SALIENT FEATURES OF WORLD’S PHYSICAL Student Notes:

GEOGRAPHY: CLIMATOLOGY
Contents
1. Earth’s Atmosphere .................................................................................................................... 2

1.1. Structure of Atmosphere .................................................................................................... 2

2. Temperature Distribution on Earth ............................................................................................ 3

2.1. Heat Budget ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.2. Temperature Inversion ........................................................................................................ 5

3. Pressure Belts ............................................................................................................................. 7

3.1. Thermally induced pressure belts ....................................................................................... 7

3.2. Dynamically Induced Pressure Belts ................................................................................... 8

4. Atmospheric Circulation ............................................................................................................. 9

4.1. Planetary Winds .................................................................................................................. 9

4.2. Seasonal Winds ................................................................................................................. 11

4.3. Local Winds ....................................................................................................................... 12

4.4. Atmospheric Tricellular Circulation ................................................................................... 13

4.5. Jet Streams ........................................................................................................................ 14

5. Air Mass.................................................................................................................................... 16

5.1. Fronts ................................................................................................................................ 17

6. Cyclones ................................................................................................................................... 19

6.1. Tropical Cyclones vs Temperate Cyclones ......................................................................... 20

6.2. Indian Monsoons............................................................................................................... 24

6.3. Impact of El Niño and ENSO .............................................................................................. 24

6.4. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and Its Impact......................................................................... 25

7. UPSC Previous Year Questions ................................................................................................. 28

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 Thermosphere) particles that Reflects radio waves, Student Notes:
affect radio enabling communication
waves.
Exosphere The outermost 400+ Gradually Very thin and sparse
layer, where increases atmosphere.
particles Transition zone to outer
escape to space
space. pen_spark

2. Temperature Distribution on Earth

The Sun stands as the primary source of heat for our planet. The varying amounts of solar energy
received by different regions of the Earth result in the diverse climatic features we observe.
This differential heating is fundamental to the formation of wind systems, pressure zones,
precipitation patterns, and other weather phenomena.
Factors Affecting Distribution of Temperature
• The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays: Areas at higher latitudes
receive sunlight at an angle and heats the ground less effectively. This is the primary reason
why the tropics are hot and the Polar Regions are cold.
• Transparency of Atmosphere: Aerosols like smoke, dust, and clouds influence how much
solar radiation reaches Earth's surface by scattering, reflecting, or absorbing it.
• Land-Sea Differential: Land heats and cools faster than water due to its lower specific heat
capacity. This, combined with the varying reflectivity (albedo) of land and water, creates
temperature differences between continents and oceans. Oceans moderate coastal
temperatures through water circulation.
• Prevailing Winds: Winds transport heat from warm regions to cooler ones, influencing
regional temperature patterns. Oceanic winds, in particular, bring the moderating influence
of the sea to coastal areas.
• Ocean Currents: Warm or cold ocean currents can significantly impact the temperature of
nearby landmasses.
• Altitude: As altitude increases, air pressure decreases, weakening the greenhouse effect
and leading to a general decrease in temperature.
• Earth's Distance from the Sun: Earth's slightly elliptical orbit causes a small variation in the
amount of solar radiation received throughout the year. However, this variation has a lesser
impact compared to other factors affecting temperature distribution.

2.1. Heat Budget

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Vertical distribution of temperature Student Notes:
Vertical temperature distribution refers to how temperature changes as you move up through
the Earth's atmosphere. In general, temperature tends to decrease with increasing altitude. This
decrease is called the environmental lapse rate or the vertical temperature gradient.
The normal lapse rate is not always the same, but it differs depending upon height, season,
latitude or other numerous local factors. Such as:
• Latitude: Tropics receive more sunlight, so the lapse rate might be higher there compared to
Polar Regions.
• Season: Summer sun heats the surface more, leading to a steeper lapse rate compared to
winter.
• Local conditions: Presence of clouds, water bodies, and atmospheric pressure can also
influence the lapse rate.

2.2. Temperature Inversion

A temperature inversion features a layer of warm air trapped above a layer of cooler air near
the ground. A phenomenon that disrupts the normal vertical temperature distribution in the
atmosphere.

Types of Temperature Inversion

1. Intermontane Valley Inversion
Intermontane Valley Inversion occurs when the
lower layers of air cool more quickly than the
upper layers on sloping surfaces like
mountainsides or valleys.
• This results in cold air settling near the
ground, with warmer air above, reversing
the typical temperature gradient.
• This phenomenon is common in middle and
higher latitudes, especially in elevated
terrains like the Himalayas.
2. Ground Inversion
Ground inversion is a common occurrence when
the air cools upon contact with a colder surface,
ultimately becoming cooler than the air above it.
• This phenomenon often emerges on clear nights, as the ground rapidly cools due to
radiation In a relatively short time, the lowest few hundred meters of the troposphere
become colder than the air above, and a temperature inversion is in effect.
• This type of temperature inversion is prevalent in higher latitudes.

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● Air Quality: Temperature Student Notes:
inversion trapping
pollutants from cars,
factories, and other
sources close to the
ground. This can lead to
smog and hazy
conditions, especially
during winter months
when inversions are most
common.
● Impacts on agriculture: It
traps cold air close to the
ground, leading to frost
formation, which can
damage crops, especially
during the growing
season.
● Disrupted Radio Signals: Inversions can bend radio waves, sometimes causing reception
issues or affecting radio communication range.

3. Pressure Belts
Pressure belts are areas on the earth’s surface where the same pressure is distributed differently
depending on latitude. These are caused by high or Low-Pressure cells. These high- and low-
pressure cells generate high- and low-pressure belts, respectively.

3.1. Thermally induced pressure belts

Thermally-induced pressure belts are regions of the Earth's atmosphere where variations
influence the air pressure in temperature. These belts are formed due to solar radiation's uneven
heating of the Earth's surface.
The Thermally Induced Pressure Belts are further divided into two types:
1. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belts
2. Polar High-Pressure Belts

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4. Atmospheric Circulation Student Notes:

World atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air around the planet. This
circulation is primarily driven by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the sun. The
structure of atmospheric circulation remains consistent annually, despite variations in specific
details.
Atmospheric circulation is classified into three types:
1. Primary or General Circulation:
○ Primary winds, also known as planetary, permanent, global, invariable, or prevailing
winds, blow constantly throughout the year.
○ Three types of primary winds: Trade Winds, Westerlies, and Easterlies.
2. Secondary Circulation
○ This circulation is also called seasonal, periodic, variable, and regional winds.
○ These winds change direction with different seasons, exemplified by monsoons.
3. Tertiary Circulation:
○ Formed due to local pressure gradients resulting from differences in the Earth’s surface
heating and cooling, tertiary winds, such as Harmattan and Chinook, blow only during
specific periods in a small area, confined to the lower levels of the troposphere.

4.1. Planetary Winds

They are also called primary winds or permanent winds because they remain the same
throughout the year and are distributed across the globe. These winds are related to thermally
and dynamically induced pressure belts and rotation of the earth.
Tropical Easterlies:
• They blow from the sub-tropical high-
pressure areas towards the equatorial low-
pressure belt. They flow as the north-
eastern trades in the northern hemisphere
and the south-eastern trades in the
southern hemisphere.
• The trade winds from two hemispheres meet
at the inter tropical convergence zone, and
due to convergence, they rise and cause
heavy rainfall.
• Their off – shore nature on the western side
of the continents are one of the reasons
behind formation of deserts in those areas.
Subtropical Westerlies:
• They blow from the subtropical high -
pressure belts towards the sub polar low-
pressure belts. They blow from southwest to north-east in the northern hemisphere and
north-west to south-east in the southern hemisphere.
• These winds produce wet spells and variability in weather.
Polar Easterlies:
• They blow from the polar high-pressure areas of the sub-polar lows. The Polar easterlies are
dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from north-east to south-west direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and south-east to north-west in the Southern Hemisphere.

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4.2. Seasonal Winds Student Notes:

Winds changing their direction with the shifting

seasons are termed seasonal winds. Includes monsoon
winds, which alter their direction based on seasonal
changes. Other examples of periodic winds
include land and sea breeze, mountain and valley
breeze, cyclones and anticyclones, and air masses.
• Monsoon winds:
o Monsoons were traditionally explained as land
and sea breezes on a large scale. Thus, they
were considered a convectional circulation on
a giant scale.
o The monsoons are characterized by seasonal
reversal of wind direction.
o Monsoon winds blow from sea to land in
summer and from land to sea in winter due to
differential heating of land and water.
o Originating in the trade wind belt between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn, these winds are prominent in South
and Southeast Asia.
o The monsoon winds flow over India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Myanmar (Burma), Sri
Lanka, the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, south-eastern Asia, northern Australia, China
o Outside India, in the eastern
Asiatic countries, such as China
and Japan, the winter monsoon is
stronger than the summer
monsoon. (we will study about
monsoons in detail while studying
Indian Climate)
• Land and Sea Breezes:
o During the daytime, the land heats
up faster than the adjacent sea,
creating low pressure over land
and high pressure over the sea.
The pressure gradient induces air
movement from the high-pressure
sea to the low-pressure land,
known as a sea breeze.
o At night, land cools rapidly,
becoming cooler than the sea,
resulting in a reverse pattern
known as land breeze.
• Mountain and Valley Breezes:
Mountain and valley breezes are local
winds that occur due to differential
heating and cooling between
mountain slopes and valleys. They are
not considered seasonal winds, as
they occur daily.
o Valley Breeze: During the day, the
sun heats up mountain slopes

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 Blizzard Various Freezing, wind-laden Severe winter conditions, low Student Notes:
regions with dry snow visibility, transportation disruptions

4.4. Atmospheric Tricellular Circulation

Atmospheric Tricellular Circulation refers to the three-cell system in each hemisphere: Hadley,
Ferrel, and Polar cells. These cells involve large-scale air movement from the equator to the poles
and back, driving global wind patterns and influencing climate by distributing heat and moisture
across the Earth's surface.

Three Cells Based on Thermal and Dynamic Factors:

1. Hardly Cell:
• At the equator, the warm air
ascends because of high
insolation, moves towards
the poles, and descends in
the subtropical regions
around 30°N and 30°S
latitudes.
• At the surface near the land,
the air flows back toward the
equator due to the pressure
gradient, generating the
easterly winds.
2. Ferrel Cell:
• Extending from 30 to 60°
latitude, a thermally indirect
cell induced by dynamic
forces, with warm air
ascending from the polar front and subsidence in the horse latitudes.
• Completed by Westerly winds on the surface.

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Types of jet streams Student Notes:
• Polar Front Jet Streams: These jet streams form above the convergence zone between polar
cold air masses and tropical warm air masses, typically at latitudes of 40°-60°. They are
irregular and strongly influence weather patterns in mid-latitudes.
• Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams: Located in the upper troposphere north of the subtropical
high-pressure belt (around 30°-35° latitudes), these jet streams are more regular and
continuous. They influence the subtropical and mid-latitude weather systems.
• Tropical Easterly Jet Streams: Formed in the upper troposphere above the easterly trade
winds during summer, particularly over India and Africa. These jet streams result from intense
heating of the Tibetan Plateau and are crucial for the Indian monsoon mechanism.
• Polar Night Jet Streams: Also known as stratospheric sub-polar jet streams, these develop
during the winter season due to a steep temperature gradient in the stratosphere around the
poles, at heights of approximately 30 km.
• Local Jet Streams: These are formed due to specific local thermal and dynamic conditions
and have limited local importance. An example is the Somali Jetstream, which affects the
monsoon system over the Arabian Sea.
Each type of jet stream influences global and regional weather patterns, playing a critical role in
the Earth's climate system.
Significance of jet streams
• Climate: Jet streams can transport weather systems across the world, affecting temperature
and precipitation. For E.g. - they carry temperate cyclones from the eastern coast of USA to
Western coast of Europe. Their presence & withdrawal over Gangetic planes directly affects
the monsoonal pattern in India.
• Predicting weather: Monitoring jet streams can help meteorologists determine where
weather systems will move next.
• Ozone layer depletions: Jet streams may transport ozone depleting substances higher up in
the atmosphere upto stratosphere. This vertical air circulation causes rapid rate of mixing of
air between troposphere and stratosphere, which helps in the transport of anthropogenic
pollutants from troposphere to stratosphere.
• Disasters: Recently climate change studies have proved the link of Jet streams and disasters
like floods, fires and cyclones.
• Travel & Transportation: If an airplane flies in a powerful jet stream and they are traveling in
the same direction, the airplane can get a boost reducing the fuel need. Opposite may lead
to turbulence and resistance.
Rosby waves
Rossby waves are
large, wavy patterns
in the jet stream,
which is the fast-
flowing air current
high in the
atmosphere.
• When the
temperature
contrast
weakens,
especially due to
Arctic warming, the jet stream becomes more wavy. This increased waviness causes

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 ○ Maritime (m) Air Masses: These are humid air masses, usually formed over oceans. Student Notes:
○ Continental (c) Air Masses: These are dry air masses, typically formed over land.

The formation of Air Mass involves several key steps:

• Source Regions: Air masses form over specific areas called source regions. These regions are
typically flat and have consistent conditions, like oceans or large plains.
• Stagnation: The air remains stationary over the source region, allowing it to gradually absorb
the temperature and moisture characteristics of the surface.
• Characteristics: Once formed, an air mass can be warm or cold, and moist or dry, depending
on its source region. For example, air masses over oceans are usually moist, while those over
land are drier.
After formation the air masses can move with the wind, affecting weather patterns in other
regions by bringing their specific characteristics with them.
Effects of Air Mass Movement on Climate Changes
• Temperature Changes: Air masses carry the temperature of their source regions. When a
warm air mass moves into a cooler area, it can raise temperatures, while a cold air mass can
cause temperatures to drop, leading to heat waves or cold spells.
• Precipitation Patterns: The moisture content of an air mass affects rainfall. A moist air mass
can bring rain or snow, while a dry air mass can lead to dry conditions.
• Weather Fronts: When different air masses meet, they create fronts, which can lead to
storms, heavy rain, or snow. These fronts are important for weather changes and can impact
regional climates significantly.
Air masses are part of the global atmospheric circulation, distributing heat and moisture around
the Earth. Changes in this circulation can affect climate zones and lead to phenomena like El Niño
and La Niña, which have global impacts.

5.1. Fronts
Fronts represent the boundaries between air masses of differing temperatures, acting as zones
of transition between these distinct air masses.

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3. Stationary Front: Student Notes:
A stationary front occurs when a
cold or warm front stops moving
because neither air mass is strong
enough to replace the other. This
standstill can last for several days,
with winds blowing parallel to the
front, helping to maintain its
position.
Impact on Weather:
• Persistent cloudiness blocking sunlight and causing overcast conditions.
• Significant temperature differences on either side of the front
• Winds blow parallel to the front, keeping it stationary
• Often associated with low-pressure systems, leading to unsettled weather
4. Occluded Front:
An occluded front
forms when a cold
front overtakes a
warm front. As the
faster-moving cold
front catches up with
the warm front, the
cold air mass meets
the cooler air mass
ahead of the warm
front, causing the
warm air to rise.
Impact on Weather:
• Precipitation from cumulonimbus or nimbostratus clouds
• Temperature changes, either warming or cooling
• Post-front conditions often include clearer skies and drier air

6. Cyclones
A cyclone is a large rotating air mass around a low-pressure center, with inward spiraling winds.
It brings severe weather, with counterclockwise winds in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise
winds in the Southern Hemisphere.

How are cyclones named and what are the guidelines on adopting their names?
• In 2000, a group of nations called WMO/ESCAP (World Meteorological
Organisation/United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific),
which comprised Bangladesh, India, the Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
and Thailand, decided to start naming cyclones in the region.
• After each country sent in suggestions, the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (PTC)
finalized the list.
Why is it important to name cyclones?
• Adopting names for cyclones makes it easier for people to remember
• With a name, it is also easy to identify individual cyclones, create awareness of its
development, rapidly disseminate warnings to increase community preparedness and
remove confusion where there are multiple cyclonic systems over a region.

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 Student Notes:
What is a bomb cyclone?
A bomb cyclone is a rapidly intensifying storm that occurs when a mid-latitude cyclone's
atmospheric
pressure drops
significantly
within 24
hours, leading
to powerful
winds and
severe
weather. Bomb
cyclones are
most common
in winter and
can cause
severe
weather conditions, especially in coastal regions.
Bomb cyclones in North America, especially in the northeastern U.S. and coastal areas, bring
powerful winds, heavy snowfall, and intense cold, often causing blizzards.
They lead to major disruptions, including power outages, halted transportation, and coastal
flooding from storm surges.

Why does the bay of Bengal receive more tropical cyclones than the Arabian sea?
The Bay of Bengal receives more tropical cyclones than the Arabian Sea due to several
geographical and climatic factors:
• Warmer Sea Surface Temperatures: The Bay of Bengal has higher sea surface temperatures
compared to the Arabian Sea. Warmer waters provide more energy for cyclone formation.
• Geographical Layout: The Bay of Bengal is more enclosed by landmasses, which helps to
concentrate the energy and moisture, aiding cyclone formation. In contrast, the Arabian Sea
is more open and less conducive to cyclone development.
• Seasonal Winds: The prevailing monsoon winds in the Bay of Bengal are favorable for cyclone
formation, especially during the post-monsoon season (October to December). The Arabian
Sea has less favorable wind patterns for cyclone development.
• Frequency of Disturbances: The Bay of Bengal witnesses more low-pressure systems and
depressions, which can develop into cyclones. The Arabian Sea experiences fewer such
disturbances.
These factors collectively result in the Bay of Bengal being more prone to tropical cyclones
compared to the Arabian Sea.

What is a colour-coded weather warning?

India Meteorological Department (IMD) issues color-coded weather warnings for cyclone-
prone areas in India to alert people about the potential danger from cyclones. These color
codes represent the intensity of the cyclone and the likely impact on people and property in
the affected areas.
Color-coded warnings issued by the IMD for cyclones:
• Green (All is well): This is the least severe warning and indicates that there is no
immediate danger. It is issued when a cyclone is expected to form in the coming days but
is not yet close to the affected area.

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 Student Notes:
What is the re-curving of a
cyclone?
Cyclones often change
their usual westward path
due to various
environmental factors, a
process known as
recurvature. This occurs
when a cyclone shifts from
its usual westward
movement to a northward
and then eastward
direction.
Several factors contribute
to this change
• Coriolis Force (Ferrel’s
Law): The Coriolis force deflects cyclones to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, causing
them to move poleward and then eastward (Beta Drift).
• Subtropical High-Pressure Areas: Subtropical highs over the oceans steer cyclones
towards the poles due to their clockwise circulation in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Interaction with Mid-Latitude Westerlies: Mid-latitude westerlies can alter a cyclone's
westward path, turning it northward and then eastward.
• Influence of Upper Air Jet Streams: Jet streams at higher altitudes further push cyclones
towards the right, reinforcing their recurvature.
• Fujiwara Effect: Interaction between multiple cyclonic systems can create a new center of
circulation, causing the cyclone to change its path.
Recent unique cyclonic phenomenon in India ocean
The Indian Ocean has witnessed several unique cyclonic phenomena in recent years, each
characterized by distinct patterns and developments:
1. Twin Cyclones Asani and Karim (May 2022):
○ In May 2022, twin cyclones, Asani in the Northern Hemisphere and Karim in the
Southern Hemisphere, developed simultaneously. This rare occurrence was fueled by
the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), which promoted convection and strong westerly
winds, aiding the formation of these storms on either side of the equator.
2. Cyclone Gulab's Transition (September 2021):
○ Cyclone Gulab originated in the Bay of Bengal and later shifted to the Arabian Sea
under the influence of trade winds. This unusual cross-basin movement highlighted
the complex interactions between regional wind patterns and cyclone trajectories.
3. Super Cyclonic Storm Amphan (May 2020):
○ Amphan, a super cyclonic storm in the Bay of Bengal, was one of the most intense
storms in recent history. Its rapid intensification and devastating impact underscored
the increasing severity of cyclones in the region.
4. Cyclone Fani's Long Life Span (May 2019):
○ Cyclone Fani had an unusually long lifespan, lasting more than 10 days. It developed
close to the equator, making it a unique example of a long-lived and powerful cyclone
in the region.

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 ○ Altered Precipitation: El Niño often causes heavy rainfall and flooding in some areas, Student Notes:
particularly in the eastern Pacific and parts of South America, while inducing droughts in
other regions, such as Southeast Asia, Australia, and parts of Africa.
• Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
○ Coral Bleaching: The
warming of ocean
waters during El Niño
events often leads to
coral bleaching,
threatening coral
reefs and the diverse
marine life they
support.
○ Forest Fires: The drier
conditions in some
regions can increase
the frequency and
intensity of forest
fires, leading to loss
of biodiversity and
habitat destruction.
• Economic and Social Impacts:
○ Global Economic Disruptions: The agricultural and environmental impacts of El Niño can
lead to significant economic losses, particularly in sectors like agriculture, fisheries, and
insurance. Fluctuations in food production and commodity prices can destabilize
economies, especially in developing countries.
○ Public Health: Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can exacerbate the
spread of diseases such as malaria, dengue, and cholera, particularly in regions already
vulnerable to such diseases.

6.4. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and Its Impact

The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a significant climate phenomenon in the equatorial Indian
Ocean, similar to the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean.
• It is defined by the variation in sea
surface temperatures between two
regions: the western Indian Ocean,
particularly in the Arabian Sea, and
the eastern Indian Ocean, south of
Indonesia. These regions, or "poles,"
show opposite temperature patterns
during IOD events.
Phases of IOD

• Positive IOD Phase:

○ Characterized by warmer sea
surface temperatures in the
western Indian Ocean compared
to the east.
○ Results in easterly wind
anomalies across the Indian
Ocean and reduced cloudiness to

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• Delayed Onset and Extended Withdrawal Student Notes:
o Climate change contributes to a delay in the onset of the monsoon, affecting the timing
of sowing and agricultural activities.
o Changes in the withdrawal of the monsoon may lead to prolonged rainy seasons or
delayed transitions to the dry season, impacting crop cycles.
While these shifts in the Indian monsoon are influenced by climate change, it is important to
recognize that the increasing incidences of climate change are largely driven by human activities.
These anthropogenic interventions are not only fueling climate change but are also directly
contributing to alterations in the monsoon patterns across India.
Human-Induced Changes to the Monsoon System
• Urbanization and Land Use Changes: The expansion of cities, deforestation, and changes in
land use for agriculture have modified local climate patterns, which can disrupt local rainfall
patterns.
• Increased Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Human activities have led to increased emissions of
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide. A warmer atmosphere holds more moisture, leading
to intense and erratic rainfall patterns.
• Aerosol Pollution:The release of aerosols from industrial activities and vehicles has a cooling
effect on the atmosphere. This cooling can weaken the monsoon by altering the temperature
gradient between the land and the sea, which is crucial for monsoon circulation.
• Deforestation and Desertification:Deforestation in the Western Ghats and other regions has
reduced the moisture supply, affecting the intensity and distribution of monsoon rains.
Similarly, desertification in some regions has altered the land's ability to attract and sustain
monsoon rains.
The changing behavior of the Indian monsoon is a complex issue, with humanizing landscapes
being a significant factor. While natural variability still plays a role, human activities have
undoubtedly intensified the changes observed in monsoon patterns.

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