EP 222: Classical Mechanics - Lecture 20

Dipan K. Ghosh

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay [Link]@[Link]

Dipan K. Ghosh EP 222: Classical Mechanics - Lecture 20

Small Oscillations- Review of Lecture 19

We discussed the nature of equilibrium of a dynamical system.

For conservative systems, if the system is displaced from a
configuration of stable equilibrium, the system would execute small
oscillations about its equilibrium position.
In analysing motion of N particles connected by springs, we need to
solve N coupled differential equations.
These differential equations can be decoupled by defining suitable
linear combinations of the original coordinates which are linearly
independent. Each such coordinate then oscillates with a definite
frequency.
Each independent linear combination which oscillates with a
characteristic frequency is called a normal mode.

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 1 / 23
Equilibrium

We have seen that around the equilibrium, the form of the Lagrangian
is given by
1X
L=T −V = (tij q̇i q̇j − Vij qi qj )
2
i,j

Use of Euler Lagrange Equation then gives us the following equation

of motion for each generalized coordinate
X X
tik q̈i + Vik qi = 0
i i

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 2 / 23
Characteristic Frequencies

We seek a solution of the form qi = Ai e iωt which gives

X
(Vik − ω 2 tik )Ai = 0
i

Solution exists if det(V − ω 2 T ) = 0

This is a single equation of n−th degree in ω 2 . It has n roots, some
of which are real some complex.
The real toots of the equation derived from above are called
Characteristic frequencies or Eigenfrequencies

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 3 / 23
Matrix Formulation
− λtki )Ai = 0, where λ = ω 2
P
We have k (Vki
Define
  
A1 V11 V12 . . . V1N
 A2   V21 V22 . . . V2N 
A= 
. . . V =
 ... ...

... ... 
AN VN1 VN2 . . . VNN
along with  
T11 T12 . . . T1N
 T21 T22 . . . T2N 
T =
 ... ...

... ... 
TN1 TN2 . . . TNN
We then have the matrix equation VA = λTA
This is not an eigenvalue equation as VA is not proportional to A. If
T is invertible, we can convert this into an eigenvalue equation
T −1 VA = λIA
Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 4 / 23
Matrix Formulation
This equation has N solutions. Each solution is called a MODE. Let
the k−th mode frequency be λk = ωk2 . Let the corresponding vector
A be written as  
Ak1
 Ak2 
Ak =  
 ... 
AkN
We have
VAk = λk TAk (1)
Take conjugate of this equation and change the index k to i,

Ãi V = λi Ãi T (2)

From (1) we get

Ãk VAk
λk =
Ãk TAk
Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 5 / 23
Matrix Formulation

From (1) and (2), we get

(λk − λi )Ãi TAk = 0

If the eigenvalues are non-degenerate, this gives the ”orthogonallty

condition” (different from usual)

Ãi TAk = 0

We define normalization condition

Ãi TAi = 1

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 6 / 23
Normal Modes - Example

Let the generalized coordinates be displacement of the masses from their

equilibrium positions. Let m1 be displaced by x1 and m2 by x2 . The
central spring is then compressed or extended by x2 − x1 . Traditional
method of solution:

m1 ẍ1 = −4kx1 − k(x1 − x2 )

m2 ẍ2 = −2kx2 − k(x2 − x1 )

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 7 / 23
Normal Modes - Example - Traditional Solution

Define Normal Coordinates

y1 = x1 − x2
y2 = 2x1 + x2

The equations are decoupled

7
mÿ1 = − ky1
2
mÿ2 = −2ky2

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 8 / 23
Normal Modes - Example

p
The normal coordinates oscillate with frequencies 2k/m and
p
7k/2m, which are the normal mode frequencyes.
The new normal coordinates satisfy ÿα + ωα2 yα = 0
The Lagrangian of the system is
1 1 1 1 1
L = mẋ12 + m2 ẋ22 − k1 x12 − k2 (x2 − x1 )2 − k3 x22
2 2 2 2 2
Define t and V matrices
∂2T
 
m1 0
t= =
∂ ẋi ∂ ẋj 0 m2

∂2V
 
5k −k
V = =
∂ ẋi ∂ ẋj −k 3k

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 9 / 23
Normal Modes - Example

Condition for existence of non-trivial solution det(Vik − ω 2 tik ) = 0,

which gives
5k − 2mω 2 −k
=0
−k 3k − mω 2
7k 2k
Solution ω 2 = and
2m m
Finding the normal modes:

ω 2 TA = VTA
 
A1
Let A =
A2

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 10 / 23
Normal Modes - Example

7k
For ω 2 =
2m
     
5k −k A1 7k 2m 0 A1
=
−k 3k A2 2m 0 m A2

This gives a − 2 = −2A1 , so that

 
1
A=
−1
 
2k 1
For ω2 = , we have
m 1

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 11 / 23
Normal Modes - Example
The general solution can be written as
         
x1 1 1 1 1
= cos ω− t+B sin ω− t+C cos ω+ t+D sin ω+ t
x2 1 1 −2 −2

Suppose we pull the two masses to one side (or one to each side) and
release. We have x1 (0) = x10 , x2 (0) = x20 ; ẋ1 (0) = ẋ2 (0) = 0,
We have,
A + C = x10 , A − 2C = x20 , Bω− + Dω+ = 0, Bω− − 2Dω+ = 0
The solutions are
   
2 1 1 1
x1 = x10 + x20 cos ω− t + x10 − x20 cos ω+ t
3 3 3 3
   
2 1 2 2
x2 = x10 + x20 cos ω− t − x10 − x20 cos ω+ t
3 3 3 3
Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 12 / 23
Normal Modes - Example

The solutions can be written as

x1 − x2 = (x10 − x20 ) cos ω+ t

2x1 + x2 = (2x10 + x20 ) cos ω− t

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 13 / 23
Normal Modes - Example-2

p
In the absence of coupling each oscillator has ω = g /L. Let the
unstretched length of the spring be the horizontal separation between
the rods when they are vertical. When the rods make angles θ1 and
θ2 with the vertical (in the same sense), the extension of the spring is
L
(θ2 − θ1 )
2
Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 14 / 23
Normal Modes - Example-2

Take torque about the points A and B.

L L
−mgL sin θ1 + k(θ2 − θ1 ) × cos θ1 = I θ̈1
2 2
L L
−mgL sin θ2 − k(θ2 − θ1 ) × cos θ2 = I θ̈2
2 2
We have I = mL2 . Using small angle approximation
g k
θ̈1 = − θ1 + (θ2 − θ1 )
L 4m
g k
θ̈2 = − θ2 − (θ2 − θ1 )
L 4m

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 15 / 23
Normal Modes - Example-2

Define Θ± = θ1 ± θ2
g
Θ̈+ = − θ+
L
 
g k
Θ̈− = − + Θ−
L 2m
r
p g k
The modes are ω+ = g /L and ω− = +
L 2m

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 16 / 23
Normal Modes - Example-2

The Lagrangian for the uncoupled pendula is

1 ˙ 2 + θ2 ) − mgL(1 − cos θ1 ) − mgL(1 − cos θ2 )
L = mL2 (θ 1 2
2
1 1
≈ mL2 (θ̇12 + θ̇22 ) − mgL(θ12 + θ22 )
2 2

 2
1 L
Additional potential energy due to the spring is k (θ2 − θ1 )2
2 2
The full Lagrangian is
1 1 k
L = mL2 (θ̇12 + θ̇22 ) − mgL(θ12 + θ22 ) − (θ1 − θ2 )2
2 2 8

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 17 / 23
Normal Modes - Example-2

The T and V matrices are

kL2 kL2
 

mL2 0
 mgL + −
T = V =
 4 4 2
0 mL2 kL2 kL

− mgL +
4 4
Secular equation | V − ω 2 T |= 0 is

kL2 kL2
mgL + − ω 2 mL2 −
4 2 4 =0
kL kL2 2 2
− mgL + − ω mL
4 4

2 = g 2 = g + k . Corresponding to ω 2 = ω 2 , we
Solutions are ω+ and ω− +
L L 2m
2 2
get θ1 = θ2 and for ω = ω− , we get θ1 = −θ2

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 18 / 23
Normal Modes - Example 2

For ω = ω+ , the solution is θ+ = A+ cos(ω+ t + δ+ ). The mode is

symmetric. The two pendulums move in phase.
For ω = ω− , the solution is θ− = A− cos(ω− t + δ− ). The mode is
anti-symmetric and the two pendulums move out of phase by π.

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 19 / 23
Normal Modes - Example 2

Combining two modes, we get solutions for θ1 and θ2

A+ A−
θ1 = cos(ω+ t + δ+ ) + cos(ω− t + δ− )
2 2
A+ A−
θ2 = cos(ω+ t + δ+ ) − cos(ω− t + δ− )
2 2
Suppose we pull both pendular aside by θ0 and release them. We
A+
then have A− = 0 We then have θ1 = θ2 = cos(ω+ t + δ+ ). The
2
system always remains in symmetric mode.
Except when the system is in a single mode, there would be transfer
of energy between two modes at Beat Frequency

Dipan Ghosh (I.I.T. Bombay) Class. Mech. -20 September 18, 2014 20 / 23