Well Engineering Round II Diploma – Year 1 Module 1 – Earth Sciences

Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

WELL ENGINEERING ROUND II DIPLOMA

Module 1 – Earth Sciences

TOPIC 2: GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES & FEATURES

PREVIEW
Geological structural deformations such as Faults, Fractures and Folds; together with the en‐
vironment in which these structure are present, form a vital part of the hydrocarbon accumu‐
lation process. This topic introduces the concepts of these important geological features,
mechanisms and depositional environments commonly experience in drilling and well opera‐
tions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this topic, you should be able to:
 Describe the basic terminologies used to describe Fault types.
 Understand the importance of Fault types with regards to drilling
 Describe how seals can be formed by Faults.
 Understand the concept of Folds, Fold Traps and other Trapping mechanisms
 Describe the main types of Depositional environments of importance to hydrocarbon ac‐
cumulations.
 Understand the basic techniques used in Stratigraphy and their importance in well opera‐
tions

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Well Engineering Round II Diploma – Year 1 Module 1 – Earth Sciences
Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Stress regimes............................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Faults ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2
2.1 Terminology to describe geometry of faults .................................................................................. 2
2.2 Extensional faults ...................................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Thrust faults ................................................................................................................................................ 5
2.4 Fault seals ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.4.2 Clay smearing .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.4.3 Cataclasis ............................................................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Faults and drilling operations .............................................................................................................. 7
2.6 Fractures ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
3 Folds and Fold Traps ...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Folds, and the terminology used to describe them .................................................................. 10
3.2 Folds in extensional settings ............................................................................................................. 11
3.3 Folds in compressional settings ....................................................................................................... 11
4 Diapirism and diapiric traps ....................................................................................................................... 13
5 Stratigraphic traps........................................................................................................................................... 15
6 Stratigraphy ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
6.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 16
6.2 Chronostratigraphy ............................................................................................................................... 17
6.3 Biostratigraphy ....................................................................................................................................... 18
6.4 Lithostratigraphy ................................................................................................................................... 18
6.5 Sequence stratigraphy.......................................................................................................................... 18
6.6 Other techniques .................................................................................................................................... 19
6.7 Correlation in well operations .......................................................................................................... 20

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Well Engineering Round II Diploma – Year 1 Module 1 – Earth Sciences
Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

1 INTRODUCTION
Rocks, like other materials, change shape when they are acted upon by stress or force, such as
that generated by the motion of the Earth's plates. This induces strain in the rock as a result
of the stress forcing a change in shape or position of the rock. The way in which different rock
types react to this stress induced strain is important because it the source of the type of three
dimensional geological structures which are capable of trapping hydrocarbons.
When a rock permanently deforms under stress without actually breaking this is known as
ductile or plastic deformation (curve C‐E in Figure 1). Folds in layered rocks are the most
obvious evidence of plastic deformation. After having undergone plastic deformation, rocks
may also suffer brittle failure, but, in this case, the shapes of the folds are usually preserved.

Stress Yield point

E
C tion
Rock strength deforma
Duc t ile
Elastic limit
Britt
r

le fa
vi o
eha

ilure
ic b
st
Ela

Strain

Figure 1: Stress – strain relationships for rocks

In deforming rocks it is possible to have simultaneous ductile and brittle deformation. For ex‐
ample in a large fold strain is macroscopically continuous (i.e. ductile deformation) in combi‐
nation with small scale displacements on fractures (i.e. brittle deformation)
1.1 Stress regimes
The three different stress regimes: extensional, compressional and strike‐slip, give rise to dif‐
ferent styles of tectonic deformation. In all three stress regimes, permanent (= non‐elastic)
deformation of rocks can take place either by brittle failure (faulting or fracturing) or by duc‐
tile deformation (folding). Both faults and folds can give rise to three‐dimensional structures
that can trap hydrocarbons. For this reason, a brief overview of fault and fold types is pre‐
sented here.

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2 FAULTS
A fault is a surface of discontinuity in a rock across which shear displacement has occurred as
a result of brittle failure. Rock‐mechanical experiments show that rocks fail along planes that
lie at angles of 45° or less to the axis of maximum stress.
Faults are very important features in the subsurface as they are a key control on the distribu‐
tion of rock units in oil and gas fields. Moreover, faults may act as both migration pathways
and as seals for fluids. The fact that faults can be barriers (‘seals’) to fluid movement means
that they may separate different pressure regimes in the subsurface. This makes accurate
prediction of fault positions of vital importance when planning and drilling a well.

2.1 Terminology to describe geometry of faults

The amount of displacement across a fault plane can vary from almost nothing in small frac‐
tures up to many miles/kilometers in major fault zones. Faults with small displacements are
usually of small area extent, whereas large fault planes usually have large displacements and
often form the boundaries to one or several oil fields (Figure 2).

Bounding
Reservoir fault

Cap rock

reservoir

Figure 2: Bounding fault which seals a hydrocarbon reservoir

When we describe the movement direction of faults it is almost always the relative displace‐
ment of the blocks that we are describing. The block which appears to have moved downward
is called the downthrown block. The one which appears to have moved upward, is called the
upthrown block
An alternative method sometimes used to describe the two blocks employs the terms foot wall
and hanging wall. The foot wall is below the fault plane, while the hanging wall is above it.
The terms; downthrown blocks, upthrown blocks, foot wall and hanging wall are shown in
Figure 3.

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The strike of a fault plane is the direction of a horizontal line in the fault plane. The dip of the
fault plane is the inclination of a line within it perpendicular to the strike direction.
Care has to be taken to distinguish between the actual geometry of a fault and the geometry
expressed in relation to the bedding planes. The expressions stratigraphic heave and strati‐
graphic throw are sometimes used for the latter.

Upthrown
block

Downthrown
block
Foot wall

Hanging wall

Figure 3: Fault terminology

2.2 Extensional faults

The process by which the earth’s crust is stretched is called extension. At a plate‐tectonic
scale, extension results from plates moving apart. This is happening at present in the North
Atlantic with America moving away from Europe at a rate of about 3 cm per year (about as
fast as your finger nails grow).
When the surface of the Earth stretches (horizontally), extensional faults will form at a high
angle to the ground surface. Faults that are caused by extension of the crust are commonly
referred to as normal faults.
Some tectonically active areas of the earth’s crust, such as the Red Sea and the East African
Rift Valley, represent early stages in the process of continental break‐up. The East African Rift
Valley is a relatively young tectonic structure that is characterized by normal faulting on both
sides of a prominent downthrown rift valley or graben. If this process of rifting continues for
some more million years, a new ocean will form in between East Africa and Central Africa.
Such rift basins are important for the oil industry as they have created important sedimentary
basins with active petroleum systems in many parts of the world.
The North Sea is a good example of an important oil and gas province that formed as a result
of extensional rifting (Figure 5). In the example of the North Sea, the lower crust and mantle
were deformed by ductile flow. The upper crust, however, was deformed by brittle failure.
Consequently, large, planar faults formed that separate tilted fault blocks. Many of the largest
oil and gas fields in the North Sea (e.g. Brent, Statfjord) are trapped in such tilted fault blocks.

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Tilted fault blocks

Brittle failure Brittle failure

Stretching Stretching
Ductile flow
Figure 5: Extensional rifting in North Sea due to brittle failure of the upper crust during deformation

Figure 4: West – East seismic line through the central North Sea. Note the Brent block in the blue circle

In the soft, unconsolidated sediments that are common in the Niger Delta, the Gulf of Mexico
and other deltaic settings, extensional faults are typically curved both in plan and in section
rather than being more or less planar in shape. These faults are called listric faults. In these
concave, listric, faults, the dip angle changes down the fault‐plane while the strike direction
along the fault also changes (Figure 6).

Listric fault

Figure 6: Listric fault such as found in soft unconsolidated sediments.

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2.3 Thrust faults

In a compressional stress regime the earth’s crust will shorten which is expressed as folding
(plastic deformation) or faulting (brittle deformation) of the crustal rocks. Faults that shorten
the crust are called thrust or reverse faults (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Thrust or reverse fault in compressional regime

Thrust faults are generally low‐ angle structures that dip at thirty degrees or less. The result is
a stack of parts of the rock sequence on top of each other. In this tectonic setting, packages of
rocks of several hundreds of meters to even kilometers thick can be pushed over rocks of the
same age or even over older rocks, for distances of up to tens of kilometers. This has hap‐
pened in many mountain belts such as the Alps and the Rocky Mountains. In western Canada a
major oil province – Athabasca ‐ exists in such a thrust‐belt setting.
2.4 Fault seals
2.4.1 General

Figure 8: Fault seal mechanisms

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Faults can seal off reservoirs laterally and are therefore important for trapping hydrocarbons.
Figure 8 illustrates the different fault sealing mechanisms. If a reservoir layer is separated
from a clay layer by a fault – in jargon terms ‘the fault juxtaposes clay against reservoir’ it is
called a ‘juxtaposition seal’.
Juxtaposition sealing is also called passive sealing. Clay smearing and cataclasis (‘grain crush‐
ing’) are so‐called active sealing mechanisms. Cataclastic sealing is commonly enhanced by
differential cementation of the fault zone. Cementation (=diagenesis) of a fault zone by itself
may also cause sealing, this is most common in carbonate reservoirs. In rare cases, ductile ma‐
terials such as rock salt or very plastic clays are injected along a fault and cause sealing. Both
clay smearing and cataclasis cause a dramatic reduction in permeability making the fault a
barrier to fluid movement. For these reasons faults are important for both the trapping of hy‐
drocarbons and as pressure seals for overpressures in the subsurface.
2.4.2 Clay smearing
If a sedimentary sequence that contains clays is faulted while the clays are still unconsolidat‐
ed, clay may be smeared along the fault plane (Figure 9). Clay smearing leads to the fault be‐
coming a barrier to fluid movement.

Figure 9: Clay smear along fault

Figure 10: UV‐light photo of core sample.

Light colored areas are oil‐filled
permeable sand. Small clay‐
smeared fault crosses core from
top‐left to centre of base. The ar‐
ea to the left of the small fault
was shielded from oil charge by
the clay‐smeared fault.

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The clay smear may completely seal the permeable sandy units. Alternatively, the seal may be
partial if the throw of the fault is small or if the clay units are thin.
Clay smearing only occurs in sand‐clay sequences that are faulted while the clays are still plas‐
tic. In deltaic settings, faulting during deposition – syn‐depositional faulting – is common. Clay
smearing along faults is a very important fault‐sealing mechanism in hydrocarbon provinces
such as the Niger Delta, Baram Delta (Borneo) and the Gulf of Mexico.
2.4.3 Cataclasis
In sandy reservoirs and more rarely in limestones, a completely different sealing mechanism
is important. Cataclasis, or grain crushing, can occur when a (semi)consolidated rock is fault‐
ed. The movement of sandstone past sandstone causes crushing of the sand grains in the fault
zone. Grain crushing results in sand‐sized quartz grains being ground down to clay‐sized ma‐
terial. This has little effect on porosity, but permeability can be completely destroyed. A per‐
meability reduction by three orders of magnitude (e.g. from 1 Darcy down to 1 milliDarcy) is
common in cataclastic fault zones. Cataclasis is a widespread fault sealing mechanism in the
Rotliegendes gas reservoirs in the southern North Sea.
2.5 Faults and drilling operations
Drilling through fault zones may cause a number of operational problems. These range from
borehole stability problems and well‐steering problems to fluid losses and pressure kicks.
Faults may separate normally pressured rock formations from overpressured formations.
This may range from mild overpressures, for instance when entering a hydrocarbon‐charged
reservoir, to hard overpressures. Especially if hard overpressures are expected across a fault,
the accuracy of the predicted position of that fault is of paramount importance to the safety of
the drilling operation, because entering a zone of high pore pressures may result in a ‘kick’.
Some faults are associated with open fractures. If such a zone of open fractures is penetrated,
drilling fluid losses are likely. In an extreme case, this may result in complete loss of circula‐
tion. This is most common in carbonate reservoirs, which are more prone to fracturing than
sandstone reservoirs.
Fault zones are commonly zones where the rock strength has been significantly weakened
compared to undeformed rocks. In addition, the distribution of in‐situ stresses near a fault
zone may differ from the in‐situ stress regime away from the fault. As will be discussed in
Topic 6, the orientation of a borehole relative to the in‐situ stresses is an important control on
the stability of that borehole.
Drilling parallel to a fault commonly results in well‐steering problems. The drill bit has a ten‐
dency to stay in a mechanically weak zone, if such a zone is entered at a low angle, and steer‐
ing the bit out of it again can be difficult. Clay‐smeared faults are also prone to the formation
of wash‐outs, because the smeared clay tends to be mechanically weak. This is most likely to
be a problem if the clay‐smear is several feet thick. This situation is little different though
from borehole wash‐outs in undisturbed claystones.
Faults have another important effect in petroleum geology and on drilling operations. When a
well crosses a fault, the rock sequence penetrated by the well will show either ‘missing’ or ‘re‐
peat’ sections. A vertical borehole that penetrates a normal fault will find some beds missing:
or ‘fault cut‐out’ at the point where the well intersects the fault. Figure 11 shows an unfaulted
and a faulted sequence. Assuming that rock unit 2 is the target reservoir, a well that intersects
the fault in the ‘wrong’ position can completely miss its target. (NB the first exploration well
on the giant Fahud Field in Oman did exactly that!).

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On the other hand, a vertical well drilled in a compressional setting with thrust faults will
have repeat sections (Figure 12).

3 3 4
2 2
3
1 1 2

1
Normal fault
Puts younger sections on older sections,
misses out part of the sequence
Figure 11: The sequence of beds seen in a vertical borehole that crosses a normal fault, this
shows how a ‘missing’ section in the sequence can occur.

3
2
3
2 1

3
2

Figure 12: The sequence of beds seen in a vertical borehole that crosses a reverse fault, this
shows how ‘repeat’ sections in the sequence can occur.

The above examples are correct for the case of vertical wells. If a well is significantly deviated
(e.g. the deviation angle is larger than the slope (‘dip’) of the fault plane), the geometric rela‐
tionship between borehole and fault plane is completely different. If, for instance, in Figure 11,
a highly deviated well would enter the upthrown block first, and then crossed the fault plane
to enter the downthrown block, a repeat section will be encountered despite the fault being a
normal fault. This is simply an artifact of the geometrical relationship between borehole tra‐
jectory and fault plane orientation.
The presence of ‘missing’ and ‘repeat’ sections in a well poses a major challenge for the geolo‐
gist who tries to correlate the well with reference wells. There is no easy answer to this prob‐
lem. It is a matter of ‘blood, sweat and tears’ to solve such a subsurface puzzle

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2.6 Fractures
Fractures are breaks in a rock, with or without displacement, that are caused by mechanical
stresses. A fault is a special type of fracture that has suffered major displacement along the
fracture plane. Fractures can be open or closed. Fractures that are open and permeable con‐
tribute to the reservoir porosity and permeability. Fractures that are closed and non‐
permeable can compartmentalize a reservoir. Fractures can occur in all rock types including
poorly consolidated near‐surface sediments. Fractures are most important to the oil industry
in settings where reservoir rocks are otherwise tight and non‐productive. This is most com‐
mon in well‐cemented, brittle rocks such as low‐porosity carbonates and crystalline basement
rocks (e.g. granite).
Fracture systems are commonly associated with large‐scale faults, with fold structures in low‐
porosity rocks or with stratigraphic unconformities.
Formation evaluation with wireline logs is less reliable in fractured reservoirs than in matrix
reservoirs. This is caused by the fact that most fractures, even if open, are much smaller than
the investigation volume of the logging tools. In combination with the irregular spacing of
fractures in the subsurface, the standard log evaluation methods will produce inaccurate re‐
sults in low‐porosity fractured reservoirs. Especially the calculated hydrocarbon saturation
will be very unreliable in fractured reservoirs. The practical consequence is, that, if mud‐
logging results indicate the presence of hydrocarbon shows in a low‐porosity interval in a
well, and the wireline logs indicate only low or no hydrocarbon saturations, a well test will be
the only reliable way to check whether or not producible hydrocarbons are present. A well‐
known example is from a carbonate field in the Philippines (Malampaya), where an interval
that on the basis of log information had some 5 % porosity and low calculated oil saturations,
actually produced over 6,000 barrels/day of dry oil from fractures upon testing.
From a wells engineering perspective, another key point to note is that open fractures can
give rise to drilling fluid losses during drilling. From a hydrocarbon productivity point of view,
drilling fluid losses are important as they are likely to indicate zones of very high productivity.
For instance, in some tight Rotliegend gas reservoirs in the southern North Sea, horizontal
wells were drilled perpendicular to the inferred orientation of open fracture systems. Once a
zone of open fractures was penetrated, economic production rates were achieved from oth‐
erwise uneconomic reservoirs.
In fractured reservoirs, completion practices are different than in matrix reservoirs. In reser‐
voirs that have good productivity from the matrix porosity/permeability, perforated cased‐
hole completions are very effective. In fractured reservoirs, it is much more difficult to
achieve effective communication between the well bore and the fractures that control produc‐
tivity. Cementing casing across a fractured reservoir interval may de facto prevent any pro‐
duction from the fracture system. Open‐hole (‘bare foot’) or slotted‐liner completions will
avoid this problem but have the draw‐back that selective completions, production monitoring,
or well interventions for reservoir management are all but impossible.
In summary, fractured reservoirs are complex to evaluate and develop.

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3 FOLDS AND FOLD TRAPS

The fold or anticlinal trap is the most common type of hydrocarbon trap, and accounts for
the largest volumes of the world’s hydrocarbon resources. Folding of rocks is caused by plas‐
tic deformation of rocks in the subsurface.
3.1 Folds, and the terminology used to describe them
Under natural conditions, rocks may deform plastically into many different shapes, or fold
styles, and so numerous terms are used to describe folds and folding. Figure 13 shows a fold
pair composed of an anticline or upfold of the rocks, together with its companion syncline or
downfold. Relatively planar dipping beds forming the fold limbs join the curved beds in the
crest and trough of the fold pair.
If several layers of rock are folded together, as is usually the case, then the lines of the greatest
curvature of beds within the folds, or hinge lines, can be defined. These are stacked on top of
each other. The stack of hinge lines defines a surface through the rock, which is known as the
axial plane or axial surface. Folds are commonly described with reference to the trend and dip
of the axial surface, and the spacing between adjacent axial surfaces.

Axial Trend and

plane dip of
Fold
limb axial plane
Fold
trough
Limb

Fold
crest

Anticline

Syncline

Figure 13: Basic fold terminology

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3.2 Folds in extensional settings

When a body of rock breaks along a non‐planar fault, no open gaps will develop apart from
relatively small‐scale open fractures in consolidated rocks. This is because gravity causes the
overhanging portions of rock to collapse into the fault gap. Therefore, the layers in the down‐
thrown block above a listric fault must deform by either folding and/or faulting to keep the
two blocks in continuous contact (Figure 14).

Rollover anticline
Downthrown
block

Upthrown block

Figure 14: Schematic model of a rollover anticline

The shape of a ‘collapse’ or ‘roll‐over’ fold is controlled by the shape of the listric fault and the
amount of fault displacement. Roll‐over anticlines are very common in deltaic settings such as
the Niger delta, where extensional faulting occurs at the same time as sediment deposition
(syn‐sedimentary faulting).
Roll‐over anticlines are important traps in deltaic hydrocarbon provinces such as the Gulf
Coast of the USA and the Niger and Baram Deltas.

3.3 Folds in compressional settings

In many parts of the world hydrocarbons are found in compressional tectonic settings instead
of extensional settings (e.g. Western Canada, Iran, Turkey, and Peru). Most of these areas were
originally sedimentary basins in which the stress field changed and the basin started to short‐
en rather than to extend. Anticlinal traps are very common in regions where the crust has
been subjected to horizontal compression (Figure 15 & Figure 16).

Sandstone

Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone

Figure 15: Block diagram of a simple anticlinal dome structure

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Gas Gas
Spill Oil Spill
Oil point point
Seal Seal
ry
nda
Secoration
on mig
ati on
ig r
g rati
M i
M

Figure 16: Schematic cross‐section through asymmetric anticline. Note how hydrocarbons
that migrate from the kitchen into the trap fill the structure down to the spill point

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4 DIAPIRISM AND DIAPIRIC TRAPS

There is one further geological process that causes both folding and faulting, but which does
not strictly fall into the category of tectonics: this is diapirism. Diapirs are intrusions of salt or
shale that rise through the overburden under the combined influence of gravity and density
differences. Diapirism can occur in any of the three tectonic settings and in both tectonically
active and inactive areas. Diapirism requires the presence of thick salt deposits or of over‐
pressured clays. Rock salts and overpressured clays are highly ductile compared to other
rocks and have lower densities.
Salt deposits have some unusual properties. They are mechanically weak and ductile and have
a low density. Despite the fact that salt is highly soluble in groundwater, a salt deposit has a
very low natural porosity. Most sediments are compacted when water is expelled from their
pore spaces as a result of an increasing overburden, but salt layers are not. With increasing
burial depth, the density contrast between the low‐density salt layers and the denser adjoin‐
ing sediments that do compact, becomes larger.
Both evaporites and overpressured clays are highly ductile, even at the low temperatures that
exist high in the crust. If a substantial thickness of evaporite (or of overpressured clay) is pre‐
sent in a sedimentary sequence, it becomes unstable with increased depth of burial, because it
is overlain by heavier sediments of “normal” densities. This inverse density layering is me‐
chanically unstable. The low‐density salt will tend to flow upward, taking advantage of any
weak zones in the overburden. Once initial piercement of the overburden has happened, the
diapir, or salt dome, will tend to keep rising as long as it is being fed with salt from the source
bed. In some cases, salt diapirs reach the surface.

Shale Shale Shale

Oil Oil Oil Oil

Sandstone Sandstone

Oil Oil
Shale Shale
Cap rock Oil
Oil

Sandstone Sandstone

Salt

Limestone Limestone

Oil

Shale

Figure 17: Schematic cross‐section of a salt diapir and

associated hydrocarbon traps

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Salt domes, which can be up to 1 kilometer in diameter and several kilometers tall, as well as
salt walls that can be tens of kilometers long, are impermeable to hydrocarbons. Because of
the excellent sealing characteristics of salt, salt structures form important hydrocarbon traps
in some parts of the world. Figure 17 shows a schematic cross‐section across a salt diapir.
Note that in this example, hydrocarbons are trapped in a gentle anticline below the salt dome,
against the salt dome itself, in the cap rock of the salt dome and in the faulted anticline above
the salt dome.
Salt dome‐related hydrocarbon occurrences are common in the southern North Sea where the
prolific Rotliegend gas play is partly based on the presence of a thick salt sequence.
From a wells engineering perspective, salt deposits and salt structures pose specific challeng‐
es. Rock salts are highly soluble in water‐based drilling fluids and to prevent very large wash‐
outs, they should be drilled either with a salt‐saturated or an oil/ synthetic‐based system.
Some rock salts, in particular magnesium salt, are also highly ductile. In the southern North
Sea, region intervals of ‘squeezing’ magnesium salt require the use of extra strength casing to
prevent casing collapse.
Salts are near‐perfect barriers to fluid flow. This makes them very good pressure and fluid
containers. Any bodies of reservoir rock that are embedded in salt will be completely isolated.
In the southern North Sea such isolated bodies of porous and permeable carbonates in the
Zechstein salt are called ‘floaters’. These floaters can be highly overpressured, as they are
completely surrounded by salt. If such an overpressured ‘cell’ is penetrated unexpectedly by
the drill bit, a potentially very serious ‘kick’ situation may result.

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5 STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
To trap hydrocarbons, a subsurface container is needed that is sealed in three dimensions.
The most common means of creating such a 3‐D container is folding of the reservoir–seal
pairs into an anticline. The second most common means is through faulting, with the faults
providing the lateral seals. Many hydrocarbon accumulations are trapped by a combination of
folding and faulting but folding or faulting are not the only mechanisms to create a 3‐D con‐
tainer.
A dome‐shaped container can also form without any tectonic deformation being involved.
Traps in the formation of which no tectonism has been involved, but only depositional or dia‐
genetically controlled porosity and permeability variations, are called stratigraphic traps. Fig‐
ure 18 shows an example of a stratigraphic trap that consists of a reefal carbonate build‐up,
which is covered by clastics.

Figure 18: Seismic sections across Miocene reefal build‐up in South China Sea. Reefal limestones
are covered by sealing shales that form the seal for a major gas column. Reef build‐up
and covering shales form a textbook example of a stratigraphic trap

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6 STRATIGRAPHY
6.1 Overview
The study of stratified rocks (sediments and volcanics), especially their sequence in time, the
distribution of rock sequences in space and time, variations in the character of rock sequences
and the correlation of rock sequences between different localities is known as Stratigraphy.
There are a number of different techniques in common use to study the Stratigraphy of rock
sequences. The most common techniques are Chronostratigraphy, Lithostratigraphy, Biostra‐
tigraphy, and Sequence Stratigraphy. More specialist techniques include Seismic Stratigraphy,
Event Stratigraphy, Cyclostratigraphy, Magnetostratigraphy, Isotope Stratigraphy and Che‐
mostratigraphy.

Figure 19: Large section of stratified rock, Dorset, England, UK.

The classical stratigraphic technique is to compare rock sequences on the basis of their fossil
content. Geologists have long recognized that the relative age of rocks can be established from
the fossils they contain. This is the basis for calling a rock sequence Cretaceous or Carbonifer‐
ous. This type of dating is only relative. Based on this approach one can only say that a se‐
quence is older or younger than another rock sequence. The two left hand columns of Figure
20 list the terminology used to refer to various periods in the Earth’s history.

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Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

6.2 Chronostratigraphy
Chronostratigraphy relies on absolute dating. This has only been possible since the advent of
radiometric dating techniques. Rocks with minerals that contain a radioactive isotope (mainly
igneous rocks) have a built‐in ‘clock’ for measuring their age.
Chronostratigraphic units are defined by master boundaries at an agreed rock outcrop or
borehole (‘type section’) that have been linked to rocks which have been dated by radiometric
methods.

Figure 20: Stratigraphic table

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Well Engineering Round II Diploma – Year 1 Module 1 – Earth Sciences
Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

6.3 Biostratigraphy
Biostratigraphy uses fossils to correlate rock successions occurring at different locations. Bi‐
ozones, the units of biostratigraphy, are based on the distribution of fossils which evolved rel‐
atively rapidly and which occur in a wide range of sedimentary rock types. The precision of
biozonal correlations is typically in the order of half a million years or so unless very detailed
analyses are done. To put this in perspective, in the last 500,000 years of Earth history, the
world has experienced several ice ages while recorded human history only covers some 5,000
years.
6.4 Lithostratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy or rock stratigraphy is based on the description of rock units in terms of
their mineralogy, petrography, internal structures and fossil contents. Formally named units
form a hierarchy consisting of Group, Formation, Member and Bed (e.g. Brent Group, Etive
Formation).
Lithostratigraphic units are defined by objective criteria and are named after geographic loca‐
tions (outcrops or boreholes) where type sections are established for reference. In oil or gas
fields, stacked reservoir sequences are commonly subdivided informally and (sub) units are
identified by a combination of letters and numbers, e.g. the K2.0 sands or the L5.1 marker.
Relative ages of lithostratigraphic units can be established using:
 The law of superposition (in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks or sur‐
face‐deposited igneous rocks, each bed is older than the one above and younger than
the one below);
 The principle of horizontality (most layers are deposited in more or less horizontal
position);
 The principle of cross‐cutting relationships (when a fault or intrusion cuts through
another rock, the fault or intrusion is younger than the rocks cut through).
Unconformities and disconformities are gaps (hiatuses) in the rock record. A disconformity
represents a long period when deposition ceased during which erosion may have removed
previously formed rocks. If during the time of non‐deposition, the sedimentary rocks were
uplifted and/or tilted, folded or even metamorphosed, until finally deposition resumed, we
speak of an unconformity.
6.5 Sequence stratigraphy
Sequence stratigraphy analyses rock sequences in terms of genetically related rock packages
within a framework of chronostratigraphically significant surfaces. What does this geological
jargon mean in practice? Rather than focusing on the fossil content of a formation or its com‐
position (e.g. limestone), the geologist starts off by identifying layers or features which are
likely to be laterally very extensive (‘correlatable’) and which, most importantly, were depos‐
ited during a well‐defined period of time. Unconformities (periods of erosion) and so‐called
flooding events (periods when an area was quickly drowned by the sea) are such features. The
rock packages in between such correlatable features are likely to be closely related and rela‐
tively easy to model.
Lithostratigraphic correlation implies far greater reservoir continuity than does sequence
stratigraphic correlation. This difference in inferred reservoir architecture impacts in likely
oil/gas recovery efficiency and well numbers.

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Well Engineering Round II Diploma – Year 1 Module 1 – Earth Sciences
Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

6.6 Other techniques

No single stratigraphic technique can produce reliable results in all situations. The standard
techniques outlined above may therefore be supplemented with seismic stratigraphic, event
stratigraphic, cyclostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic, isotope stratigraphic or chemostrati‐
graphic analyses.
From a wells engineering perspective, the main operational significance is that many of the
more specialist analytical techniques require core material. Side‐wall samples are commonly
taken for biostratigraphic analysis although cuttings are also used.

Figure 21: Comparison lithostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic correlation

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Well Engineering Round II Diploma – Year 1 Module 1 – Earth Sciences
Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

6.7 Correlation in well operations

The well proposal) gives a prognosis section for the well to be drilled. By monitoring the na‐
ture of the sequence that is penetrated by the drill bit and comparing the rock sequence en‐
countered with the predicted one, a ‘plan vs actual’ comparison is made. This comparison is
also a form of correlation but relies on an accurate description of cuttings that are brought to
the surface.

Figure 22: Geological well prognosis ‐ see topic 5 for more details

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Well Engineering Round II Diploma – Year 1 Module 1 – Earth Sciences
Topic 2 – Geological Structures & Features

LEARNING SUMMARY
Having completed this topic, you should now be able to:
 Describe the basic terminologies used to describe Fault types.
 Understand the importance of Fault types with regards to drilling
 Describe how seals can be formed by Faults.
 Understand the concept of Folds, Fold Traps and other Trapping mechanisms
 Describe the main types of Depositional environments of importance to hydrocarbon ac‐
cumulations.
 Understand the basic techniques used in Stratigraphy and their importance in well opera‐
tions

TOPIC REVIEW QUESTIONS

Your coach will direct you to be involved in an online dialogue about the review questions.
Please complete these questions and submit your answers for marking and feedback.
Questions
1) Describe the process of “Extensional rifting”” (4 marks)

2) Define the terms “Normal” and “Reverse” Faults (6 marks)

3) Describe two types of sealing mechanisms (4 marks)

4) What is a “Yield Point” (1 mark)

5) Describe the term Stratigraphy and four common techniques used. (5 marks)

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