TEL 231-APPLIED ELECTRICITY

Engr. T. J. Shima
MODULE 3: SIMPLE DC CIRCUITS
3.1 Introduction
An electric circuit is the combination of any number of sources and loads connected in any
manner which allows charge to flow. The electric circuit may be simple, such as a circuit
consisting of a battery and a light bulb. Or the circuit may be very complex, such as the circuits
contained within a television set, microwave oven, or computer. However, no matter how
complicated, each circuit follows fairly simple rules in a predictable manner. Once these rules
are understood, any circuit may be analysed to determine the operation under various
conditions.

The schematic representation of a simple dc circuit consisting of a single voltage source and
a single load resistance is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of a simple dc circuit.

3.2 Series Circuits

When two lamps, or any other forms of load units, are connected at a single point and there
are no other current-carrying connections at that point, they are said to be connected in series.
A series circuit is constructed by combining various elements in series, as shown in Figure
3.2. In series circuits, the same current must pass through each and every one of the
components so connected.

Figure 3.2: A series circuit.

3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that “at any instant in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of
the emfs acting round the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops round the
loop”.

Symbolically, this may be stated as follows:

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 E = V drops for a closed loop (3.1)

A closed loop is defined as any path which originates at a point, travels around a circuit, and
returns to the original point without retracing any segments.

Alternatively, this law may be stated as follows:

“The summation of voltage rises and voltage drops around a closed loop is equal to zero.”
V = 0 for a closed loop (3.2)

Let us consider the circuit of Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Kirchhoff’s voltage law

By applying KVL round the closed loop, we arrive at the following mathematical statement for
the given circuit:
E − V1 − V2 − V3 = 0
Although we chose to follow the direction of current in writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation,
it would be just as correct to move around the circuit in the opposite direction. In this case the
equation would appear as follows:
V3 + V2 + V1 − E = 0
By simple manipulation, it is quite easy to show that the two equations are identical.

3.4 Resistors in Series

Let us consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.4 which consists of a voltage source in series
with several resistors:

Figure 3.4: Resistors in series

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Since the circuit is a closed loop, the voltage source will cause a current 𝐼 in the circuit. This
current in turn produces a voltage drop across each resistor. Applying KVL to the closed loop
gives:
E = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn
= IR1 + IR2 + ... + IRn
= I ( R1 + R2 + ... + Rn )
Therefore,
E
= R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
I
But 𝐸/𝐼 = 𝑅𝑇 . Therefore:
RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn [Ω] (3.3)

If each of the n resistors has the same value, then the total resistance is determined as:
RT = nR [Ω] (3.4)

3.5 Voltage Sources in Series

If a circuit has more than one voltage source in series, then the voltage sources may effectively be
replaced by a single source having a value that is the sum or difference of the individual sources.
Since the sources may have different polarities, it is necessary to consider polarities in determining
the resulting magnitude and polarity of the equivalent voltage source., as shown in Figure 3.5.

(a) Voltage rise in

same direction. (b) Voltage rise in different directions

Figure 3.5: Finding equivalence of series voltage sources

3.6 The Voltage Divider Rule

While there are many problems that can be set concerning series-connected resistors, there
is one form of application which is especially useful. This involves the division of voltage
between only two resistors connected in series, as shown in Figure 3.6. Given the supply
voltage 𝑉, it is required to determine the volt drop across 𝑅1 . The total resistance of the circuit
is:
R = R1 + R2

and therefore, the current in the circuit is:

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Figure 3.6: Voltage division between two resistors

V
I=
R1 + R2
Thus, the voltage drop across 𝑅1 is given by:
V
V1 = IR1 =  R1
R1 + R2
This expression may be re-arranged to give:
 R1 
V1 =  V (3.5)
 R1 + R2 
Equation (3.5) permits a rapid determination of the division of volt drops in a simple series
circuit and the arrangement is called a voltage divider.

Thus, voltage divider rule states that “the voltage dropped across any series resistor is
proportional to the magnitude of the resistor”. The total voltage dropped across all resistors
must equal the applied voltage source(s) by KVL.

3.7 Parallel Circuits

Let us consider a simple circuit arrangement in which lamps are connected to a battery as
shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Simple parallel circuit.

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The illustration of Figure 3.7 shows that one terminal of each light bulb is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and that the other terminal of the light bulb is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery. These points of connection are often referred to as nodes.

Elements or branches are said to be in a parallel connection when they have exactly two
nodes in common.

Figure 3.8 shows several different ways of sketching parallel elements. The elements between
the nodes may be any two-terminal devices such as voltage sources, resistors, light bulbs,
and the like.

Figure 3.8: Parallel elements.

3.8 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) is the underlying principle which is used to explain the operation
of a parallel circuit. Kirchhoff’s current law states the following:

“The summation of currents entering a node is equal to the summation of currents leaving the
node.”

In mathematical form, KCL is stated as follows:

I entering node =  I leaving node (3.6)
Figure 3.9 is an illustration of Kirchhoff’s current law. Here we see that the node has two
currents entering, I1 = 5 A and 𝐼5 = 3 A, and three currents leaving, I 2 = 2 A , I 3 = 4 A , and
I4 = 2 A .

Figure 3.9: Kirchhoff’s current law

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Now we can see that Equation (3.6) applies in the illustration, namely:
I in =  I out
5 A+3 A = 2 A+ 4 A+ 2 A
8 A = 8 A (as required).
Quite often, when we analyse a given circuit, we are unsure of the direction of current through
a particular element within the circuit. In such cases, we assume a reference direction and
base further calculations on this assumption. If our assumption is incorrect, calculations will
show that the current has a negative sign. The negative sign simply indicates that the current
is in fact opposite to the direction selected as the reference.

3.9 Resistors in Parallel

A simple parallel circuit is constructed by combining a voltage source with several resistors as
shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: Resistors in parallel.

If we were to apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each closed loop in the parallel circuit of
Figure 3.10, we would find that the voltage across all parallel resistors is exactly equal, namely
VR1 = VR2 = VR3 = E. Therefore, by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we make the following
statement:

The voltage across all parallel elements in a circuit will be the same.

Applying KCL to the circuit of Figure 3.10, we have that:

IT = I1 + I 2 + ... + I n

Or
E E E 1 1 1 
IT = + + ... + = E + + ... + 
R1 R2 Rn  R1 R2 Rn 
Therefore,
IT 1 1 1
= + + ... +
E R1 R2 Rn
But 𝐼𝑇 /𝐸 = 1⁄𝑅𝑇 . Therefore, we can write:
1 1 1 1
= + + ... + (3.7)
RT R1 R2 Rn
The equivalent resistance of 𝑛 parallel resistors may be determined in one step as follows:
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RT = (3.8)
1 1 1
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn

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If we have 𝑛 equal resistors in parallel where each resistor has a resistance 𝑅, then the total
resistance is easily determined as:
R
RT = (3.9)
n

3.10 Voltage Sources in Parallel

Voltage sources of different potentials should never be connected in parallel, since to
do so would contradict Kirchhoff’s voltage law. However, when two equal potential sources
are connected in parallel, each source will deliver half the required circuit current, as shown
in Figure 3.11. In practice, if voltage sources of different potentials are placed in parallel,
tremendous currents will occur within the sources resulting in the possibility of a fire or
explosion.

Figure 3.12: Voltage sources of different

Figure 3.11: Voltage sources in parallel. potentials must never be connected in parallel.

3.11 Current Divider Rule

The current divider rule (CDR) is used to determine how current entering a node is split
between the various parallel resistors connected to the node. Let us consider the network of
parallel resistors shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13: Circuit with two resistors in parallel.

In Figure 3.13, the total circuit resistance is given by:

R1 R2
RT = (3.10)
R1 + R2
Now, we can write:
 RR 
V = IRT = I  1 2  (3.11)
 R1 + R2 
But:

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V
I1 = (3.12)
R1
Therefore, substituting Equation (3.11) into Equation (3.12) gives:
 R2 
I1 =  I (3.13)
 R1 + R2 
Similarly, we can also write:
 R1 
I2 =  I (3.14)
 R1 + R2 
The current-divider rule permits a rapid determination of the division of the currents in a simple
parallel network.

Note: If current enters a parallel network consisting of several values of resistance, then the
smallest value of resistor in the network will have the largest amount of current. Inversely, the
largest value of resistance will have the smallest amount of current.

Exercise 3.1
Refer to the network of Figure 3.14:
(a) Use Kirchhoff’s current law to solve for the unknown currents, 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , and 𝐼4 .
(b) Calculate the voltage, V, across the network.
(c) Determine the values of the unknown resistors, 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 , and 𝑅4 .

Figure 3.14: Resistors in parallel

3.12 Series-Parallel Circuits

Very often, circuits contain a combination of series and parallel components, as shown in
Figure 3.15. It is important at this point to be able to recognize the various connections in a
given network.

Figure 3.15: Series-parallel combinations

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In the circuit of Figure 3.9(a), we see that element B is in parallel with element C since they
each have nodes 𝑏 and 𝑐 in common. This parallel combination is now seen to be in series
with element A.

In the circuit of Figure 3.9(b), element B is in series with element C since these elements have
a single common node: node 𝑏. The branch consisting of the series combination of elements
B and C is then determined to be in parallel with element A.

In analysing series-parallel circuits, it is imperative to remember that the rules for analysing
series and parallel elements still apply. The same current occurs through all series elements.
The same voltage occurs across all parallel elements. In addition, remember that Kirchhoff’s
voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law apply for all circuits regardless of whether the circuits
are series, parallel, or series-parallel.

Example 3.1

Consider the circuit of Figure 3.16:

Figure 3.16: Circuit for Example 3.1

(a) Find 𝑅𝑇 .
(b) Calculate 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , and 𝐼3 .
(c) Determine the voltages 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 .
Solution
(a) RT = R1 + R2 R3 = 12 k  + (10 k  ) ( 40 k  ) = 20 k
(b) From Ohm’s law:
E 48 V
I1 = = = 2.4 mA
RT 20 k 
Applying current-divider rule, we have that:
 R3   40 k  
I2 =   I1 =   ( 2.4 mA ) = 1.92 mA
 R2 + R3   10 k  + 40 k  
And
 R2   10 k  
I3 =   I1 =   ( 2.4 mA ) = 0.48 A
 R2 + R3   10 k  + 40 k  

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(c) Applying voltage-divider rule, we have:
 R1   12 k  
V1 =  E =  ( 48 V ) = 28.8 V
 R1 + R2 R3   12 k  + 8 k  
And
 R2 R3   8 k 
V3 =  E =  ( 48 ) = 19.2 V
 R1 + R2 R3   12 k  + 8 k  

Exercise 3.2

Refer to the circuit of Figure 3.17:

Figure 3.17: Network for Exercise 3.2

(a) Solve for the currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , and 𝐼3 when 𝑅𝑥 = 0 Ω and when 𝑅𝑥 = 5 𝑘Ω.
(b) Calculate the voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 when 𝑅𝑥 = 0 Ω and when 𝑅𝑥 = 5 𝑘Ω.

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