3.

INTERACTION
HCI (human-computer interaction) is the study of how people interact with computers and to
what extent computers are or are not developed for successful interaction with human beings.

3.1 Interaction styles include:

 Command
 Menus
 Form fill
 Questions and Answers
 Direct Manipulation

Command

Commands provide a way of expressing instructions to the computer directly. Communication

between user and computer is purely textual. Commands can take the form of function keys,
single characters, short abbreviations, whole words, or combination of the first two. An issue
with command interface is the number of keystrokes required to complete a command.

Commands must be remembered, so care must be taken in choosing the commands for the
system.

Command-entry remains popular in applications where the users are experts and become very
familiar with the commands they can use, for example:

 System administrators, particularly on Unix and Linux systems

 Network administrators – Cisco devices (routers, switches, etc) use a command entry
Interface

Advantages of command interfaces

 Quick and powerful for experienced users

 Can be used in conjunction with other user interfaces.

Disadvantages of command interfaces

 Relies on recall of commands and syntax.
 Difficult to learn.
 Error prone

Menus

A list of options is presented to the user and the appropriate decision is selected by typing
some code or selecting the option required. Unlike command-driven systems, menus do not
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require the user to remember the item they want; they only need to recognize it. Menus favor
recognition over recall. This is often described by cognitive psychologists as favoring ‘knowledge
in the world’ over ‘knowledge in the head’. The majority of user interfaces are now designed to
make use of knowledge in the world.

Menus are used extensively in GUI systems such as Windows, and are also widely used to
provide navigation systems in web sites. Horizontally oriented menus in web pages are often
referred to as navigation bars.

A number of menu interface styles

– flat lists, drop-down, pop-up, contextual, and expanding ones, e.g., scrolling and
cascading

FITTS’ LAW
Fitts' law is a mathematical model that predicts how long it will take to point to a target. It
takes into account where you are currently pointing relative to the target; how far the target is
and how big the target is.

Essentially, Fitts’ Law states that big targets at close distance are reached faster than small
targets at long range. Theoretically, the following principles exist when applying Fitts’ Law to
interface designs:

 Things done more often should be assigned a larger button. This seems an intuitive
principle, but it needs to be used very carefully, since it harms the consistency of the
interface.
 Things done more often should be closer to the average position of the user's cursor.
 The top, bottom, and sides of the screen are infinitely targetable because of the
boundary created by the edges of the screen. They should be fully utilized.

There are tradeoffs when applying Fitts' Law to interface designs. Fitts' Law suggests that
interface components should be made larger and positioned closer to the average cursor
position. These suggestions may act in opposition to other factors that make an efficient
interface, such as organization and use of available screen space.

Advantages of menus

 Users do not have to memorize complex commands.

 Structured navigation benefits novices and casual users.
 Can shorten users learning time and effort.

Disadvantages of menus

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  Can force users through many levels of menus.
 Users may get lost in menu hierarchies.
 Menu terms and names may not be meaningful to users.

Question and answer dialogues

In this kind of interaction questions are asked one at a time and the next question may depend
on the previous answer. Question and answer dialogues are often used in tasks where
information is elicited from users in a prescribed and limited form, such as a bank ATM. They
are now widely used in PC software, in the form of ‘Wizards’ to guide novice users through
tasks. Wizards can be very frustrating for experienced users who know what they want to do.

Form-fill

The user type the data in specific fields, similar to the fields on a paper fill-in form. Many office
and database applications use this style. Form-fill is also widely used in web pages, to obtain
feedback or to elicit customer details in transactions.

Some of the issues which should be considered when designing forms include:
 Clarity of layout
 Types of fields – the users should be able to tell what kinds of data are permissible in
each field.
 Help text (for the form and for each field)
 Automatic advancement (tabbing from field to field) – this can be very helpful as long as
it done in the correct order.
 Cancel option (what does it mean in the situation)
 Corrections – how can the user correct data once entered
 Corresponding paper-form (for example order entry)
 Pre-filled fields – it may save the user time if some fields contain commonly used initial
values
 Use of list boxes to select from predetermined list of optional values.
 The spreadsheet is a variation on the form-fill interaction style.

Direct Manipulation

Direct manipulation is a style of interaction which features a natural representation of task

objects and actions promoting the notion of people performing a task themselves (directly) not
through an intermediary like a computer. A direct manipulation system has the following
features:

• Visibility of the objects of interest

• Rapid, reversible, incremental actions
• Replacement of complex command syntax by direct manipulation of the object of interest

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The visual representation usually takes the form of a metaphor related to the actual task being
performed. Well-designed direct manipulation systems tend to make the interaction enjoyable
for the users.

Why are DM interfaces so enjoyable?

 Novices can learn the basic functionality quickly

 Users can immediately see if their actions are furthering their goals
 Users experience less anxiety because the system is comprehensible and because
actions are reversible
 Users gain confidence because they fill in control and can predict system responses

Examples

 File managers, such as Windows Explorer (drag-and-drop copying)

• Graphics software (drawing tools such as Photoshop and Fireworks)

• Games

WIMP/GUI interfaces

• Windows
– could be scrolled, stretched, overlapped, opened, closed, and moved around the
screen using the mouse
• Icons
– represented applications, objects, commands, and tools that were opened when
clicked on
• Menus
– offering lists of options that could be scrolled through and selected
• Pointing device
– a mouse controlling the cursor as a point of entry to the windows, menus, and
icons on the screen

User Frustration with interfaces

When using an interface the user may get frustrated when

 When an application doesn’t work properly or crashes

 When a system doesn’t do what the user wants it to do
 When a user’s expectations are not met
 When a system does not provide sufficient information to enable the user to know what
to do
 When error messages pop up that are vague, obtuse or condemning
 When the appearance of an interface is garish, noisy, gimmicky or patronizing

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  When a system requires users to carry out too many steps to perform a task, only to
discover a mistake was made earlier and they need to start all over again

3.2 Interface metaphors

Metaphors convey an abstract concept in a more familiar and accessible form. A metaphor is a
figure of speech in which an expression is used to refer to something that it does not literally
denote in order to suggest a similarity. Metaphors are widely used to make use of users’
existing knowledge when learning new computer systems.

Interface metaphors are designed to be similar to a physical entity but also has own properties
e.g. desktop metaphor, search engine. They exploit user’s familiar knowledge, helping them to
understand ‘the unfamiliar’

Interface metaphors conjure up the essence of the unfamiliar activity, enabling users to
leverage of this to understand more aspects of the unfamiliar functionality. People find it
easier to learn and talk about what they are doing at the computer interface in terms familiar to
them.

Benefits of interface metaphors

• Makes learning new systems easier

• Helps users understand the underlying conceptual model
• Can be innovative and enable the realm of computers and their applications to be made
more accessible to a greater diversity of users

Problems with interface metaphors (Nelson, 1990)

• Break conventional and cultural rules

– e.g., recycle bin placed on desktop
• Can constrain designers in the way they conceptualize a problem space
• Forces users to only understand the system in terms of the metaphor
• Designers can inadvertently use bad existing designs and transfer the bad parts over
• Limits designers’ imagination in coming up with new conceptual models