it takes steel spheres to fall through the liquid
viscosity related to ease with which individual molecules of liquid can move with respect to one another
depends on attractive forces between molecules, and whether structural features exist to cause molecules to be entangled
viscosity decreases with increasing temperature

11.3.2 Surface Tension

surface tension – energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit amount
surface tension of water at 20° C is 7.29 x 10-2 J/m2
7.29 x 10-2 J/m2 must be supplied to increase surface area of a given amount of water by 1 m2
cohesive forces – intermolecular forces that bind similar molecules
adhesive forces – intermolecular forces that bind a substance to a surface
capillary action – rise of liquids up very narrow tubes

11.4: Phase Changes

Fusion, vaporization, and sublimation are endothermic processes, whereas freezing, condensation, and deposition are exothermic
processes. Changes of state are examples of phase changes, or phase transitions. All phase changes are accompanied by changes
in the energy of a system. Changes from a more-ordered state to a less-ordered state (such as a liquid to a gas) are endothermic.
Changes from a less-ordered state to a more-ordered state (such as a liquid to a solid) are always exothermic.

11.4.1 Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes

phase changes require energy
phase changes to less ordered state requires energy
melting process of solid called fusion
heat of fusion – enthalpy change of melting a solid
D Hfus water = 6.01 kJ/mol
heat of vaporization – heat needed for vaporization of liquid
D Hvap water = 40.67 kJ/mol
melting, vaporization, and sublimation are endothermic
freezing, condensation, and deposition are exothermic

11.4.2 Heating Curves

heating curve – graph of temperature of system versus the amount of heat added
used to calculate enthalpy changes
supercooled water – when water if cooled to a temperature below 0° C

11.4.3 Critical Temperature and Pressure

critical temperature – highest temperature at which a substance can exist as a liquid
critical pressure – pressure required to bring about liquefaction at critical temperature
the greater the intermolecular attractive forces, the more readily gases liquefy ® higher critical temperature
cannot liquefy a gas by applying pressure if gas is above critical temperature

11.5: Vapor Pressure

Because the molecules of a liquid are in constant motion and possess a wide range of kinetic energies, at any moment some
fraction of them has enough energy to escape from the surface of the liquid to enter the gas or vapor phase. This process, called
vaporization or evaporation, generates a vapor pressure above the liquid. Molecules in the gas phase can collide with the liquid
surface and reenter the liquid via condensation. Eventually, a steady state or dynamic equilibrium is reached.
vapor pressure – measures tendency of a liquid to evaporate

10.S.3 [Link]
11.5.1 Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level
dynamic equilibrium – condition when two opposing processes are occurring simultaneously at equal rates
vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapor when the liquid and vapor states are in dynamic equilibrium

11.5.2 Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature

volatile – liquids that evaporate readily
vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature

11.5.3 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

liquids boil when its vapor pressure equals the external pressure acting on the surface of the liquid
temperature of boiling increase with increasing external pressure
normal boiling point – boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm
higher pressures cause water to boil at higher temperatures

11.6: Phase Diagrams

The states of matter exhibited by a substance under different temperatures and pressures can be summarized graphically in a phase
diagram, which is a plot of pressure versus temperature. Phase diagrams contain discrete regions corresponding to the solid,
liquid, and gas phases. The solid and liquid regions are separated by the melting curve of the substance, and the liquid and gas
regions are separated by its vapor pressure curve, which ends at the critical point.
phase diagrams – graphical way to summarize conditions under which equilibria exist between the different states of matter
three important curves:
1) vapor pressure curve of liquid
shows equilibrium of liquid and gas phases
normal boiling point = point on curve where pressure at 1 atm
2) variation in vapor pressure of solid at it sublimes at different temperatures
3) change in melting point of solid with increasing pressure
slopes right as pressure increases
higher temperatures needed to melt solids at higher pressures
melting point of solid identical to freezing point
differ only in temperature direction from which phase change is approached
melting point at 1 atm is the normal melting point
triple point – point at which all three phases are at equilibrium
gas phase stable at low pressures and high temperatures
solid phase stable at low temperatures and high pressures
liquid phase – stable between gas and solids

11.6.1 the Phase diagrams of H2O and CO2

melting point of CO2 increases with increasing pressure
melting point of H2O decreases with increasing pressure
triple point of H2O (0.0098° C and 4.58 torr) at lower pressure than CO2 (-56.4° C and 5.11 atm)
solid CO2 does not melt but sublimes
CO2 does not have a normal melting point but a normal sublimation point
CO2 absorbs energy at ordinary temperatures

11.7: Structure of Solids

A crystalline solid can be represented by its unit cell, which is the smallest identical unit that when stacked together produces the
characteristic three-dimensional structure. Solids are characterized by an extended three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions,
or molecules in which the components are generally locked into their positions. The components can be arranged in a regular
repeating three-dimensional array. The smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice is the unit cell.
crystalline solid – solid whose atoms, ion, or molecules are ordered in well-defined arrangements
flat surfaces or faces that make definite angles

10.S.4 [Link]
 regular shapes
amorphous solid – solid whose particles have no orderly structure
lack well-defined faces and shapes
mixtures of molecules that do not stack together well
large, complicated molecules
intermolecular forces vary in strength
does not melt at a specific temperature but soften over a temperature range

11.7.1 Unit Cell

unit cell – repeating unit of a solid
crystal lattice – three-dimensional array of points, each representing an identical environment within the crystal
three types of cubic unit cell: primitive cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic
primitive cubic – lattice points at corners only
body-centered cubic – lattice points at corners and center
face-centered cubic – lattice points at center of each face and at each corner

11.7.2 The Crystal structure of Sodium Chloride

total cation-to-anion ratio of a unit cell must be the same as that for entire crystal

11.7.3 Close Packing of Spheres

structures of crystalline solids are those that bring particles in closest contact to maximize the attractive forces
most particles that make up solids are spherical
two forms of close packing: cubic close packing and hexagonal close packing
hexagonal close packing – spheres of the third layer that are placed in line with those of the first layer
coordination number – number of particles immediately surrounding a particle in the crystal structure
both forms of close packing have coordination number of 12

11.8: Bonding in Solids

The major types of solids are ionic, molecular, covalent, and metallic. Ionic solids consist of positively and negatively charged ions
held together by electrostatic forces; the strength of the bonding is reflected in the lattice energy. Ionic solids tend to have high
melting points and are rather hard. Molecular solids are held together by relatively weak forces, such as dipole–dipole
interactions, hydrogen bonds, and London dispersion forces. Metallic solids have unusual properties.
Major Types of Solid
Type of Solid Forms of Unit Particles Forces Between Particles Properties Examples

Fairly soft, low to moderately

London dispersion, dipole-
high melting point, poor Argon, methane, sucrose,
Molecular Atoms of molecules dipole forces, hydrogen
thermal and electrical dry ice
bonds
conduction

Very hard, very high melting

Atoms connected in a network
Covalent-network Covalent bonds point, often poor thermal and Diamond, quartz
of covalent bonds
electrical conduction

Hard and brittle, high melting

Ionic Positive and negative ions Electrostatic attractions point, poor thermal and Typical salts
electrical conduction

Soft to very hard, low to very

high melting point, excellent
Metallic atoms Metallic bonds thermal and electrical All metallic elements
conduction, malleable and
ductile

10.S.5 [Link]
11.8.1 Molecular Solids
molecular solids – atoms or molecules held together by intermolecular forces
soft, low melting points
gases or liquids at room temperature from molecular solids at low temperature
properties depends on strengths of forces and ability of molecules to pack efficiently in three dimensions
intermolecular forces that depend on close contact are not as effective

11.8.2 Covalent-Network Solids

covalent-network solids – atoms held together in large networks or chains by covalent bonds
hard, high melting points

11.8.3 Ionic Solids

ionic solids – ions held together by ionic bonds
strength depends on charges of ions
structure of ionic solids depends on charges and relative sizes of ions

11.8.4 Metallic Solids

metallic solids – metal atoms
usually have hexagonal close-packed, cubic close-packed, or body-centered-cubic structures
each atom has 8 or 12 adjacent atoms
bonding due to valence electrons that are delocalized throughout entire solid
strength of bonding increases as number of electrons available for bonding increases
mobility of electrons make metallic solids good conductors of heat and electricity

10.S: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Summary) is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
11.S: Liquids and Intermolecular Forces (Summary) is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

10.S.6 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

11: The Chemical Equation

A chemical equation is a concise description of a chemical reaction. Proper chemical equations are balanced.

 Learning Objectives
Define chemical equation.
Identify the parts of a chemical equation.

A chemical reaction expresses a chemical change. For example, one chemical property of hydrogen is that it will react with oxygen
to make water. We can write that as follows:

hydrogen reacts with oxygen to make water

We can represent this chemical change more succinctly as:

hydrogen + oxygen → water

where the + sign means that the two substances interact chemically with each other and the → symbol implies that a chemical
reaction takes place. But substances can also be represented by chemical formulas. Remembering that hydrogen and oxygen both
exist as diatomic molecules, we can rewrite our chemical change as:

H +O → H O
2 2 2

This is an example of a chemical equation, which is a concise way of representing a chemical reaction. The initial substances are
called reactants and the final substances are called products.
Unfortunately, it is also an incomplete chemical equation. The law of conservation of matter says that matter cannot be created or
destroyed. In chemical equations, the number of atoms of each element in the reactants must be the same as the number of atoms of
each element in the products. If we count the number of hydrogen atoms in the reactants and products, we find two hydrogen
atoms. But if we count the number of oxygen atoms in the reactants and products, we find that there are two oxygen atoms in the
reactants, but only one oxygen atom in the products.
What can we do? Can we change the subscripts in the formula for water so that it has two oxygen atoms in it? No—you cannot
change the formulas of individual substances, because the chemical formula for a given substance is characteristic of that
substance. What you can do, however, is to change the number of molecules that react or are produced. We do this one element at a
time, going from one side of the reaction to the other, changing the number of molecules of a substance until all elements have the
same number of atoms on each side.
To accommodate the two oxygen atoms as reactants, let us assume that we have two water molecules as products:

H +O → 2H O
2 2 2

The 2 in front of the formula for water is called a coefficient. Now there are the same number of oxygen atoms in the reactants as
there are in the product. But in satisfying the need for the same number of oxygen atoms on both sides of the reaction, we have also
changed the number of hydrogen atoms on the product side, so the number of hydrogen atoms is no longer equal. No problem,
simply go back to the reactant side of the equation, and add a coefficient in front of the H2. The coefficient that works is 2:

2H +O → 2H O
2 2 2

There are now four hydrogen atoms in the reactants and also four atoms of hydrogen in the product. There are two oxygen atoms in
the reactants and two atoms of oxygen in the product. The law of conservation of matter has been satisfied. When the reactants and
products of a chemical equation have the same number of atoms of all elements present, we say that an equation is balanced. All
proper chemical equations are balanced. If a substance does not have a coefficient written in front of it, it is assumed to be 1. Also,
the convention is to use all whole numbers when balancing chemical equations. This sometimes makes us do a bit more "back and
forth" work when balancing a chemical equation.

1
  Example 11.1

Write and balance the chemical equation for each given chemical reaction.
1. Hydrogen and chlorine react to make HCl
2. Ethane, C H , reacts with oxygen to make carbon dioxide and water.
2 6

Solution
1. Let us start by simply writing a chemical equation in terms of the formulas of the substances, remembering that both
elemental hydrogen and chlorine are diatomic:

H + Cl → HCl
2 2

There are two hydrogen atoms and two chlorine atoms in the reactants and one of each atom in the product. We can fix this
by including the coefficient 2 on the product side:

H + Cl → 2 HCl
2 2

Now there are two hydrogen atoms and two chlorine atoms on both sides of the chemical equation, so it is balanced.
2. Start by writing the chemical equation in terms of the substances involved:

C H +O → CO +H O
2 6 2 2 2

We have two carbon atoms on the left, so we need two carbon dioxide molecules on the product side, so that each side has
two carbon atoms; that element is balanced. We have six hydrogen atoms in the reactants, so we need six hydrogen atoms
in the products. We can get this by having three water molecules:

C H +O → 2 CO +3 H O
2 6 2 2 2

Now we have seven oxygen atoms in the products (four from the CO2 and three from the H2O). This means we need seven
oxygen atoms in the reactants. However, because oxygen is a diatomic molecule, we can only get an even number of
oxygen atoms at a time. We can achieve this by multiplying the other coefficients by 2:

2C H +O → 4 CO +6 H O
2 6 2 2 2

By multiplying everything else by 2, we do not unbalance the other elements, and we now get an even number of oxygen
atoms in the product—14. We can get 14 oxygen atoms on the reactant side by having 7 oxygen molecules:

2C H +7 O → 4 CO +6 H O
2 6 2 2 2

As a check, recount everything to determine that each side has the same number of atoms of each element. This chemical
equation is now balanced.

 Exercise 11.1
Write and balance the chemical equation that represents nitrogen and hydrogen reacting to produce ammonia, NH3.

Answer
\ce{N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 \nonumber \nonumber

Many chemical equations also include phase labels for the substances: (s) for solid, (ℓ) for liquid, (g) for gas, and (aq) for aqueous
(i.e., dissolved in water). Special conditions, such as temperature, may also be listed above the arrow. For example,
∘
200 C
2 NaHCO (s) → Na CO (s) + CO (g) + H O(l)
3 2 3 2 2

2
Key Takeaways
A chemical equation is a concise description of a chemical reaction.
Proper chemical equations are balanced.
11.1: Introduction
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions
11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions
11.6: Stoichiometry
11.7: The Mole
11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions

11: The Chemical Equation is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

3
11.1: Introduction
At Contrived State University in Anytown, Ohio, a new building was dedicated in March 2010 to house the College of Education.
The 100,000-square-foot building has enough office space to accommodate 86 full-time faculty members and 167 full-time staff. In
a fit of monetary excess, the university administration offered to buy new furniture (desks and chairs) and computer workstations
for all faculty and staff members moving into the new building. However, to save on long-term energy and materials costs, the
university offered to buy only 1 laser printer per 10 employees, with the plan to network the printers together.

Figure 11.1.1 Outfitting a New Building. Source: Photo courtesy of Benjamin Benschneider, Cleveland State University.
How many laser printers did the administration have to buy? It is rather simple to show that 26 laser printers are needed for all the
employees. However, what if a chemist was calculating quantities for a chemical reaction? Interestingly enough, similar
calculations can be performed for chemicals as well as laser printers. In filling a new office building with furniture and equipment,
managers do calculations similar to those performed by scientists doing chemical reactions.

11.1: Introduction is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.1: Introduction by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]
chemistry.

11.1.1 [Link]
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions
 Learning Objectives
Recognize chemical reactions as single-replacement reactions and double-replacement reactions.
Use the periodic table, an activity series, or solubility rules to predict whether single-replacement reactions or double-
replacement reactions will occur.

Up until now, we have presented chemical reactions as a topic, but we have not discussed how the products of a chemical reaction
can be predicted. Here we will begin our study of certain types of chemical reactions that allow us to predict what the products of
the reaction will be.
A single-replacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which one element is substituted for another element in a compound,
generating a new element and a new compound as products. Presented below:

2 HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl (aq) + H (g)

2 2

is an example of a single-replacement reaction. The hydrogen atoms in HCl are replaced by Zn atoms, and in the process a new
element—hydrogen—is formed. Another example of a single-replacement reaction is

2 NaCl(aq) + F (g) → 2 NaF(s) + Cl (g)

2 2

Here the negatively charged ion changes from chloride to fluoride. A typical characteristic of a single-replacement reaction is that
there is one element as a reactant and another element as a product.
Not all proposed single-replacement reactions will occur between two given reactants. This is most easily demonstrated with
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Collectively, these elements are called the halogens and are in the next-to-last column on
the periodic table (Figure 11.2.1). The elements on top of the column will replace the elements below them on the periodic table,
but not the other way around. Thus, the reaction represented by

CaI (s) + Cl (g) → CaCl (s) + I (s)

2 2 2 2

will occur; but the reaction

CaF (s) + Br (ℓ) → CaBr (s) + F (g)

2 2 2 2

will not, because bromine is below fluorine on the periodic table. This is just one of many ways the periodic table helps us to
understand chemistry.

Figure 11.2.1 : Halogens on the Periodic Table. The halogens are the elements in the next-to-last column on the periodic table.

11.2.1 [Link]
  Example 11.2.1

Will a single-replacement reaction occur? If so, identify the products.

a. MgCl2 + I2 → ?
b. CaBr2 + F2 → ?

Solution
a. Because iodine is below chlorine on the periodic table, a single-replacement reaction will not occur.
b. Because fluorine is above bromine on the periodic table, a single-replacement reaction will occur, and the products of the
reaction will be CaF2 and Br2.

 Exercise 11.2.1

Will a single-replacement reaction occur? If so, identify the products.

FeI + Cl →
2 2

Answer
Yes; FeCl2 and I2

Chemical reactivity trends are easy to predict when replacing anions in simple ionic compounds—simply use their relative
positions on the periodic table. However, when replacing the cations, the trends are not as straightforward. This is partly because
there are so many elements that can form cations; an element in one column on the periodic table may replace another element
nearby, or it may not. A list called the activity series does the same thing the periodic table does for halogens: it lists the elements
that will replace elements below them in single-replacement reactions. A simple activity series is shown below.

 Activity Series for Cation Replacement in Single-Replacement Reactions

Li
K
Ba
Sr
Ca
Na
Mg
Al
Mn
Zn
Cr
Fe
Ni
Sn
Pb
H2
Cu
Hg
Ag
Pd
Pt
Au

11.2.2 [Link]
Using the activity series is similar to using the positions of the halogens on the periodic table. An element on top will replace an
element below it in compounds undergoing a single-replacement reaction. Elements will not replace elements above them in
compounds.

 Example 11.2.2

Use the activity series to predict the products, if any, of each equation.
1. FeCl2 + Zn → ?
2. HNO3 + Au → ?

Solution
1. Because zinc is above iron in the activity series, it will replace iron in the compound. The products of this single-
replacement reaction are ZnCl2 and Fe.
2. Gold is below hydrogen in the activity series. As such, it will not replace hydrogen in a compound with the nitrate ion. No
reaction is predicted.

 Exercise 11.2.2

Use the activity series to predict the products, if any, of this equation.

AlPO + Mg →
4

Answer
Mg3(PO4)2 and Al

A double-replacement reaction occurs when parts of two ionic compounds are exchanged, making two new compounds. A
characteristic of a double-replacement equation is that there are two compounds as reactants and two different compounds as
products. An example is

CuCl (aq) + 2 AgNO (aq) → Cu(NO ) (aq) + 2 AgCl(s)

2 3 3 2

There are two equivalent ways of considering a double-replacement equation: either the cations are swapped, or the anions are
swapped. (You cannot swap both; you would end up with the same substances you started with.) Either perspective should allow
you to predict the proper products, as long as you pair a cation with an anion, and not a cation with a cation or an anion with an
anion.

 Example 11.2.3

Predict the products of this double-replacement equation:

BaCl + Na SO →
2 2 4

Solution
Thinking about the reaction as either switching the cations or switching the anions, we would expect the products to be BaSO4
and NaCl.

 Exercise 11.2.3

Predict the products of this double-replacement equation:

KBr + AgNO →
3

Answer

11.2.3 [Link]
 KNO3 and AgBr

Predicting whether a double-replacement reaction occurs is somewhat more difficult than predicting a single-replacement reaction.
However, there is one type of double-replacement reaction that we can predict: the precipitation reaction. A precipitation reaction
occurs when two ionic compounds are dissolved in water and form a new ionic compound that does not dissolve; this new
compound falls out of solution as a solid precipitate. The formation of a solid precipitate is the driving force that makes the
reaction proceed.
To judge whether double-replacement reactions will occur, we need to know what kinds of ionic compounds form precipitates. For
this, we use solubility rules, which are general statements that predict which ionic compounds dissolve (are soluble) and which do
not (are not soluble, or insoluble). Table 11.2.1 lists some general solubility rules. We need to consider each ionic compound (both
the reactants and the possible products) in light of the solubility rules. If a compound is soluble, we use the (aq) label with it,
indicating that it dissolves. If a compound is not soluble, we use the (s) label with it and assume that it will precipitate out of
solution. If everything is soluble, then no reaction will be expected.
Table 11.2.1 : Some Useful Solubility Rules (soluble)
These compounds generally dissolve in water (are soluble): Exceptions:

All compounds of Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, and NH4+ None

All compounds of NO3− and C2H3O2− None

Compounds of Cl−, Br−, I− Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+

Compounds of SO42 Hg22+, Pb2+, Sr2+, Ba2+

Table 11.2.2 : Some Useful Solubility Rules (insoluble)

These compounds generally do not dissolve in water (are insoluble): Exceptions:

Compounds of CO32− and PO43− Compounds of Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, and NH4+

Compounds of OH− Compounds of Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, NH4+, Sr2+, and Ba2+

For example, consider the possible double-replacement reaction between Na2SO4 and SrCl2. The solubility rules say that all ionic
sodium compounds are soluble and all ionic chloride compounds are soluble, except for Ag+, Hg22+, and Pb2+, which are not
being considered here. Therefore, Na2SO4 and SrCl2 are both soluble. The possible double-replacement reaction products are
NaCl and SrSO4. Are these soluble? NaCl is (by the same rule we just quoted), but what about SrSO4? Compounds of the sulfate
ion are generally soluble, but Sr2+ is an exception: we expect it to be insoluble—a precipitate. Therefore, we expect a reaction to
occur, and the balanced chemical equation would be:

Na SO (aq) + SrCl (aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + SrSO (s)

2 4 2 4

You would expect to see a visual change corresponding to SrSO4 precipitating out of solution (Figure 11.2.2).

11.2.4 [Link]
 Figure 11.2.2 : Double-Replacement Reactions. Some double-replacement reactions are obvious because you can see a solid
precipitate coming out of solution. Source: Photo courtesy of Choij,
[Link] in new window).

 Example 11.2.4

Will a double-replacement reaction occur? If so, identify the products.

1. Ca(NO3)2 + KBr → ?
2. NaOH + FeCl2 → ?

Solution
1. According to the solubility rules, both Ca(NO3)2 and KBr are soluble. Now we consider what the double-replacement
products would be by switching the cations (or the anions)—namely, CaBr2 and KNO3. However, the solubility rules
predict that these two substances would also be soluble, so no precipitate would form. Thus, we predict no reaction in this
case.
2. According to the solubility rules, both NaOH and FeCl2 are expected to be soluble. If we assume that a double-replacement
reaction may occur, we need to consider the possible products, which would be NaCl and Fe(OH)2. NaCl is soluble, but,
according to the solubility rules, Fe(OH)2 is not. Therefore, a reaction would occur, and Fe(OH)2(s) would precipitate out
of solution. The balanced chemical equation is

2 NaOH(aq) + FeCl (aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + Fe(OH) (s)

2 2

 Exercise 11.2.4

Sr(NO ) + KCl →
3 2

Answer
No reaction; all possible products are soluble.

Key Takeaways
A single-replacement reaction replaces one element for another in a compound.
The periodic table or an activity series can help predict whether single-replacement reactions occur.
A double-replacement reaction exchanges the cations (or the anions) of two ionic compounds.
A precipitation reaction is a double-replacement reaction in which one product is a solid precipitate.
Solubility rules are used to predict whether some double-replacement reactions will occur.

11.2.5 [Link]
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
4.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Replacement Reactions by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original
source: [Link]

11.2.6 [Link]
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions
 Learning Objectives
Recognize chemical reactions as single-replacement reactions and double-replacement reactions.
Use the periodic table, an activity series, or solubility rules to predict whether single-replacement reactions or double-
replacement reactions will occur.

Up until now, we have presented chemical reactions as a topic, but we have not discussed how the products of a chemical reaction
can be predicted. Here we will begin our study of certain types of chemical reactions that allow us to predict what the products of
the reaction will be.
A single-replacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which one element is substituted for another element in a compound,
generating a new element and a new compound as products. Presented below:

2 HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl (aq) + H (g)

2 2

is an example of a single-replacement reaction. The hydrogen atoms in HCl are replaced by Zn atoms, and in the process a new
element—hydrogen—is formed. Another example of a single-replacement reaction is

2 NaCl(aq) + F (g) → 2 NaF(s) + Cl (g)

2 2

Here the negatively charged ion changes from chloride to fluoride. A typical characteristic of a single-replacement reaction is that
there is one element as a reactant and another element as a product.
Not all proposed single-replacement reactions will occur between two given reactants. This is most easily demonstrated with
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Collectively, these elements are called the halogens and are in the next-to-last column on
the periodic table (Figure 11.3.1). The elements on top of the column will replace the elements below them on the periodic table,
but not the other way around. Thus, the reaction represented by

CaI (s) + Cl (g) → CaCl (s) + I (s)

2 2 2 2

will occur; but the reaction

CaF (s) + Br (ℓ) → CaBr (s) + F (g)

2 2 2 2

will not, because bromine is below fluorine on the periodic table. This is just one of many ways the periodic table helps us to
understand chemistry.

Figure 11.3.1 : Halogens on the Periodic Table. The halogens are the elements in the next-to-last column on the periodic table.

11.3.1 [Link]
  Example 11.3.1

Will a single-replacement reaction occur? If so, identify the products.

a. MgCl2 + I2 → ?
b. CaBr2 + F2 → ?

Solution
a. Because iodine is below chlorine on the periodic table, a single-replacement reaction will not occur.
b. Because fluorine is above bromine on the periodic table, a single-replacement reaction will occur, and the products of the
reaction will be CaF2 and Br2.

 Exercise 11.3.1

Will a single-replacement reaction occur? If so, identify the products.

FeI + Cl →
2 2

Answer
Yes; FeCl2 and I2

Chemical reactivity trends are easy to predict when replacing anions in simple ionic compounds—simply use their relative
positions on the periodic table. However, when replacing the cations, the trends are not as straightforward. This is partly because
there are so many elements that can form cations; an element in one column on the periodic table may replace another element
nearby, or it may not. A list called the activity series does the same thing the periodic table does for halogens: it lists the elements
that will replace elements below them in single-replacement reactions. A simple activity series is shown below.

 Activity Series for Cation Replacement in Single-Replacement Reactions

Li
K
Ba
Sr
Ca
Na
Mg
Al
Mn
Zn
Cr
Fe
Ni
Sn
Pb
H2
Cu
Hg
Ag
Pd
Pt
Au

11.3.2 [Link]
Using the activity series is similar to using the positions of the halogens on the periodic table. An element on top will replace an
element below it in compounds undergoing a single-replacement reaction. Elements will not replace elements above them in
compounds.

 Example 11.3.2

Use the activity series to predict the products, if any, of each equation.
1. FeCl2 + Zn → ?
2. HNO3 + Au → ?

Solution
1. Because zinc is above iron in the activity series, it will replace iron in the compound. The products of this single-
replacement reaction are ZnCl2 and Fe.
2. Gold is below hydrogen in the activity series. As such, it will not replace hydrogen in a compound with the nitrate ion. No
reaction is predicted.

 Exercise 11.3.2

Use the activity series to predict the products, if any, of this equation.

AlPO + Mg →
4

Answer
Mg3(PO4)2 and Al

A double-replacement reaction occurs when parts of two ionic compounds are exchanged, making two new compounds. A
characteristic of a double-replacement equation is that there are two compounds as reactants and two different compounds as
products. An example is

CuCl (aq) + 2 AgNO (aq) → Cu(NO ) (aq) + 2 AgCl(s)

2 3 3 2

There are two equivalent ways of considering a double-replacement equation: either the cations are swapped, or the anions are
swapped. (You cannot swap both; you would end up with the same substances you started with.) Either perspective should allow
you to predict the proper products, as long as you pair a cation with an anion, and not a cation with a cation or an anion with an
anion.

 Example 11.3.3

Predict the products of this double-replacement equation:

BaCl + Na SO →
2 2 4

Solution
Thinking about the reaction as either switching the cations or switching the anions, we would expect the products to be BaSO4
and NaCl.

 Exercise 11.3.3

Predict the products of this double-replacement equation:

KBr + AgNO →
3

Answer

11.3.3 [Link]
 KNO3 and AgBr

Predicting whether a double-replacement reaction occurs is somewhat more difficult than predicting a single-replacement reaction.
However, there is one type of double-replacement reaction that we can predict: the precipitation reaction. A precipitation reaction
occurs when two ionic compounds are dissolved in water and form a new ionic compound that does not dissolve; this new
compound falls out of solution as a solid precipitate. The formation of a solid precipitate is the driving force that makes the
reaction proceed.
To judge whether double-replacement reactions will occur, we need to know what kinds of ionic compounds form precipitates. For
this, we use solubility rules, which are general statements that predict which ionic compounds dissolve (are soluble) and which do
not (are not soluble, or insoluble). Table 11.3.1 lists some general solubility rules. We need to consider each ionic compound (both
the reactants and the possible products) in light of the solubility rules. If a compound is soluble, we use the (aq) label with it,
indicating that it dissolves. If a compound is not soluble, we use the (s) label with it and assume that it will precipitate out of
solution. If everything is soluble, then no reaction will be expected.
Table 11.3.1 : Some Useful Solubility Rules (soluble)
These compounds generally dissolve in water (are soluble): Exceptions:

All compounds of Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, and NH4+ None

All compounds of NO3− and C2H3O2− None

Compounds of Cl−, Br−, I− Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+

Compounds of SO42 Hg22+, Pb2+, Sr2+, Ba2+

Table 11.3.2 : Some Useful Solubility Rules (insoluble)

These compounds generally do not dissolve in water (are insoluble): Exceptions:

Compounds of CO32− and PO43− Compounds of Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, and NH4+

Compounds of OH− Compounds of Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, NH4+, Sr2+, and Ba2+

For example, consider the possible double-replacement reaction between Na2SO4 and SrCl2. The solubility rules say that all ionic
sodium compounds are soluble and all ionic chloride compounds are soluble, except for Ag+, Hg22+, and Pb2+, which are not
being considered here. Therefore, Na2SO4 and SrCl2 are both soluble. The possible double-replacement reaction products are
NaCl and SrSO4. Are these soluble? NaCl is (by the same rule we just quoted), but what about SrSO4? Compounds of the sulfate
ion are generally soluble, but Sr2+ is an exception: we expect it to be insoluble—a precipitate. Therefore, we expect a reaction to
occur, and the balanced chemical equation would be:

Na SO (aq) + SrCl (aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + SrSO (s)

2 4 2 4

You would expect to see a visual change corresponding to SrSO4 precipitating out of solution (Figure 11.3.2).

11.3.4 [Link]
 Figure 11.3.2 : Double-Replacement Reactions. Some double-replacement reactions are obvious because you can see a solid
precipitate coming out of solution. Source: Photo courtesy of Choij,
[Link] in new window).

 Example 11.3.4

Will a double-replacement reaction occur? If so, identify the products.

1. Ca(NO3)2 + KBr → ?
2. NaOH + FeCl2 → ?

Solution
1. According to the solubility rules, both Ca(NO3)2 and KBr are soluble. Now we consider what the double-replacement
products would be by switching the cations (or the anions)—namely, CaBr2 and KNO3. However, the solubility rules
predict that these two substances would also be soluble, so no precipitate would form. Thus, we predict no reaction in this
case.
2. According to the solubility rules, both NaOH and FeCl2 are expected to be soluble. If we assume that a double-replacement
reaction may occur, we need to consider the possible products, which would be NaCl and Fe(OH)2. NaCl is soluble, but,
according to the solubility rules, Fe(OH)2 is not. Therefore, a reaction would occur, and Fe(OH)2(s) would precipitate out
of solution. The balanced chemical equation is

2 NaOH(aq) + FeCl (aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + Fe(OH) (s)

2 2

 Exercise 11.3.4

Sr(NO ) + KCl →
3 2

Answer
No reaction; all possible products are soluble.

Key Takeaways
A single-replacement reaction replaces one element for another in a compound.
The periodic table or an activity series can help predict whether single-replacement reactions occur.
A double-replacement reaction exchanges the cations (or the anions) of two ionic compounds.
A precipitation reaction is a double-replacement reaction in which one product is a solid precipitate.
Solubility rules are used to predict whether some double-replacement reactions will occur.

11.3.5 [Link]
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Displacement Reactions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
4.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and Double Replacement Reactions by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original
source: [Link]

11.3.6 [Link]
11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
 Learning Objectives
Write ionic equations for chemical reactions between ionic compounds.
Write net ionic equations for chemical reactions between ionic compounds.

For single-replacement and double-replacement reactions, many of the reactions included ionic compounds—compounds between
metals and nonmetals, or compounds that contained recognizable polyatomic ions. Now, we take a closer look at reactions that
include ionic compounds.
One important aspect about ionic compounds that differs from molecular compounds has to do with dissolution in a liquid, such as
water. When molecular compounds, such as sugar, dissolve in water, the individual molecules drift apart from each other. When
ionic compounds dissolve, the ions physically separate from each other. We can use a chemical equation to represent this process
—for example, with NaCl:
H O
2
+ −
NaCl(s) −−→ Na (aq) + Cl (aq)

When NaCl dissolves in water, the ions separate and go their own way in solution; the ions are now written with their respective
charges, and the (aq) phase label emphasizes that they are dissolved (Figure 11.4.1). This process is called dissociation; we say
that the ions dissociate.

Figure 11.4.1 Ionic Solutions. When an ionic compound dissociates in water, water molecules surround each ion and separate it
from the rest of the solid. Each ion goes its own way in solution.
All ionic compounds that dissolve behave this way. This behavior was first suggested by the Swedish chemist Svante August
Arrhenius [1859–1927] as part of his PhD dissertation in 1884. Interestingly, his PhD examination team had a hard time believing
that ionic compounds would behave like this, so they gave Arrhenius a barely passing grade. Later, this work was cited when
Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Keep in mind that when the ions separate, all the ions separate. Thus, when
CaCl2 dissolves, the one Ca2+ ion and the two Cl− ions separate from one another:
H2 O
2+ − −
C aC l2 (s) → C a (aq) + C l (aq) + C l (aq)

H2 O
2+ −
C aC l2 (s) → C a (aq) + 2C l (aq)

11.4.1 [Link]
That is, the two chloride ions go off on their own. They do not remain as Cl2 (that would be elemental chlorine; these are chloride
ions), and they do not stick together to make Cl2− or Cl22−. They become dissociated ions in their own right. Polyatomic ions also
retain their overall identity when they are dissolved.

 Example 11.4.1

Write the chemical equation that represents the dissociation of each ionic compound.
1. KBr
2. Na2SO4

Solution
1. KBr(s) → K+(aq) + Br−(aq)
2. Not only do the two sodium ions go their own way, but the sulfate ion stays together as the sulfate ion. The dissolving
equation is Na2SO4(s) → 2Na+(aq) + SO42−(aq)

 Exercise 11.4.1

Write the chemical equation that represents the dissociation of (NH4)2S.

Answer
(NH4)2S(s) → 2NH4+(aq) + S2−(aq)

When chemicals in solution react, the proper way of writing the chemical formulas of the dissolved ionic compounds is in terms of
the dissociated ions, not the complete ionic formula. A complete ionic equation is a chemical equation in which the dissolved
ionic compounds are written as separated ions. Solubility rules are very useful in determining which ionic compounds are dissolved
and which are not. For example, when NaCl(aq) reacts with AgNO3(aq) in a double-replacement reaction to precipitate AgCl(s)
and form NaNO3(aq), the complete ionic equation includes NaCl, AgNO3, and NaNO3 written as separate ions:
+ − + − + −
Na (aq) + Cl (aq) + Ag (aq) + NO (aq) → AgCl(s) + Na (aq) + NO (aq)
3 3

This is more representative of what is occurring in the solution.

 Example 11.4.1
Write the complete ionic equation for each chemical reaction.
1. KBr(aq) + AgC2H3O2(aq) → KC2H3O2(aq) + AgBr(s)
2. MgSO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + BaSO4(s)

Solution
For any ionic compound that is aqueous, we will write the compound as separated ions.
1. The complete ionic equation is K+(aq) + Br−(aq) + Ag+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) → K+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) + AgBr(s)
2. The complete ionic equation is Mg2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + BaSO4(s)

 Exercise 11.4.1

Write the complete ionic equation for

CaCl (aq) + Pb(NO ) (aq) → Ca (NO ) (aq) + PbCl (s)

2 3 2 3 2 2

Answer
Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) + Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + PbCl2(s)

11.4.2 [Link]
You may notice that in a complete ionic equation, some ions do not change their chemical form; they stay exactly the same on the
reactant and product sides of the equation. For example, in
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3−(aq)
the Ag+(aq) and Cl−(aq) ions become AgCl(s), but the Na+(aq) ions and the NO3−(aq) ions stay as Na+(aq) ions and NO3−(aq)
ions. These two ions are examples of spectator ions—ions that do nothing in the overall course of a chemical reaction. They are
present, but they do not participate in the overall chemistry. It is common to cancel spectator ions (something also done with
algebraic quantities) on the opposite sides of a chemical equation:
+ −
+ − + −
Na (aq) + C l (aq) + Ag (aq) + N O (aq) → AgC l(s) + N a (aq) + N O (aq)
3 3

What remains when the spectator ions are removed is called the net ionic equation, which represents the actual chemical change
occurring between the ionic compounds:
Cl−(aq) + Ag+(aq) → AgCl(s)
It is important to reiterate that the spectator ions are still present in solution, but they do not experience any net chemical change, so
they are not written in a net ionic equation.

 Example 11.4.1

Write the net ionic equation for each chemical reaction.

1. K+(aq) + Br−(aq) + Ag+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) → K+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) + AgBr(s)
2. Mg2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + BaSO4(s)

Solution
1. In the first equation, the K+(aq) and C2H3O2−(aq) ions are spectator ions, so they are canceled:
+ − + − + −
K (aq) + Br (aq) + Ag (aq) + C2 H3 O (aq) → K (aq) + C2 H3 O (aq) + AgBr(s)
2 2

The net ionic equation is

Br−(aq) + Ag+(aq) → AgBr(s)
2. In the second equation, the Mg2+(aq) and NO3−(aq) ions are spectator ions, so they are canceled:
2+ 2− 2+ − 2+ −
Mg (aq) + S O (aq) + Ba (aq) + 2N O (aq) → M g (aq) + 2N O (aq) + BaS o4 (s)
4 3 3

The net ionic equation is

SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) → BaSO4(s)

 Exercise 11.4.1

Write the net ionic equation for

CaCl2(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + PbCl2(s)

Answer
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) → PbCl2(s)

 Chemistry is Everywhere: Soluble and Insoluble Ionic Compounds

The concept of solubility versus insolubility in ionic compounds is a matter of degree. Some ionic compounds are very soluble,
some are only moderately soluble, and some are soluble so little that they are considered insoluble. For most ionic compounds,

11.4.3 [Link]
there is also a limit to the amount of compound that can be dissolved in a sample of water. For example, you can dissolve a
maximum of 36.0 g of NaCl in 100 g of water at room temperature, but you can dissolve only 0.00019 g of AgCl in 100 g of
water. We consider NaCl soluble but AgCl insoluble.
One place where solubility is important is in the tank-type water heater found in many homes in the United States. Domestic
water frequently contains small amounts of dissolved ionic compounds, including calcium carbonate (CaCO3). However,
CaCO3 has the relatively unusual property of being less soluble in hot water than in cold water. So as the water heater operates
by heating water, CaCO3 can precipitate if there is enough of it in the water. This precipitate, called limescale, can also contain
magnesium compounds, hydrogen carbonate compounds, and phosphate compounds. The problem is that too much limescale
can impede the function of a water heater, requiring more energy to heat water to a specific temperature or even blocking water
pipes into or out of the water heater, causing dysfunction.

Figure 11.4.2 Tank water heater © Thinkstock. Most homes in the United States have a tank-type water heater like this one.
Another place where solubility versus insolubility is an issue is the Grand Canyon. We usually think of rock as insoluble. But it
is actually ever so slightly soluble. This means that over a period of about two billion years, the Colorado River carved rock
from the surface by slowly dissolving it, eventually generating a spectacular series of gorges and canyons. And all because of
solubility!

11.4.4 [Link]
 Figure 11.4.3 : The Grand Canyon was formed by water running through rock for billions of years, very slowly dissolving it.
Note the Colorado River is still present in the lower part of the photo. (Sonaal Bangera via unsplash)

Key Takeaways
Ionic compounds that dissolve separate into individual ions.
Complete ionic equations show dissolved ionic solids as separated ions.
Net ionic equations show only the ions and other substances that change in a chemical reaction.

11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
4.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

11.4.5 [Link]
11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions
 Learning Objectives
Recognize composition, decomposition, and combustion reactions.
Predict the products of a combustion reaction.

Three classifications of chemical reactions will be reviewed in this section. Predicting the products in some of them may be
difficult, but the reactions are still easy to recognize.
A composition reaction (sometimes also called a combination reaction or a synthesis reaction) produces a single substance from
multiple reactants. A single substance as a product is the key characteristic of the composition reaction. There may be a coefficient
other than one for the substance, but if the reaction has only a single substance as a product, it can be called a composition reaction.
In the reaction

2 H (g) + O (g) → 2 H O(ℓ)

2 2 2

water is produced from hydrogen and oxygen. Although there are two molecules of water being produced, there is only one
substance—water—as a product. So this is a composition reaction.
A decomposition reaction starts from a single substance and produces more than one substance; that is, it decomposes. The key
characteristics of a decomposition reaction are: one substance as a reactant and more than one substance as the products. For
example, in the decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate (also known as sodium bicarbonate):

2 NaHCO (s) → Na CO (s) + CO (g) + H O(ℓ)

3 2 3 2 2

sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide, and water are produced from the single substance sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Composition and decomposition reactions are difficult to predict; however, they should be easy to recognize.

 Example 11.5.1: Identifying Reactions

Identify each equation as a composition reaction, a decomposition reaction, or neither.
a. Fe O + 3 SO → Fe (SO )
2 3 3 2 4 3

b. NaCl + AgNO → AgCl + NaNO 3 3

c. (NH ) Cr O → Cr O + 4 H O + N
4 2 2 7 2 3 2 2

Solution
a. In this equation, two substances combine to make a single substance. This is a composition reaction.
b. Two different substances react to make two new substances. This does not fit the definition of either a composition reaction
or a decomposition reaction, so it is neither. In fact, you may recognize this as a double-replacement reaction.
c. A single substance reacts to make multiple substances. This is a decomposition reaction.

 Exercise 11.5.1
Identify the equation as a composition reaction, a decomposition reaction, or neither.

C H → C H +2 H
3 8 3 4 2

Answer
decomposition

A combustion reaction occurs when a reactant combines with oxygen, many times from the atmosphere, to produce oxides of all
other elements as products; any nitrogen in the reactant is converted to elemental nitrogen, N2. Many reactants, called fuels,

11.5.1 [Link]
contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, reacting with oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O. For example, the balanced chemical
equation for the combustion of methane, CH4, is as follows:

CH +2 O → CO +2 H O
4 2 2 2

Kerosene can be approximated with the formula C 12

H
26
, and its combustion equation is:

2C H + 37 O → 24 CO−2 + 26 H O
12 26 2 2

Sometimes fuels contain oxygen atoms, which must be counted when balancing the chemical equation. One common fuel is
ethanol, C H OH , whose combustion equation is:
2 5

C H OH + 3 O → 2 CO +3 H O
2 5 2 2 2

If nitrogen is present in the original fuel, it is converted to N , not to a nitrogen-oxygen compound. Thus, for the combustion of the
2

fuel dinitroethylene, whose formula is C H N O , we have:

2 2 2 4

2C H N O +O → 4 CO +2 H O+2 N
2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2

 Example 11.5.2: Combustion Reactions

Complete and balance each combustion equation.

1. the combustion of propane (C H )
3 8

2. the combustion of ammonia (NH ) 3

Solution
1. The products of the reaction are CO2 and H2O, so our unbalanced equation is

C H +O → CO +H O
3 8 2 2 2

Balancing (and you may have to go back and forth a few times to balance this), we get

C H +5 O → 3 CO +4 H O
3 8 2 2 2

2. The nitrogen atoms in ammonia will react to make N2, while the hydrogen atoms will react with O2 to make H2O:

NH +O → N +H O
3 2 2 2

To balance this equation without fractions (which is the convention), we get

4 NH +3 O → 2N +6 H O
3 2 2 2

 Exercise 11.5.2

Complete and balance the combustion equation for cyclopropanol (\ce{C3H6O}\)).

Answer
C H O+4 O → 3 CO +3 H O
3 6 2 2 2

11.5.2 [Link]
 Figure 11.5.1 A 20 lb (9.1 kg) steel propane cylinder.

Key Takeaways
A composition reaction produces a single substance from multiple reactants.
A decomposition reaction produces multiple products from a single reactant.
Combustion reactions are the combination of some compound with oxygen to make oxides of the other elements as products
(although nitrogen atoms react to make N2).

11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by LibreTexts.
4.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion Reactions by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

11.5.3 [Link]
11.6: Stoichiometry
 Learning Objectives
Define stoichiometry.
Relate quantities in a balanced chemical reaction on a molecular basis.

Consider a classic recipe for pound cake: 1 pound of eggs, 1 pound of butter, 1 pound of flour, and 1 pound of sugar. (That's why
it's called "pound cake.") If you have 4 pounds of butter, how many pounds of sugar, flour, and eggs do you need? You would need
4 pounds each of sugar, flour, and eggs.
Now suppose you have 1.00 g H2. If the chemical reaction follows the balanced chemical equation

2 H (g) + O (g) → 2 H O(ℓ)

2 2 2

then what mass of oxygen do you need to make water?

Curiously, this chemical reaction question is very similar to the pound cake question. Both of them involve relating a quantity of
one substance to a quantity of another substance or substances. The relating of one chemical substance to another using a balanced
chemical reaction is called stoichiometry. Using stoichiometry is a fundamental skill in chemistry; it greatly broadens your ability
to predict what will occur and, more importantly, how much is produced.
Let us consider a more complicated example. A recipe for pancakes calls for 2 cups (c) of pancake mix, 1 egg, and 1/2 c of milk.
We can write this in the form of a chemical equation:
2 c mix + 1 egg + 1/2 c milk → 1 batch of pancakes
If you have 9 c of pancake mix, how many eggs and how much milk do you need? It might take a little bit of work, but eventually
you will find you need 4½ eggs and 2¼ c milk.
How can we formalize this? We can make a conversion factor using our original recipe and use that conversion factor to convert
from a quantity of one substance to a quantity of another substance. This is similar to the way we constructed a conversion factor
between feet and yards in Chapter 2. Because one recipe's worth of pancakes requires 2 c of pancake mix, 1 egg, and 1/2 c of milk,
we actually have the following mathematical relationships that relate these quantities:
2 c pancake mix ⇔ 1 egg ⇔ 1/2 c milk
where ⇔ is the mathematical symbol for "is equivalent to." This does not mean that 2 c of pancake mix equal 1 egg. However, as
far as this recipe is concerned, these are the equivalent quantities needed for a single recipe of pancakes. So, any possible
quantities of two or more ingredients must have the same numerical ratio as the ratios in the equivalence.
We can deal with these equivalences in the same way we deal with equalities in unit conversions: we can make conversion factors
that essentially equal 1. For example, to determine how many eggs we need for 9 c of pancake mix, we construct the conversion
factor:
1 egg

2 c pancake mix

This conversion factor is, in a strange way, equivalent to 1 because the recipe relates the two quantities. Starting with our initial
quantity and multiplying by our conversion factor,
1 egg
9 c pancake mix × = 4.5 eggs
2 c pancake mix

Note how the units cups pancake mix canceled, leaving us with units of eggs. This is the formal, mathematical way of getting our
amounts to mix with 9 c of pancake mix. We can use a similar conversion factor for the amount of milk:
1
c milk
2
9 c pancake mix × = 2.25 c milk
2 c pancake mix

Again, units cancel, and new units are introduced.

11.6.1 [Link]
A balanced chemical equation is nothing more than a recipe for a chemical reaction. The difference is that a balanced chemical
equation is written in terms of atoms and molecules, not cups, pounds, and eggs.
For example, consider the following chemical equation:

2 H (g) + O (g) → 2 H O(ℓ)

2 2 2

We can interpret this as, literally, "two hydrogen molecules react with one oxygen molecule to make two water molecules." That
interpretation leads us directly to some equivalencies, just as our pancake recipe did:
2H2 molecules ⇔ 1O2 molecule ⇔ 2H2O molecules
These equivalences allow us to construct conversion factors:
2 molecules H2 2 molecules H2 1 molecule H2

1 molecule O2 2 molecules H2 O 2 molecules H2 O

and so forth. These conversions can be used to relate quantities of one substance to quantities of another. For example, suppose we
need to know how many molecules of oxygen are needed to react with 16 molecules of H2. As we did with converting units, we
start with our given quantity and use the appropriate conversion factor:
1 molecules O2
16 molecules H2 × = 8 molecules O2
2 molecules H2

Note how the unit molecules H2 cancels algebraically, just as any unit does in a conversion like this. The conversion factor came
directly from the coefficients in the balanced chemical equation. This is another reason why a properly balanced chemical equation
is important.

 Example 11.6.1

How many molecules of SO3 are needed to react with 144 molecules of Fe2O3 given this balanced chemical equation?

Fe O + 3 SO → Fe (SO )
2 3 3 2 4 3

Solution
We use the balanced chemical equation to construct a conversion factor between Fe2O3 and SO3. The number of molecules of
Fe2O3 goes on the bottom of our conversion factor so it cancels with our given amount, and the molecules of SO3 go on the
top. Thus, the appropriate conversion factor is
3 molecules SO3

1 molecule F e2 O3

Starting with our given amount and applying the conversion factor, the result is
3 molecules SO3
144 molecules F e2 O3 × = 432 molecules S O3
1 molecule F e2 O3

We need 432 molecules of SO3 to react with 144 molecules of Fe2O3.

 Exercise 11.6.1

How many molecules of H2 are needed to react with 29 molecules of N2 to make ammonia if the balanced chemical equation
is:

N +3 H → 2 NH ?
2 2 3

Answer
87 molecules

11.6.2 [Link]
Chemical equations also allow us to make conversions regarding the number of atoms in a chemical reaction, because a chemical
formula lists the number of atoms of each element in a compound. The formula H2O indicates that there are two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom in each molecule, and these relationships can be used to make conversion factors:
2 atoms H 1 molecule H2 O

1 molecule H2 O 1 atom O

Conversion factors like this can also be used in stoichiometry calculations.

 Example 11.6.2

How many molecules of NH3 can you make if you have 228 atoms of H2?

Solution
From the formula, we know that one molecule of NH3 has three H atoms. Use that fact as a conversion factor:
1 molecule N H3
228 atoms H × = 76 N H3
3 atoms H

 Exercise 11.6.2

How many molecules of Fe 2

(SO )
4 3
can you make from 777 atoms of S?

Answer
259 molecules

Summary
Quantities of substances can be related to each other using balanced chemical equations.

11.6: Stoichiometry is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.2: Stoichiometry by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]
chemistry.

11.6.3 [Link]
11.7: The Mole
 Learning Objectives
Describe the unit mole.
Relate the mole quantity of substance to its mass.

So far, we have been talking about chemical substances in terms of individual atoms and molecules. Yet we do not typically deal
with substances an atom or a molecule at a time; we work with millions, billions, and trillions of atoms and molecules at a time. We
need a way to deal with macroscopic, rather than microscopic, amounts of matter. We need a unit of amount that relates quantities
of substances on a scale that we can interact with.
Chemistry uses a unit called mole. A mole (mol) is a number of things equal to the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
Experimental measurements have determined that this number is very large:
1 mol = 6.02214179 × 1023 things
Understand that a mole means a specific number of things, just like a dozen means a certain number of things—twelve, in the case
of a dozen. But a mole is a much larger number of things. These things can be atoms, or molecules, or eggs; however, in chemistry,
we usually use the mole to refer to the amounts of atoms or molecules. Although the number of things in a mole is known to eight
decimal places, it is usually fine to use only two or three decimal places in calculations. The numerical value of things in a mole is
often called Avogadro's number (NA). Avogadro's number is also known as the Avogadro constant, after Amadeo Avogadro, an
Italian chemist who first proposed its importance.

 Example 11.7.1

How many molecules are present in 2.76 mol of H2O? How many atoms is this?

Solution
The definition of a mole is an equality that can be used to construct a conversion factor. Also, because we know that there are
three atoms in each molecule of H2O, we can also determine the number of atoms in the sample.
23
6.022 × 10 molecules H2 O 24
2.76 mol H2 O × = 1.66 × 10 molecules H2 O
mol H2 O

To determine the total number of atoms, we have

3 atoms
24 24
1.66 × 10 molecules H2 O × = 4.99 × 10 atoms
1 molecule

 Exercise 11.7.1
How many molecules are present in 4.61 × 10−2 mol of O ? 2

Answer
2.78 × 1022 molecules

How big is a mole? It is very large. Suppose you had a mole of dollar bills that need to be counted. If everyone on earth (about 6
billion people) counted one bill per second, it would take about 3.2 million years to count all the bills. A mole of sand would fill a
cube about 32 km on a side. A mole of pennies stacked on top of each other would have about the same diameter as our galaxy, the
Milky Way. A mole is a lot of things—but atoms and molecules are very tiny. One mole of carbon atoms would make a cube that is
1.74 cm on a side, small enough to carry in your pocket.
Why is the mole unit so important? It represents the link between the microscopic and the macroscopic, especially in terms of
mass. A mole of a substance has the same mass in grams as one unit (atom or molecules) has in atomic mass units. The mole unit

11.7.1 [Link]
allows us to express amounts of atoms and molecules in visible amounts that we can understand.
For example, we already know that, by definition, a mole of carbon has a mass of exactly 12 g. This means that exactly 12 g of C
has 6.022 × 1023 atoms:
12 g C = 6.022 × 1023 atoms C
We can use this equality as a conversion factor between the number of atoms of carbon and the number of grams of carbon. How
many grams are there, say, in 1.50 × 1025 atoms of carbon? This is a one-step conversion:
12.0000 g C
25
1.50 × 10 atoms C × = 299 g C
23
6.022 × 10 atoms C

But it also goes beyond carbon. Previously we defined atomic and molecular masses as the number of atomic mass units per atom
or molecule. Now we can do so in terms of grams. The atomic mass of an element is the number of grams in 1 mol of atoms of that
element, while the molecular mass of a compound is the number of grams in 1 mol of molecules of that compound. Sometimes
these masses are called molar masses to emphasize the fact that they are the mass for 1 mol of things. (The term molar is the
adjective form of mole and has nothing to do with teeth.)
Here are some examples. The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.0079 u; the mass of 1 mol of hydrogen atoms is 1.0079 g. Elemental
hydrogen exists as a diatomic molecule, H2. One molecule has a mass of 1.0079 + 1.0079 = 2.0158 u, while 1 mol H2 has a mass
of 2.0158 g. A molecule of H2O has a mass of about 18.01 u; 1 mol H2O has a mass of 18.01 g. A single unit of NaCl has a mass
of 58.45 u; NaCl has a molar mass of 58.45 g. In each of these moles of substances, there are 6.022 × 1023 units: 6.022 × 1023
atoms of H, 6.022 × 1023 molecules of H2 and H2O, 6.022 × 1023 units of NaCl ions. These relationships give us plenty of
opportunities to construct conversion factors for simple calculations.

 Example 11.7.2: Sugar

What is the molar mass of sugar (C 6

H
12
O
6
)?

Solution
To determine the molar mass, we simply add the atomic masses of the atoms in the molecular formula; but express the total in
grams per mole, not atomic mass units. The masses of the atoms can be taken from the periodic table.
Solutions to Example 5.3.2
6 C = 6 × 12.011 = 72.066

12 H = 12 × 1.0079 = 12.0948

6 O = 6 × 15.999 = 95.994

TOTAL = 180.155 g/mol

Per convention, the unit grams per mole is written as a fraction.

 Exercise 11.7.2

What is the molar mass of AgNO ? 3

Answer
169.87 g/mol

Knowing the molar mass of a substance, we can calculate the number of moles in a certain mass of a substance and vice versa, as
these examples illustrate. The molar mass is used as the conversion factor.

11.7.2 [Link]
  Example 11.7.3

What is the mass of 3.56 mol of HgCl2? The molar mass of HgCl2 is 271.49 g/mol.

Solution
Use the molar mass as a conversion factor between moles and grams. Because we want to cancel the mole unit and introduce
the gram unit, we can use the molar mass as given:
271.49 g H gC l2
3.56 mol H gC l2 × = 967 g H gC l2
mol H gC l2

 Exercise 11.7.3

What is the mass of 33.7 mol of H2

O ?

Answer
607 g

 Example 11.7.4

How many moles of H2O are present in 240.0 g of water (about the mass of a cup of water)?

Solution
Use the molar mass of H2O as a conversion factor from mass to moles. The molar mass of water is
(1.0079 + 1.0079 + 15.999) = 18.015 g/mol.
However, because we want to cancel the gram unit and introduce moles, we need to take the reciprocal of this quantity, or 1
mol/18.015 g:
1 mol H2 O
240.0 g H2 O × = 13.32 mol H2 O
18.015 g H2 O

 Exercise 11.7.4

How many moles are present in 35.6 g of H2SO4 (molar mass = 98.08 g/mol)?

Answer
0.363 mol

Other conversion factors can be combined with the definition of mole—density, for example.

 Example 11.7.5

The density of ethanol is 0.789 g/mL. How many moles are in 100.0 mL of ethanol? The molar mass of ethanol is 46.08 g/mol.

Solution
Here, we use density to convert from volume to mass and then use the molar mass to determine the number of moles.

11.7.3 [Link]
 0.789 g 1 mol
100 ml ethanol × × = 1.71 mol ethanol
46.08 g
ml

 Exercise 11.7.5

If the density of benzene, C6H6, is 0.879 g/mL, how many moles are present in 17.9 mL of benzene?

Answer
0.201 mol

Summary
The mole is a key unit in chemistry. The molar mass of a substance, in grams, is numerically equal to one atom's or molecule's
mass in atomic mass units.

11.7: The Mole is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.3: The Mole by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: [Link]

11.7.4 [Link]
11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
 Learning Objectives
Balance a chemical equation in terms of moles.
Use the balanced equation to construct conversion factors in terms of moles.
Calculate moles of one substance from moles of another substance using a balanced chemical equation.

Consider this balanced chemical equation:

2H +O → 2H O
2 2 2

We interpret this as "two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to make two molecules of water." The chemical
equation is balanced as long as the coefficients are in the ratio 2:1:2. For instance, this chemical equation is also balanced:

100 H + 50 O → 100 H O
2 2 2

This equation is not conventional—because convention says that we use the lowest ratio of coefficients—but it is balanced. So is
this chemical equation:

5 , 000 H + 2 , 500 O → 5 , 000 H O

2 2 2

Again, this is not conventional, but it is still balanced. Suppose we use a much larger number:
23 23 23
12.044 × 10 H + 6.022 × 10 O → 12.044 × 10 H O
2 2 2

These coefficients are also in the ratio of 2:1:2. But these numbers are related to the number of things in a mole: the first and last
numbers are two times Avogadro's number, while the second number is Avogadro's number. That means that the first and last
numbers represent 2 mol, while the middle number is just 1 mol. Well, why not just use the number of moles in balancing the
chemical equation?

2H +O → 2H O
2 2 2

is the same balanced chemical equation we started with! What this means is that chemical equations are not just balanced in terms
of molecules; they are also balanced in terms of moles. We can just as easily read this chemical equation as "two moles of
hydrogen react with one mole of oxygen to make two moles of water." All balanced chemical reactions are balanced in terms of
moles.

 Example [Link]

Interpret this balanced chemical equation in terms of moles.

P +5 O → P O
4 2 4 10

Solution
The coefficients represent the number of moles that react, not just molecules. We would speak of this equation as "one mole of
molecular phosphorus reacts with five moles of elemental oxygen to make one mole of tetraphosphorus decoxide."

 Exercise [Link]

Interpret this balanced chemical equation in terms of moles.

N +3 H → 2 NH
2 2 3

Answer
One mole of elemental nitrogen reacts with three moles of elemental hydrogen to produce two moles of ammonia.

[Link] [Link]
In Section 4.1, we stated that a chemical equation is simply a recipe for a chemical reaction. As such, chemical equations also give
us equivalents—equivalents between the reactants and the products. However, now we understand that these equivalents are
expressed in terms of moles. Consider the chemical equation

2H +O → 2H O
2 2 2

This chemical reaction gives us the following equivalents:

2 mol H2 ⇔ 1 mol O2 ⇔ 2 mol H2O
Any two of these quantities can be used to construct a conversion factor that lets us relate the number of moles of one substance to
an equivalent number of moles of another substance. If, for example, we want to know how many moles of oxygen will react with
17.6 mol of hydrogen, we construct a conversion factor between 2 mol of H2 and 1 mol of O2 and use it to convert from moles of
one substance to moles of another:
1 mol O2
17.6 mol H2 × = 8.80 mol O2
2 mol H2

Note how the mol H2 unit cancels, and mol O2 is the new unit introduced. This is an example of a mole-mole calculation, when
you start with moles of one substance and convert to moles of another substance by using the balanced chemical equation. The
example may seem simple because the numbers are small, but numbers won't always be so simple!

 Example [Link]

For the balanced chemical equation

2C H (g) + 13 O → 8 CO (g) + 10 H O(ℓ)

4 10 2 2 2

if 154 mol of O2 are reacted, how many moles of CO2 are produced?

Solution
We are relating an amount of oxygen to an amount of carbon dioxide, so we need the equivalence between these two
substances. According to the balanced chemical equation, the equivalence is
13 mol O2 ⇔ 8 mol CO2
We can use this equivalence to construct the proper conversion factor. We start with what we are given and apply the
conversion factor:
8 mol C O2
154 mol O2 × = 94.8 mol C O2
13 mol O2

The mol O2 unit is in the denominator of the conversion factor so it cancels. Both the 8 and the 13 are exact numbers, so they
do not contribute to the number of significant figures in the final answer.

 Exercise [Link]

Using the above equation, how many moles of H2O are produced when 154 mol of O2 react?

Answer
118 mol

It is important to reiterate that balanced chemical equations are balanced in terms of moles. Not grams, kilograms, or liters—but
moles. Any stoichiometry problem will likely need to work through the mole unit at some point, especially if you are working with
a balanced chemical reaction.

[Link] [Link]
Summary
Balanced chemical reactions are balanced in terms of moles. A balanced chemical reaction gives equivalents in moles that allow
stoichiometry calculations to be performed.

11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.4: The Mole in Chemical Reactions by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source:
[Link]

[Link] [Link]
Index
A bonding electron pair conversion factors
abbreviated electron configuration 7.5: Covalent Bonds 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms cooling curve
Abegg's rule C 10.7.3: Phase Changes
7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding capillary action covalent bond
acid 10.3: Properties of Liquids 7.5: Covalent Bonds
4.2: The pH Scale capillary rise critical point
Acid Rain 10.3: Properties of Liquids 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
10.3.1: Water Cycle cations critical pressure
activity series 7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds critical temperature
Double Displacement Reactions central atom 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and 7.5: Covalent Bonds crystalline solid
Double Displacement Reactions chemical change 10.4: Solids
adhesion 1.4: Basic Definitions Crystallization
10.3: Properties of Liquids 5.1: Classification of Matter 5.1: Classification of Matter
Aeration chemical elements
10.3.5: Water Treatment 2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table D
alpha particle chemical equation d block
6: Radioactivity 11: The Chemical Equation
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table
amorphous solid 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
Chemical Properties Dalton's atomic theory
10.4: Solids
2.2: Basic Atomic Theory
amphiprotic 1.4: Basic Definitions
Chemical Reactions daughter isotope
4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
6: Radioactivity
angular momentum quantum number 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions Decay
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
angular momentum quantum number( cholesterol 6.2: Half-Life
9.2.2: Steroids decay radioactively
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
anions coagulation 6.2: Half-Life
10.3.5: Water Treatment decomposition
7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds coefficient 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
Reactions
atomic mass unit 11: The Chemical Equation
cohesion Decomposition reaction
11.7: The Mole
11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
atomic mass units 10.3: Properties of Liquids
Reactions
11.7: The Mole Combustion Reaction Democritus
atomic theory 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
2.2: Basic Atomic Theory
Reactions
2.3: Atomic Theory deposition
atoms Combustion Reactions
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
2.3: Atomic Theory Subliming
Reactions
avogadros number complete ionic equation Dilute
11.7: The Mole 10.6.1: Definitions
11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
composition dispersion force
B 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
10.1: Intermolecular Forces
balanced Reactions dispersion forces
11: The Chemical Equation composition reaction 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
base 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion dissociate
4.2: The pH Scale Reactions 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
beta particle compound dissociation
6: Radioactivity 1.4: Basic Definitions 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
5.1: Classification of Matter distillation
bile
9.2.2: Steroids
concentrated 5.1: Classification of Matter
10.6.1: Definitions dot diagram
Bohr Diagram
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century
concentration 7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
10.6.1: Definitions double bond
Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century
condensation 7.5: Covalent Bonds
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
Boiling Subliming
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and dynamic
Subliming
continuous spectrum 4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons dynamic equilibrium
boiling point
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
conversion factor 10.3: Properties of Liquids
Subliming 11.7: The Mole

1 [Link]
E G kinetic theory of gases
electron Gamma Rays 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases
2.3: Atomic Theory 6: Radioactivity
electron configurations gas L
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 5.1: Classification of Matter law of conservation of matter
electron dot diagram 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases 11: The Chemical Equation
7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams Gases Lewis diagram
electronic configuration 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases 7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms Lewis electron dot diagram
Electronic Structure H 7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table half life Lewis electron dot diagrams
electrons 6.2: Half-Life 7.5: Covalent Bonds
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons Hard water Lewis electron dot symbol
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms 10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water 7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
element heat of fusion liquid
1.4: Basic Definitions 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 5.1: Classification of Matter
5.1: Classification of Matter Subliming lone pair electrons
endothermic Heating curve 7.5: Covalent Bonds
10.7.3: Phase Changes 10.7.3: Phase Changes
energy change heterogeneous mixture M
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 1.4: Basic Definitions
Subliming
magnetic quantum number
5.1: Classification of Matter
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
enthalpy of fusion homogeneous mixture
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
mass
1.4: Basic Definitions
Subliming 5.1: Classification of Matter 5.1: Classification of Matter
10.7.3: Phase Changes 11.7: The Mole
hydrogen bonding
enthalpy of sublimation Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
10.1: Intermolecular Forces
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and [Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS
hydrologic cycle
Subliming matter
10.7.3: Phase Changes 10.3.1: Water Cycle
1.4: Basic Definitions
enthalpy of vaporization hydrolysis 2.3: Atomic Theory
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases 5.1: Classification of Matter
Subliming hypothesis melting
equilibrium 1.5: Chemistry as a Science 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Subliming
Eutrophication I melting point
10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water ideal gas 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
Subliming
evaporation 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases
meniscus
10.3: Properties of Liquids intermolecular forces
10.3: Properties of Liquids
Exemplar 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
metal
1.7: Chemistry in the Environment ionic compound
4.3: pH of Chesapeake Bay 1.4: Basic Definitions
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
6.3: Unsafe Doses of Radiation metallic solid
10.2: Solubility and Pollution ionic compounds
10.4: Solids
10.3.6: PBBs 7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
10.4.1: Fats and Lipids in Bioamplification 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look mixtures
exothermic Ionic Equations 1.4: Basic Definitions
10.7.3: Phase Changes 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look mol
Ionic Formulas 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
F 7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds molar masses
Ionizing radiation 11.7: The Mole
f block
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 6: Radioactivity mole
ions 11.7: The Mole
fatty acids 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
9.2.1: Fatty Acids 7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
molecular solid
fission Irradiation
10.4: Solids
6: Radioactivity 6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
molecule
Flucculation isothermal
7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
10.3.5: Water Treatment 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
Subliming molecules
functional group 7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
8.6: Functional Groups
isothermal process
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and MSDS
fusion Subliming [Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS
10.7.3: Phase Changes

K N
kinetic theory neutron
10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases 2.3: Atomic Theory

2 [Link]
nomenclature principal quantum number( solidification
7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
nonmetal products Subliming
1.4: Basic Definitions 11: The Chemical Equation Solids
normal boiling point proton 10.4: Solids
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 2.3: Atomic Theory solubility
Subliming Pseudoscience 10.6.1: Definitions
nuclear equation 1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method solubility rules
6: Radioactivity purine 11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
nucleotide Double Displacement Reactions
9.4.1: Nucleotides
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
9.4.1: Nucleotides pyrimidine Double Displacement Reactions
9.4.1: Nucleotides solute
O 10.6.1: Definitions
octet rule Q solvent
7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding qualitative 10.6.1: Definitions
10.6.1: Definitions spectra
P quantitative 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
p block 10.6.1: Definitions spin
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table quantized 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
parent isotope 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons spin quantum number
6: Radioactivity quantum number 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
Pauli exclusion principle 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons spontaneous fission
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms quantum numbers 6: Radioactivity
periodic table 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons state
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 1.4: Basic Definitions
pH R static
4.2: The pH Scale radioactive dating 4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
phase 6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Steroids
1.4: Basic Definitions radioactive decay 9.2.2: Steroids
10.1: Intermolecular Forces stoichiometry
6: Radioactivity
phase change Radioactive Elements 11.6: Stoichiometry
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and sublimation
6.2: Half-Life
Subliming
phase diagram Radioactive Isotopes 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
Subliming
6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
10.7.4: Phase Diagrams 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
phase to radioactive processes 10.7.3: Phase Changes
6.2: Half-Life Subliming
10.1: Intermolecular Forces
phase transitions radioactivity 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
6: Radioactivity Subliming
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes subshell
Subliming
Phrenology reactants 2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table
11: The Chemical Equation substance
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method
Physical change Reflexology 1.4: Basic Definitions
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method Substances
1.4: Basic Definitions
5.1: Classification of Matter 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
physical properties S supercooled liquid
1.4: Basic Definitions s block 10.7.3: Phase Changes
plum pudding model 2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table supercritical fluid
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century scientific method 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
polyatomic ions 1.5: Chemistry as a Science superheated liquid
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds 1.6: The Scientific Method 10.7.3: Phase Changes
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method
precipitate 1.6.2: Using the Scientific Method supersaturated
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and 10.6.1: Definitions
Double Displacement Reactions
sedimentation
10.3.5: Water Treatment surface tension
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
Double Displacement Reactions seed crystal 10.3: Properties of Liquids
Precipitation reaction 10.7.3: Phase Changes surrounding atoms
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and semimetals 7.5: Covalent Bonds
Double Displacement Reactions 1.4: Basic Definitions
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
single bond T
Double Displacement Reactions
7.5: Covalent Bonds tension
pressure
5.1: Classification of Matter
solid 10.3: Properties of Liquids
5.1: Classification of Matter tracer
principal quantum number 10.4: Solids 6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons

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triple bond V W
7.5: Covalent Bonds Valence Electrons Water Contamination
7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water
triple point
valence shell water cycle
10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
7.5: Covalent Bonds 10.3.1: Water Cycle
vapor Water Pollution
U 10.3: Properties of Liquids 10.3.2: Water Pollution
unsaturated vapor pressure Waxes
10.6.1: Definitions
10.3: Properties of Liquids 9.2.1: Fatty Acids
vaporization weight
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 5.1: Classification of Matter
Subliming

4 [Link]
Index
A bonding electron pair conversion factors
abbreviated electron configuration 7.5: Covalent Bonds 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms cooling curve
Abegg's rule C 10.7.3: Phase Changes
7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding capillary action covalent bond
acid 10.3: Properties of Liquids 7.5: Covalent Bonds
4.2: The pH Scale capillary rise critical point
Acid Rain 10.3: Properties of Liquids 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
10.3.1: Water Cycle cations critical pressure
activity series 7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds critical temperature
Double Displacement Reactions central atom 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and 7.5: Covalent Bonds crystalline solid
Double Displacement Reactions chemical change 10.4: Solids
adhesion 1.4: Basic Definitions Crystallization
10.3: Properties of Liquids 5.1: Classification of Matter 5.1: Classification of Matter
Aeration chemical elements
10.3.5: Water Treatment 2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table D
alpha particle chemical equation d block
6: Radioactivity 11: The Chemical Equation
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table
amorphous solid 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
Chemical Properties Dalton's atomic theory
10.4: Solids
2.2: Basic Atomic Theory
amphiprotic 1.4: Basic Definitions
Chemical Reactions daughter isotope
4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
6: Radioactivity
angular momentum quantum number 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions Decay
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
angular momentum quantum number( cholesterol 6.2: Half-Life
9.2.2: Steroids decay radioactively
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
anions coagulation 6.2: Half-Life
10.3.5: Water Treatment decomposition
7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds coefficient 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
Reactions
atomic mass unit 11: The Chemical Equation
cohesion Decomposition reaction
11.7: The Mole
11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
atomic mass units 10.3: Properties of Liquids
Reactions
11.7: The Mole Combustion Reaction Democritus
atomic theory 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
2.2: Basic Atomic Theory
Reactions
2.3: Atomic Theory deposition
atoms Combustion Reactions
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
2.3: Atomic Theory Subliming
Reactions
avogadros number complete ionic equation Dilute
11.7: The Mole 10.6.1: Definitions
11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
composition dispersion force
B 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion
10.1: Intermolecular Forces
balanced Reactions dispersion forces
11: The Chemical Equation composition reaction 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
base 11.5: Composition, Decomposition, and Combustion dissociate
4.2: The pH Scale Reactions 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
beta particle compound dissociation
6: Radioactivity 1.4: Basic Definitions 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look
5.1: Classification of Matter distillation
bile
9.2.2: Steroids
concentrated 5.1: Classification of Matter
10.6.1: Definitions dot diagram
Bohr Diagram
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century
concentration 7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
10.6.1: Definitions double bond
Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century
condensation 7.5: Covalent Bonds
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
Boiling Subliming
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and dynamic
Subliming
continuous spectrum 4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons dynamic equilibrium
boiling point
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
conversion factor 10.3: Properties of Liquids
Subliming 11.7: The Mole

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E G kinetic theory of gases
electron Gamma Rays 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases
2.3: Atomic Theory 6: Radioactivity
electron configurations gas L
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 5.1: Classification of Matter law of conservation of matter
electron dot diagram 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases 11: The Chemical Equation
7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams Gases Lewis diagram
electronic configuration 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases 7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms Lewis electron dot diagram
Electronic Structure H 7.1: Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table half life Lewis electron dot diagrams
electrons 6.2: Half-Life 7.5: Covalent Bonds
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons Hard water Lewis electron dot symbol
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms 10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water 7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
element heat of fusion liquid
1.4: Basic Definitions 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 5.1: Classification of Matter
5.1: Classification of Matter Subliming lone pair electrons
endothermic Heating curve 7.5: Covalent Bonds
10.7.3: Phase Changes 10.7.3: Phase Changes
energy change heterogeneous mixture M
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 1.4: Basic Definitions
Subliming
magnetic quantum number
5.1: Classification of Matter
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
enthalpy of fusion homogeneous mixture
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
mass
1.4: Basic Definitions
Subliming 5.1: Classification of Matter 5.1: Classification of Matter
10.7.3: Phase Changes 11.7: The Mole
hydrogen bonding
enthalpy of sublimation Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
10.1: Intermolecular Forces
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and [Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS
hydrologic cycle
Subliming matter
10.7.3: Phase Changes 10.3.1: Water Cycle
1.4: Basic Definitions
enthalpy of vaporization hydrolysis 2.3: Atomic Theory
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases 5.1: Classification of Matter
Subliming hypothesis melting
equilibrium 1.5: Chemistry as a Science 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Subliming
Eutrophication I melting point
10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water ideal gas 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
Subliming
evaporation 10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases
meniscus
10.3: Properties of Liquids intermolecular forces
10.3: Properties of Liquids
Exemplar 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
metal
1.7: Chemistry in the Environment ionic compound
4.3: pH of Chesapeake Bay 1.4: Basic Definitions
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
6.3: Unsafe Doses of Radiation metallic solid
10.2: Solubility and Pollution ionic compounds
10.4: Solids
10.3.6: PBBs 7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
10.4.1: Fats and Lipids in Bioamplification 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look mixtures
exothermic Ionic Equations 1.4: Basic Definitions
10.7.3: Phase Changes 11.4: Ionic Equations - A Closer Look mol
Ionic Formulas 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
F 7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds molar masses
Ionizing radiation 11.7: The Mole
f block
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 6: Radioactivity mole
ions 11.7: The Mole
fatty acids 11.7.1: The Mole in Chemical Reactions
9.2.1: Fatty Acids 7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds
molecular solid
fission Irradiation
10.4: Solids
6: Radioactivity 6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
molecule
Flucculation isothermal
7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
10.3.5: Water Treatment 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
Subliming molecules
functional group 7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature
8.6: Functional Groups
isothermal process
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and MSDS
fusion Subliming [Link]: Applying Properties - MSDS/SDS
10.7.3: Phase Changes

K N
kinetic theory neutron
10.5.1: Kinetic Theory of Gases 2.3: Atomic Theory

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nomenclature principal quantum number( solidification
7.7: Molecules and Chemical Nomenclature 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
nonmetal products Subliming
1.4: Basic Definitions 11: The Chemical Equation Solids
normal boiling point proton 10.4: Solids
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 2.3: Atomic Theory solubility
Subliming Pseudoscience 10.6.1: Definitions
nuclear equation 1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method solubility rules
6: Radioactivity purine 11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
nucleotide Double Displacement Reactions
9.4.1: Nucleotides
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
9.4.1: Nucleotides pyrimidine Double Displacement Reactions
9.4.1: Nucleotides solute
O 10.6.1: Definitions
octet rule Q solvent
7.1.1: Lewis Dot and Bonding qualitative 10.6.1: Definitions
10.6.1: Definitions spectra
P quantitative 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
p block 10.6.1: Definitions spin
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table quantized 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
parent isotope 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons spin quantum number
6: Radioactivity quantum number 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons
Pauli exclusion principle 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons spontaneous fission
2.7: Organization of Electrons in Atoms quantum numbers 6: Radioactivity
periodic table 2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons state
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 1.4: Basic Definitions
pH R static
4.2: The pH Scale radioactive dating 4.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
phase 6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Steroids
1.4: Basic Definitions radioactive decay 9.2.2: Steroids
10.1: Intermolecular Forces stoichiometry
6: Radioactivity
phase change Radioactive Elements 11.6: Stoichiometry
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and sublimation
6.2: Half-Life
Subliming
phase diagram Radioactive Isotopes 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
Subliming
6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
10.7.4: Phase Diagrams 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
phase to radioactive processes 10.7.3: Phase Changes
6.2: Half-Life Subliming
10.1: Intermolecular Forces
phase transitions radioactivity 5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
6: Radioactivity Subliming
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and
6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes subshell
Subliming
Phrenology reactants 2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table
11: The Chemical Equation substance
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method
Physical change Reflexology 1.4: Basic Definitions
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method Substances
1.4: Basic Definitions
5.1: Classification of Matter 10.1: Intermolecular Forces
physical properties S supercooled liquid
1.4: Basic Definitions s block 10.7.3: Phase Changes
plum pudding model 2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table supercritical fluid
2.7.1: Atomic Models of the Twentieth Century scientific method 10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
polyatomic ions 1.5: Chemistry as a Science superheated liquid
7.2: Ions and Ionic Compounds 1.6: The Scientific Method 10.7.3: Phase Changes
1.6.1: Limitations of the Scientific Method
precipitate 1.6.2: Using the Scientific Method supersaturated
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and 10.6.1: Definitions
Double Displacement Reactions
sedimentation
10.3.5: Water Treatment surface tension
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
Double Displacement Reactions seed crystal 10.3: Properties of Liquids
Precipitation reaction 10.7.3: Phase Changes surrounding atoms
11.2: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and semimetals 7.5: Covalent Bonds
Double Displacement Reactions 1.4: Basic Definitions
11.3: Types of Chemical Reactions - Single and
single bond T
Double Displacement Reactions
7.5: Covalent Bonds tension
pressure
5.1: Classification of Matter
solid 10.3: Properties of Liquids
5.1: Classification of Matter tracer
principal quantum number 10.4: Solids 6.1: Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
2.6: Quantum Numbers for Electrons

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triple bond V W
7.5: Covalent Bonds Valence Electrons Water Contamination
7.5.1: Lewis Electron Dot Structures
2.8: Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table 10.3.4: Chemical Contamination of Water
triple point
valence shell water cycle
10.7.4: Phase Diagrams
7.5: Covalent Bonds 10.3.1: Water Cycle
vapor Water Pollution
U 10.3: Properties of Liquids 10.3.2: Water Pollution
unsaturated vapor pressure Waxes
10.6.1: Definitions
10.3: Properties of Liquids 9.2.1: Fatty Acids
vaporization weight
5.2: Phase Transitions - Melting, Boiling, and 5.1: Classification of Matter
Subliming

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Glossary
Sample Word 1 | Sample Definition 1

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Detailed Licensing
Overview
Title: Consumer Chemistry
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