Unit 1: ORGANIZATIONS

1.1. Companies
These are the basic structures of the affirmative sentences:
A) SUBJECT + VERB
•She is sleeping.
B) SUBJECT + VERB + DIRECT OBJECT
•We had a meeting.
C) SUBJECT + VERB + INDIRECT OBJECT + DIRECT OBJECT
•He gave his son all his money.
But it is possible to change the order if we express the indirect object with the preposition to:
•He gave all his money to his son.
D) SUBJECT + VERB + ADVERBIALS (MANNER + PLACE + TIME)
• I travelled by plane to Paris last night.

These are the structures of the negative sentences:

A) SUBJECT + DO/DOES/DID + NOT + VERB (in the base form)
• You do not look well.
B) SUBJECT + AUXILIARY/MODAL + NOT
• I am not English.

The complex sentences:

A) MAIN CLAUSE + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

Questions:
Wh-questions
A) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN + DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + VERB (in infinitive) +
COMPLEMENTS…?
B) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN + AUXILIARY/MODAL VERB + SUBJECT +
COMPLEMENTS…?
C) WHO/WHAT + VERB (conjugated) + COMPLEMENTS…?
Yes/no questions
A) DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + VERB (in infinitive) + COMPLEMENTS…?
B) AUXILIARY/MODAL + VERB + SUBJECT + COMPLEMENTS…?

Short answers
We often answer yes/no questions simply with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, without adding any other information.
These are called short answers. However, in English answering a question with only ‘yes’ or ‘no’
may sound very rude. The language protocol requires that we add the corresponding subject
pronoun and auxiliary (or modal) verb.
Here are some examples of short answers with auxiliary verbs:
• Are you in the office? - Yes, I am / No, I am not.
When the question has a modal verb, we must answer with the modal verb. For example:
• Can you speak English? - Yes, I can / No, I can’t.
However, if we add more information, it is not necessary to use a short answer.

1.2. Markets
Sometimes, the complement of a verb is another verb. When this happens, the verbal complement
can take either the infinitive or the gerund, which are two invariable forms of the verb. The
following structures are very common:
 The to-infinitive
The to-infinitive is used:
1) As verbal complements of certain verbs. The table includes shows common verbs followed by to
+ infinitive:
Taula: Verbs followed by infinitive (with to)
agree appear arrange ask attempt
begin can’t afford can’t wait care chance
choose claim come consent continue
dare decide deserve determine elect
endeavour expect fail get guarantee
hate hesitate hope hurry intend
learn like love plan manage
mean offer pay prepare pretend
promise prove refuse request say
seem swear tend threaten want
wish would like

2) After an adjective
3) As the subject of a sentence (in the formal, written language)
4) To express the purpose or intention

Some verbs must have an indirect object. In this case, the sentence structure is:
• SUBJECT + VERB + INDIRECT OBJECT + TO + INFINITIVE
The table below includes some common verbs with an indirect object:
Taula: Verbs with object + to-infinitive
advise allow cause convince encourage
forbid force hire invite order
permit persuade remind require teach
tell urge warn

Bare infinitive
The bare infinitive is used in these cases:
1) After modal verbs
2) After the auxiliary do in negative and interrogative sentences
3) As a complement of the verbs let (Cat. permetre) and make (Cat. obligar a)
4) After the following expressions:
• Had better
• Would rather
Use of the gerund
The gerund is formed with the verb + the ending -ing (for example: writing, doing, speaking, etc).
The negative is formed by adding not in front of the gerund (not writing, not doing). The gerund is
used:
1) As the complement of certain verbs and verbal expressions. The following table below shows the
most important verbs followed by a gerund.
Taula: Verbs followed by the gerund
acknowledge admit advise allow attempt
avoid be worth begin can’t bear can’t help
can’t stand celebrate confess consider continue
defend delay deny detest discuss
dislike enjoy explain feel like finish
forgive hate imagine justify keep
like love (not) mind miss postpone
practise prefer prohibit propose prevent
quit recommend regret report start
suggest support tolerate try understand
urge
 2) After a preposition
3) When the verb is the subject or the object of a sentence (in this case the verb has the function of a
noun)
Verbs that take the gerund or the infinitive
Some verbs can take the gerund or the infinitive without any change in meaning. Some of these
verbs are:
• Like
• Love
• Prefer
• Hate
In general, BrE prefers the forms in gerund and AmE prefers the forms in infinitive.

1.3. Sales and orders

Prepositions are used to introduce adverbials of place and time. For example:
• In the office (adverbial of place): it indicates where the action takes place.
• In 1978 (adverbial of time): it indicates when the action takes place.
The use of English prepositions is sometimes confusing, so it is better to learn the adverbials as a
whole rather than the individual meanings of the preposition.
Prepositions of time
Here are the most common prepositions of time and their use (Catalan translations availble only
when there is an equivalent meaning).
• In is used with:
1. Years, centuries and historical periods: in 2010, in the 19th century, in the Middle Ages
2. The names of the months: in April, in September
3. The names of the seasons: in spring, in summer, in autumn, in winter
4. The parts of the day (except ‘night’): in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
• On is used with:
1. The days of the week: on Mondays, on Tuesday, on Saturday morning
2. Dates: on 9th June, on 4th February 2009
• At is used with:
1. Clock times and nouns denoting clock times: at 4 o’clock, at 3:30 pm, at midnight, at dawn
2. The names of holidays and festivals: at Christmas, at Easter
3. The words ‘night’ and ‘the weekend’: at night, at the weekend
• For (Cat. durant) (it expresses the duration of an action): for five years, for three hours
• Since (Cat. des de) (it expresses the starting point of an action): since last year, since yesterday,
since three, since I work here
• During (Cat. durant) (it expresses a moment within a longer period of time): during the Christmas
holidays, during the class, during his convalescence
• Ago (it expresses the moment when an action took place in the past. Unlike the other prepositions,
it is placed after the noun): four years ago, three hours ago
• Before (Cat. abans de): before 1997, before three o’clock, before summer, before Christmas, before
he came
• After (Cat. després de): after 1997, after three o’clock, after summer, after Christmas, after I met
you
• Until (Cat. fins a) (it indicates the end of an action): until midnight, until 2023, until Sunday, until I
call
• From … to (Cat. des de…fins) (this double preposition indicates the beginning and the end of an
action): from three to four; from April to May, from the 18th to the 20th century
Notes:
1) The prepositions since, before, after and until can also be placed in front of a sentence. For
example:
• since I work here
• before he came
• after I met you
• until I call you
2) Do not confuse the meanings of for and during:
• For expresses the whole period of time: I’ll go to London for a week (Cat. aniré a Londres durant
tota una setmana)
• During refers to a moment in the period of time: I’ll go to London during this week (Cat. aniré a
Londres en algun moment d’aquesta setmana)
Prepositions of place
The most common prepositions and prepositional phrases of place are:
• In (Cat. a, dintre de): in the garden, in the box, in the street, in England, in the city.
• Into (Cat. cap a dintre de): into the house, into the pocket, into the forest.
• Inside (Cat. dintre de): inside the kitchen, inside the pocket.
• Outside (Cat. fora de): outside the house, outside the country.
• On (Cat. a, a sobre de): on the desk, on the shelf, on the chair, on the wall, on the floor.
• At (Cat. a): at the door, at the table, at the cinema, at the window, at the tree.
• To (Cat. a, cap a): to the cinema, to London, to work, to the street.
• Opposite (Cat. al davant de, enfront): opposite the park, opposite Sandra, opposite the school.
• In front of (Cat. davant de): in front of a man, in front of the house .
• Next to (Cat. al costat de): next to the bank, next to my friend, next to the lamp.
• Behind (Cat. al darrera de): behind the curtains, behind a bus, behind the door, behind the tree.
• Near (Cat. a prop de): near London, near the road, near the window .
• Over (Cat. per damunt de): over the bed, over my head.
• Under (Cat. a sota de): under the table, under a tree, under my jacket.
• Above (Cat. per damunt de): above the vice-president, above the house.
• Below (Cat. per sota de): below the president, below the standards.
• From (Cat. de): I’m from Barcelona, these products are from China.
• On the corner of (Cat. a la cantonada de): on the corner of the street, on the corner of London Rd
and High St.
Notes:
1) Some prepositions have similar meanings. For example:
• He is in the cinema (Cat. És a dins del cinema) (meaning that he is inside the cinema, and not in the
street).
• He is at the cinema (Cat. És al cinema) (in a general sense, stressing the purpose of going to the
cinema rather than the location).
• The lamp is on the table (Cat. La làmpara és al damunt de la taula) (=resting on the table).
• The lamp is over the table (Cat. La làmpara és a sobre de la taula) (=hanging, with no contact with
the table).
2) Above and below are used to refer to a higher or lower position in status,
whereas over and under are used to refer to a physical place. For example:
• The president is above the vice-president. (Cat. El president està per damunt del vice-president)
• The plane is flying over the Alps. (Cat. L’avió està volant per damunt dels Alps).

Unit 2: ARRANGEMENTS
2.1 Events
PRESENT SIMPLE
Use of the present simple:
The present simple is used to express: Habitual, regular actions.
 Frequency adverbs and adverbial expressions:
The present simple is often associated to adverbs and adverbial expressions that indicate the
frequency of the action. Here is a list pf the most common adverbials of frequency (with examples):
•always
•usually
•often
•sometimes
•seldom
•never
•everyday
•every week
•once a week
•twice a week
•three times a week
•from time to time

PRESENT CONTINUOUS
The present continuous is used to speak about:
•An action that is taking place at the moment of speaking
•A temporary action

Time adverbials:
The present continuous is very frequently used in sentences with the following time adverbials:
•now
•in this moment
•today
•this week
Verbs not taking the present continuous
Some verbs are not used in present continuous although the context requires the use of that tense. In
general, these verbs express feelings and emotions. Some of these verbs are:
•love •understand
•like •know
•hate •believe
•prefer •see
•want •hear
•think •have
•remember •own
•doubt

2.2 Travel
PAST SIMPLE
Use of the past simple:
The past simple is used to express:
1. A finished action in the past
2. A series of short, consecutive actions in the past
3. States in the past
Time adverbials:
There are some adverbials of time which are commonly used with the past simple. For example:
• yesterday • one year ago • when I was younger
• last night • in 1985
• last year • in the 19th century
 PAST CONTINUOUS
Use of the past continuous:
1. Unfinished actions at a specific point in the past
2. Simultaneous actions in the past
The past simple vs the past continuous
The most important difference between the past simple and the past continuous is that the past
simple describes a short action expressing what happened at a certain moment whereas the past
continuous describes a long action stressing the duration of this action.
The two tenses are very often combined in the same sentence to express what was happening when
the action was interrupted by another action.

2.3 A business meal

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
Use of the present perfect simple:
The present perfect simple is used to express:
1) An action that started in the past, but it is not finished yet (usually with the prepositions for or
since).
2) A recently finished action whose consequence is still felt in the present.
3) A finished action in the past, but within a period of time which is not finished yet.
4) A finished action in an indeterminate past (we say what happened, but not when it happened).
The prepositions for and since
The prepositions for and since are both used to express the period of time that has passed from the
beginning of the action until the present, but they have different meanings:
• For is used with a period of time (23 years, ten days, six hours, etc.)
• Since is used with a specific moment in the past that marks the starting point of an action
(yesterday, last Monday, three o’clock, etc.)
In Catalan and Spanish, we must express these ideas with a totally different sentence structure.
Compare the sentences:
• Eng: I have known Mike for ten years.
• Eng: I have known Mike since 1995.
Time adverbials:
There are some adverbials of time which are often used with the present perfect simple. For
example:
•Today •Already (Cat. ja)
•This week, this month,… •Ever (in questions)(Cat. alguna vegada)
•Never •Yet (in questions) (Cat. ja)
•Just •Yet (in negative sentences) (Cat. encara no)

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Use of the present perfect continuous:
1) An action that started in the past, but it is not finished yet (usually with the prepositions for or
since).
2) A recently finished action whose consequence is still felt in the present.
3) A finished action in the past, but within a period of time which is not finished yet.
Present perfect simple vs present perfect continuous
The two tenses are used very much in the same way, but we use the present perfect continuous
when we want to emphasize the duration of the action. Compare these two sentences:
• Present simple: I have worked since 6 in the morning (Cat. Estic treballant des de les 6 del matí).
We state the fact.
• Present continuous: I have been working since 6 in the morning (Cat. Porto treballant sense parar
des de les 6 del matí). We emphasize the idea that we have not stopped working.
 PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Use of the past perfect simple:
The past perfect simple is used to express an action that took place before a specific moment in the
past.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Use of the past perfect continuous:
The past perfect continuous is used to express an action that took place before a specific moment in
the past
Past perfect simple vs Past perfect continuous
We use both tenses to express an action that took place before another action in the past. The
difference is that the past perfect simple emphasizes the action and the past perfect continuous
emphasizes the duration of the action.
Time adverbials:
Apart from the adverbials used to speak about the past (as for example yesterday, last week, etc.),
the past perfect tenses are often used with these time expressions:
• until then
• before (he arrived)
• by then
The present perfect simple vs the past simple
The main difference between the past simple and the present perfect simple is in the moment of the
action:
• We use the past simple when we specify the moment of the action happened.
• We use the present perfect simple when we do not specify the moment of the action.
Examples with the past simple (adverbials in italics):
• I went ouT before midnight (Cat. Vaig sortir abans de la mitjanit).
• I arrived at about 8 o’clock last night (Cat. Vaig arribar cap a les 8 ahir al vespre).
• We met in 2009. (Cat. Ens vam conèixer el 2009).
• I saw him when I was going out (Cat. El vaig veure quan jo sortia).
Examples with the present perfect simple:
• I have been in Italy, and you? (Cat. Jo he estat a Itàlia, i tu?).
• We have never talked to her. (Cat. No hem parlat mai amb ella).
• Mr Smith has arrived. (Cat. El Sr Smith ha arribat).

Unit 3: PEOPLE
3.1 Communication
FUTURE
Future with “will”
Use of the future with will:
We use the future with will:
1) To give information about the future
2) To make predictions and talk about what we think or guess that will happen
3) In conditional sentences, to say what will happen if the condition becomes true
4) In a series of interpersonal meanings to express requests, offers, promises, etc.
Time adverbials:
We commonly use the will-form with time adverbials that refer to the future. For example:
• Tomorrow
• Next week, next month, etc.
• Tonight
• In the future
• One day

Future with “be going to”

Use of the future with be going to:
We use the future with be going to:
1) To express a future event which is already planned and decided
2) To predict the future on the basis of present evidence and say that something will happen very
soon in the future.
Time adverbials:
The future forms with be going to are commonly used with some time adverbials that refer to a near
future. For example:
•Tomorrow
•Next week, next month, etc.
•Tonight

Future with present simple and present continuous

The present simple:
The present simple with a future meaning is used to:
1) Speak about future events which are part of a timetable or a regular schedule

The present continuous:

The present continuous with a future meaning is used:
1)To express arrangements and fixed plans, when the time and date have already been decided.

The future with be going to and with the present continuous

There is very little difference between the be going to-form and the present continuous. We can say:
I’m going to stay at home tonight and I’m staying at home tonight with no difference in meaning.
However, when we need to express decisions and intentions, we normally use the be going to-form.
When we speak about fixed arrangements, we prefer the present continuous. Compare these
sentences:
•I’m going to cook today (The emphasis is on the intention; the idea is: it’s my intention to cook).
•I’m cooking today (The emphasis is on the arrangement; the idea is: it has been decided that I’m
cooking today, so I will cook)

3.2 International relationships

MODAL VERBS
The modal verbs form a class of verbs that have some special characteristics. These verbs are:
•Can
•Could
•Must
•Should
•May
•Might
•Will
•Would
Can:
Can is used to express:
•Present ability: He can cook. (Cat. Ell sap/pot cuinar.)
•Certain possibility: It can rain. (Cat. Pot ser que plogui.)
•Informal permission: Can I go, please? (Cat. Puc marxar, si us plau?)
•Informal request: Can you open the window, please? (Cat. Pots obrir la finestra, si us plau?)
Could:
Could is used to express:
•Past ability: He could swim. (Cat. Ell podia/sabia nedar.)
•Uncertain possibility: It could rain. (Cat. Podria ser que plogués.)
•Formal permission: Could I go, please? (Cat. Podria marxar, si us plau?)
•Polite request: Could you open the window, please? (Cat. Podries obrir la finestra, si us plau?)

Alternative forms:
1) To express ability:
Be able to (Cat. ser capaç de)
In this form, the verb be must be conjugated in the correct tense. The syntactical structure is:
•SUBJECT + BE (conjugated) + ABLE TO + BASE FORM: I am able to work.
Examples:
•I haven’t been able to open that box. (Cat. No he estat capaç d’obrir aquesta capsa or Cat. No he
pogut obrir aquesta capsa.)
•I would like to be able to do it. (Cat. M’agradaria ser capaç de fer-ho) or Cat. M’agradaria
poder/saber fer-ho.)
Must:
Must is used to express:
•Obligation: We must eat to live. (Cat. Hem de menjar per viure.)
•Prohibition (negative): You mustn’t smoke. (Cat. No has de fumar.)
•Predictions: This must be Mary. (Cat. Aquesta deu ser Mary.)

Should:
Should is used to express:
•Advice: You should come. (Cat. Hauries de venir.)
•Moral obligation: We should eat something. (Cat. Hauríem de menjar alguna cosa.)
Alternative forms:
1) To express obligation:
have to (Cat: haver de)
•I had to go to the dentist yesterday. (Cat. Ahir vaig haver d‘anar al dentista.)
•Have you had to do anything special? (Cat. Has hagut de fer alguna cosa especial?)
2) To indicate prohibition:
be prohibited/forbidden (Cat. Estar prohibit)
•In the present society, we are being prohibited to do more and more things everyday. (Cat. A la
societat actual, cada dia se’ns prohibeix fer més i més coses.).
•We can’t be forbidden to express our ideas. (Cat. No se’ns pot prohibir expressar les idees.)
May:
May is used to express:
•Possibility: It may rain tonight. (Cat. Pot ser que plogui aquesta nit.)
•Ask for permission (formal): May I take this seat, please? (Cat. Puc agafar aquesta cadira, si us
plau?)
•Give permission (formal): You may go now. (Cat. Ja pots marxar.)

Might:
Might expresses:
•Remote possibility: It might rain tonight, but I don’t think so. (Cat Podria ser que plogués aquesta
nit, però no ho crec.)
•Ask for permission (very formal): Might I speak to you for a moment? (Cat. Podria parlar amb
vostè un moment?)
•Give permission (very formal): You might come in. (Cat. Pot entrar.)
 Alternative forms:
1) To express possibility:
Be possible … (Cat. Ser possible…):
• I’ve tried, but it hasn’t been possible to make it work. (Cat. Ho he intentat, però no ha estat possible
fer-lo funcionar.)
• We had a meeting yesterday, but it was not possible to reach an agreement. (Cat. Ahir ens vam
reunir, però no va ser possible arribar a un acord.)
Will, would
Will:
Will is used to express:
• The future: I think that it will rain tomorrow. (Cat. Crec que demà plourà.)
• Requests: Will you open the window, please? (Cat. Obriràs la finestra, si us plau?)

Would:
would is used to express:
• Conditional forms: If I had time, I would go. (Cat. Si tingués temps, hi aniria.)
• Polite requests: Would you open the window, please? (Cat. Obriries la finestra, si us plau?)
Must have, should have, can't have, might have
These forms are all used to refer to the past. They have different meanings, but the syntactical
structure is the same for all of them:
• MUST/SHOULD/CAN’T/MAY HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
The meanings are the following:
Must have: it means that we are certain that something has happened, and because there is no other
logical explanation. For example:
• I can’t see Mr Johnson’s car. He must have left. (Cat. No veig el cotxe de Mr Johnson. Deu haver
marxat.)
• Roger has moved to the third floor. He must have got a promotion. (Cat. Roger s’ha traslladat a la
tercera planta. Deu haver aconseguit un ascens.)
Should have: it is used to express an action in the past that was not done, but which would have
been the best option. Examples:
• You should have told me if you had problems. (Cat. M’ho hauries d’haver dit si vas tenir
problemes.)
• They shouldn’t have fired him without a good reason. (Cat. No l’haurien d’haver acomiadat sense
una bona raó.)
Can’t have: it is very similar in meaning to must have. It is used when we are certain that
something has not happened because there is no other logical explanation:
• He can’t have met Mr Black because he was not in the city last night. (Cat. No pot haver-se trobat
amb Mr Black perquè ahir a la nit no era a la ciutat.)
• She didn’t eat anything. She can’t have been so hungry as you say. (Cat. No va menjar res. No pot
haver tingut tanta gana com dius.)

May have: it is used to say that it is possible that something happened in the past. Examples:
• Mr Simpson has not arrived yet. His flight may have been delayed. (Cat. El Sr Simpson encara no
ha arribat. Es pot haver endarrerit el vol.)
• Nobody answers the phone. They may have closed down the office. (Cat. No contesten al telèfon.
És possible que hagin tancat l’oficina.)
Don't have to, didn't have to
These forms have the following syntactical structure:
• DON’T HAVE TO + BASE FORM
• DIDN’T HAVE TO + BASE FORM
The verb don’t have to is actually the negative form of the modal verb must, whereas didn’t have
to is the negative form of had to (past tense of must).
 In accordance with this, these forms are used in these cases:
Don’t have too: it is used to say that there is no obligation of doing an action in the present or in
the future. For example:
• Tomorrow is Sunday. You don’t have to come to the office. (Cat. Demà és diumenge. No cal que
vinguis al despatx.)
• You don’t have to tell me if you don’t want to. (Cat. No és necessari que m’ho diguis, si no vols.)
Didn’t have to: it is used to say that there was no obligation of doing an action in the past. For
example:
• This present is too expensive. You didn’t have to give me anything. (Cat. Aquest regal és massa car.
No era necessari regalar-me res.)
• We didn’t have to spend so much money. (Cat. No calia gastar-se tants diners.)

3.3 Conflict resolution

PASSIVE VOICE
The main characteristics of the passive voice are the following:
•The subject of the passive voice (The English customers) is the direct object in the active voice.
•The subject of the passive voice is not the person that does the action of the verb.
•In the passive voice, the person (or thing) that does the action of the verbs called the agent. The
agent is introduced with the preposition by.
•The agent of the passive voice (by Sandra) is the subject of the active voice.
•Sometimes the agent is omitted from the passive sentence.

Unit 4: WORK
4.1 Looking for a job
REPORTED SPEECH
A sentence in the reported speech is composed of:
1) A main clause: John said…
2) A subordinate clause: …that he never got up before eight.
The verb in the main clause is called reporting verb. Typically, the reporting verbs are: say, tell,
explain, ask, etc. They are generally in the past simple. The structure of the suborninate (or
reported) clause depends on whether we are reporting a statement, a questions, a command, a
request or a suggestion.
Reporting statements
The reported statements have the following characteristics:
• The most common reporting verbs are: said, told, explained, and a few others. Their use depends on
how accurate we want to be in our description, but said and told are good for all occasions.
• The reported statement is introduced by the conjunction that. In spoken language, that is often
omitted.
express the indirect object.
Reporting questions
We should distinguish between yes/no questions and wh-questions. The structure is a little different
in one case or the other.

Reporting yes/no questions:

The characteristics of reported yes/no questions are the following:
• The most common reporting verb is asked.
• The reported question is introduced with the conjunction if or whether (Cat. si), with no difference
in meaning. This conjunction is never omitted in the spoken language.
• The reported question has the same syntactical structure of a statement.
Here are some examples of reported yes/no questions:
• Direct speech: “Are you happy in your new job, Matias?”, I asked him.
• Reported speech: I asked Matias if he was happy in his new job.
• Direct speech: Sandra: “Did you go out yesterday?”
• Reported speech: Sandra asked me if I had gone out the night before.
• Direct speech: “Have you ever been to New Zealand?, Maggie asked me.”
• Reported speech: Maggie asked me whether I had ever been to New Zealand.

Reported wh-questions:
The characteristics of wh-questions are the same as those of yes/no questions, except for the
following:
• the reported wh-question is introduced by the interrogative pronoun of the direct speech.
Examples of reported wh-questions:
• Direct speech: Danny: “How old are your children?”
• Reported speech: Danny asked me how old my children were.
• Direct speech: “When did you start working in this company?”, Peter asked Laura.
• Reported speech: Peter asked Laura when she had started working in that company.
• Direct speech: Bob: “Why didn’t you tell me that you had no money?”
• Reported speech: Bob asked me why I hadn’t told him that I had no money.
Reporting commands, suggestions and requests
Reported commands, suggestions and requests have some distinctive characteristics. For this
reason, it is necessary to study them in a separate section.
Reported commands:
The characteristics of reported commands are these:
• Typical reporting verbs are: asked (me), told (me), ordered (me).
• There is no conjunction to introduce the reported command.
• In reported commands, the verb is expressed in the infinitive form with the preposition to. In
negative, the correct form is not to.
Examples of reported commands:
• Direct speech: Mr Wilson: “Come here, Jane!”.
• Reported speech: Mr Wilson asked Jane to go there.
• Direct speech: “Don’t leave until you finish you work!”, the boss ordered Jim.
• Reported speech: The boss ordered Jim not to leave until he had finished his work.

Reported suggestions:
The characteristics of reported suggestions are these:
• The reporting verb is: suggested (me).
• The reporting clause is with that and (usually) the modal should.
• With the reporting verb suggest, we can also use the gerund (V-ing) in the reported suggestion.
Examples of reported suggestions:
• Direct speech: “Let’s go to the mountains next summer”, Teresa suggested.
• Reported speech (I): Teresa suggested that we should go to the mountains the following
summer/next summer.
• Reported speech (II): Teresa suggested going to the mountains the following summer/next summer.
• Direct speech: “Why don’t you speak to Mr Jameson about this?”, Peter suggested.
• Reported speech (I): Peter suggested that I should speak to Mr Jameson about that.
• Reported speech (II): Peter suggested speaking to Mr Jameson about that.

Reported requests:
The characteristics of reported requests are these:
• Requests are very much like commands.
• The reporting verbs are usually asked (me) or told (me).
• In reported requests, the verb is expressed in the infinitive form with the preposition to.
• In reported requests, we can also use the modal verbs could or would.
Examples of reported requests:
• Direct speech: “Could you speak louder, please?”, the audience told me.
• Reported speech (I): The audience told me to speak louder.
• Reported speech (II): The audience asked me if I could speak louder.
• Direct speech: “Will you translate this text for me please?”, Mark asked me”.
• Reported speech (I): Peter asked me to translate that text for him.
• Reported speech (II): Peter asked me if I would translate that text for him”.
• Direct speech: Can you help me?”, Sarah asked me.
• Reported speech (I): Sarah asked me to help her.
• Reported speech (II): Sarah asked me if I could help her.
Changing from direct to reported speech
When we need to change a sentence from direct speech to reported speech, we should consider the
following:
• In the reported statement, the pronouns must maintain the same reference as in the direct speech.
This means that we must often change the pronouns to adapt them to the new point of view.
• We must change the verb tense in the reported statement because there is a change in the time
reference. The reported statement usually refers to words that were pronounced in the past.
• We must also change other elements like demonstratives and adverbial expressions of time to adapt
them to the new point of view and maintain their validity.
The table shows the different changes that take place when changing from direct speech into
reported speech.
Taula: Changes in reported speech
Direct speech Reported speech Direct speech Reported speech
Verb tenses Adverbials of time
present simple past simple today that day
present continuous past continuous yesterday the day before
the next day
present perfect past perfect tomorrow
the following day
past simple past perfect tonight that night
the next week
past continuous past continuous next week, etc.
the following week
past perfect past perfect last week, etc. the week before
will would now then
can could Adverbials of place
must had to here there
should should Demonstratives
may might this that
might might these those
Here is a practical example to help you change a sentence from the direct speech to the reported
speech.
Imagine that you need to report the following question:
•“Where does your brother live?”, Mr Smith asked me.
Ask yourself the following questions:
[Link] type of sentence do I need to report? It is a wh-question, so I must think about the
characteristics of reported wh-questions and remember an example that can serve me as a guide.
[Link] is the structure of the reported speech? The structure is: a main clause (which includes
the reporting verb) and a subordinate clause (the reported question).
[Link] are the subject and the verb of the main clause? The subject is Mr Smith and the verb
is asked me. So I can start like this: Mr Smith asked me…
[Link] do I introduce a reported wh-question? I introduce it with the interrogative pronoun, so I
must say: Mr Smith asked me where….
 [Link] is the correct structure of a reported question? It is the same structure of a statement,
so I must not use the auxiliary verb does. The correct structure is: S+V (conjugated in the correct
tense).
[Link] elements of the question do I need to change?: I need to change the verb tense because
we change the time reference, and also the pronoun you because we change our point of view.
[Link] I need to change the subject, too? Sometimes we must change it, but not in this example
because it is in the third person (your brother).
[Link] do I change the verb and the pronoun? For the verb, I can check the list of changes: the
verb in direct speech is does live and this is present simple, and the table says that the present
simple changes to past simple, so the form must be lived (I should remember not to use the
auxiliary verb do because it is a reported question, not a direct question).
[Link] the pronoun? I must adapt it to my point of view because I am the person speaking. Mr
Smith said to me: your bother, so this is my brother.
[Link] that all? Yes, that’s all. Now I can write the reported sentence: Mr Smith asked me where..,
but I must think of the correct order: where lived my brother or where my brother lived? The correct
order is: S+V, as in a statement, so it is: …where my brother lived.
[Link], which is the correct sentence? The correct sentence is: Mr Smith asked me where
my brother lived.

4.2 Job recruitment

The conditional sentences are those which include a condition and the expected result if the
condition becomes true. Here is a typical example of conditional sentence: If you call me tonight, I
will explain everything.
The conditional sentences are composed of:
1) A subordinate clause (the condition): usually introduced by if (Cat. Si)
2) A main clause (the result)
There are different types of conditional sentences. From a syntactical point of view, they differ in
the verb tenses used in each clause. These types are generallY called:
• Conditional type 0 (or: zero conditional)
• Conditional type 1 (or: first conditional)
• Conditional type 2 (or: second conditional)
• Conditional type 3 (or: third conditional)
Conditional sentences: type 0
The possible structures of the conditional sentences of type 0 are:
A) IF + SUBJECT + PRESENT SIMPLE , SUBJECT + PRESENT SIMPLE
• If I don’t get enough sleep, I feel tired in the evening. (Cat. Si no dormo prou, al vespre estic
cansat.)
B) SUBJECT + PRESENT SIMPLE … IF + SUBJECT + PRESENT SIMPLE
• I feel tired in the evening if I don’t get enough sleep. (Cat. Al vespre estic cansat si no dormo prou.)
We can change the order of the subordinate clause (condition) and the main clause (result) without
any difference in meaning, but we must write a comma between both clauses if the subordinate
clause comes first (as in structure A).
The conditional structure of type 0 is used to say that the result always happens in the same way if
the condition becomes true.
Other examples of conditional sentences of type 0:
• If you practise a lot, you certainly learn how to speak. (Cat. Si practiques molt, realment aprens a
parlar.)
• If you drop a stone, it falls to the ground. (Cat. si deixes anar una pedra, aquesta cau a terra.)
• If it rains, the garden gets wet. (Cat, Si plou, el jardí es mulla.)
• If a plant is not watered, it dies. (Cat. si una planta no es rega, es mor.)
Conditional sentences: type 1
The structures of the first conditional sentences are the following:
 A) IF + SUBJECT + PRESENT SIMPLE , SUBJECT + WILL/MAY/CAN/SHOULD + BASE
FORM
• If it rains tonight, I will stay at home. (Cat. Si plou aquesta nit, em quedaré a casa.)
B) SUBJECT + WILL/MAY/CAN/SHOULD + BASE FORM… IF + SUBJECT + PRESENT
SIMPLE
• I will stay at home if it rains tonight. (Cat. Em quedaré a casa si plou aquesta nit.)
These conditional sentences refer to future results if the condition becomes true.
In first conditional sentences, we often use the imperative form instead of a modal verb in the main
clause. For example:
• If you need any help, please call me. (Cat. Si necessites ajuda, si us plau truca‘m.)
• Don’t forget to turn off the lights if you leave the room. (Cat. No oblidis apagar els llums si surts de
l’habitació.)
• If you don’t understand a word, look it up in the dictionary. (Cat. Si no entens alguna paraula,
consulta el diccionari.)
We use the first conditional sentences when we say that the result will happen only if the condition
becomes true. We speak about real conditions, that is, the speaker sees the condition as possible.
Examples of first conditional sentences:
• If you don’t wait a little longer, you won’t meet Mr Turner. (Cat. Si no t’esperes una mica més, no
coneixeràs el Sr Turner.)
• Raise your hand if you want to ask a question. (Cat. Aixeca la mà si vols fer una pregunta.)
• If we start now, we may arrive in the evening. (Cat. Si ens posem en marxa ara, podem arribar al
vespre.)
• They should find the report if they look into that drawer. (Cat. Haurien de trobar l’informe si miren
en aquell calaix.)
• Can you keep the secret if I tell you something? (Cat. Sabràs mantenir el secret si t’explico una
cosa?)
Conditional sentences: type 2
The structures of the second conditional sentences are:
A) IF + SUBJECT + PAST SIMPLE , SUBJECT + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + BASE FORM
• If it rained tonight, I would stay at home. (Cat. Si plogués aquesta nit, em quedaria a casa.)
B) SUBJECT + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + BASE FORM… IF + SUBJECT + PAST SIMPLE
• I would stay at home if it rained tonight. (Cat. em quedaria a casa si plogués aquesta nit.)
These conditional sentences refer to future results if the condition becomes true.
In the second conditional sentences, the past tense of the verb be is were in all persons (If he were
here …). The form was is not generally accepted, except in the informal spoken language, where it
is possible to say: If he was here ….
We use the second conditional sentences to speak about hypothetical or impossible conditions. The
speaker thinks the condition is not probable that happens or it is impossible.
Examples of second conditional sentences:
• If I had more time, I would go out more. (Cat. Si tingués més temps, sortiria més.)
• If I were the director of this company, I would raise the workers’ salaries. (Cat. Si jo fos el director
d’aquesta empresa, pujaria el sou dels treballadors.)
• If I were you, I would be more polite to customers. (Cat. Jo en el teu lloc seria més amable amb els
clients.)
• If you didn’t get up earlier, you couldn’t arrive on time. (Cat. Si no et llevessis més d’hora, no
podries arribar a temps.)
• If we had more money, we might invest in new machinery. (Cat. Si tinguéssim més diners, podriem
invertir en maquinària nova.)
• If I could be like you, I would be much happier. (Cat. Si jo pogués ser com tu, seria molt més feliç.)
Conditional sentences: type 3
The structures of the third conditional sentences are the following:
A) IF + SUBJECT + PAST PERFECT , SUBJECT + WOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
• If it had rained last night, I would have stayed at home. (Cat. Si hagués plogut ahir a la nit,
m’hagués quedat a casa.)
B) SUBJECT + WOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE… IF + SUBJECT + PAST PERFECT
• I would have stayed at home if it had rained last night. (Cat. M’hagués quedat a casa si hagués
plogut ahir a la nit.)
Unlike the other types of conditional sentences, the third conditional sentences only refer to the
past.
The third conditional is used to speak about something that we did not do in the past because the
condition did not become true.
Examples of third conditional sentences:
• If I hadn’t come earlier, I wouldn’t have met John. (Cat. Si no hagués vingut abans, no m’hauria
trobat amb John.)
• If you had been here before, you would have known. (Cat. Si haguessis estat aquí abans, ho hauries
sabut.)
• If he had had time, would he have finished the report. (Cat. Si hagués tingut temps, hauria acabat
l’informe.)

4.3 Working abroad

Two frequently-used types of sentences are the comparative sentences and the relative sentences. As
the name clearly indicates, the former is used to compare two or more things. When this happens,
the adjective or the adverb sometimes takes a specific form, which is called the comparative form.
On the other hand, the relative sentences are complex sentences composed of a main clause and a
subordinate relative clause. The relative clause expresses some characteristic or adds information
about a noun in the main clause. It functions very much like an adjective.
The comparative sentences
When we need to compare two or more things, we must use the comparative forms of the adjectives
or the adverbs. We can distinguish between:
• Comparative forms (superiority or equality): they are used to compare one thing to another.
• Superlative forms: they are used to compare one to two or more things.
Comparative of inferiority
There is also a comparative form of inferiority, but it is little used. We normally express the
difference with a comparative of superiority.
We express inferiority with:
• LESS: intelligent > less intelligent (comparative)
• LEAST: intelligent > the least intelligent (superlative)
There are several rules for the formation of comparatives and superlatives.

Comparative and superlative adjectives (superiority):

The table shows the rules to form comparative and superlative adjectives:
Taula: Comparative and superlative adjectives
Comparative Superlative
Type of word Example
form form
One-syllable words -ER -EST sad > sadder, the saddest
happy > happier, the happiest
Two-syllable words ending in -
-ER -EST noble > nobler, the noblest
y, -le and -er
clever > cleverer, the cleverest
interesting > more interesting, the
Words of more than 2 syllables MORE MOST
most interesting
broken > more broken, the most
Past participles MORE MOST
broken
good > better, the best
Irregular forms —- —-
bad > worse, the worst
 Comparative and superlative adverbs (superiority):
Here are the rules for the formation of comparative and superlative adverbs.
Taula: Comparative and superlative adverbs
Type of word Comparative formSuperlative formExample
slowly > more slowly, the most
Adverbs ending in -ly MORE MOST
slowly
Adverbs not ending in - hard > harder, the hardest
-ER -EST
ly late > later, the latest
well > better, the best
badly > worse, the worst
Irregular forms —- —-
far > farther, the farthest
little > less, the least
Notes:
• In a comparative sentence, we must use the conjunction than (Cat. que) to link the two terms of the
comparison. Do not confuse than with that. For example: John is older than his brother.
• The superlative adjectives and adverbs must have the article the. For example: I think
she’s the richest person I’ve ever known.
• We can use the quantifiers much (Cat. molt) and a little (Cat. una mica) before a comparative
form: much bigger, a little more slowly, etc.
Examples of comparative sentences:
• Who came earlier: John or his son? (Cat. Qui va arribar abans: John o el seu fill?).
• I think John came earlier than his son. (Cat. Crec que John va arribar abans que el seu fill.)
• I’ve found today’s meeting more interesting than yesterday’s. (Cat. He trobat la reunió d’avui més
interessant que la d’ahir.)
• I think we must work much harder. (Cat. Crec que hem de treballar molt més)
• This programme is a little better than the other one. (Cat. Aquest programa és una mica millor que
l’altre)
• I didn’t go to that restaurant because it was more expensive. (Cat. No vaig anar a aquell restaurant
perquè era més car)
• You should take your job more seriously. (Cat. T’hauries de prendre la feina més seriosament.)
• Could you call back later please? (Cat. Podria trucar més tard si us plau?)
Examples of superlative sentences:
• That’s the most stupid thing I’ve ever heard. (Cat. És la cosa més estúpida que he sentit mai.)
• You are the best, Maria! (Cat. Ets la millor, Maria!)
• Could you tell me the quickest way to the Hilton please? (Cat. Em podria indicar el camí més ràpid
per anar al Hilton si us plau?)
• Claire is the most intelligent person I’ve ever met. (Cat. Claire és la persona més intel·ligent que he
conegut mai.)
• I had the worst experience in my life. (Cat. Vaig tenir la pitjor experiència de la meva vida.)
• I’d like to escape to the farthest country in the world. (Cat. M’agradaria escapar-me al país més
llunyà del món.)
• The meeting lasted three minutes, the shortest in my life! (Cat. la reunió va durar tres minuts, la més
curta de la meva vida!)
• After his retirement, Mr Green is the happiest man on earth. (Cat. Després de la seva jubilació, el Sr
Green és l’home més feliç de la terra.)
Some expressions are commonly associated with superlative sentences. For example:
• … in my life (Cat. …de la meva vida)
• … in town (Cat. …de la ciutat)
• … on earth (Cat. …de la terra)
• … in the world (Cat. …del món)
• … (that) I’ve ever seen (Cat. …que he vist mai)
• … (that) I’ve ever heard (Cat. …que he sentit mai)
• … (that) I’ve ever met (Cat. …que he conegut mai)
• … (that) I’ve ever had (Cat. …que he tingut mai)
• … (that) I’ve ever been to (Cat. …on he estat mai)
That is often omitted in the spoken language.

Comparative adjectives and adverbs (equality):

All the adjectives and adverbs express equality like this:
• Affirmative sentences: AS…AS: big > as big as, early > as early as, good > as good as
• Negative sentences: NOT SO…AS: intelligent > not so intelligent as, well > not so well
as, happy > not so happy as
Examples of comparative sentences of equality:
• Tell me as clearly as possible. (Cat. Explica-m’ho tan clarament com sigui possible.)
• I see no difference: Claire is as good as Jenny. (Cat. No hi veig cap diferència: Claire és tan bona
com Jenny / …Claire val tant com Jenny.)
• I must walk as far as you. (Cat. Haig de caminar tan lluny com tu.)
• You must work as hard as you can. (Cat. Has de treballar tant com puguis.)
• The test was not so difficult as I thought. (Cat. El test no va ser tan difícil com em pensava.)
• He didn’t speak so much as it was expected. (Cat. No va parlar tant com s’esperava.)
• English is not so difficult as it seems. (Cat. L’anglès no és tan difícil com sembla.)
• Please call me back as soon as possible. (Cat. Si us plau, truca’m tan aviat com puguis.)
The relative sentences
A relative sentence is composed of:
• A main clause
• A relative clause
Here is an example of relative sentence:
• The interview is the moment when the company speaks with the applicants.
In this sentence, the main clause is: The interview is the moment… and the relative clause is: …
when the company speaks with the applicants.
Here are the characteristics of the relative sentences:
• The objective of a relative clause is to give information about a noun, which is called the
antecedent. In the example above, the antecedent is the moment.
• The relative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun. In our example, the relative pronoun
is when. The use of the relative pronouns depends on the antecedent and also on their function
within the relative clause.
• Relative sentences are often used to define concepts. In the example, the sentence defines the
term interview.
• There are two types of relative clauses: defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses.

The relative pronouns:

The relative pronouns are the same as the interrogative pronouns, except that.
The table shows the English relative pronouns and their use.
Taula: The relative pronouns
The relative pronoun is… if the antecedent is
… …
who a person (subject)
a person (possessive)
whose
a thing (possessive)
whom a person (complement)
which a thing
person (subject)
that
a thing (subject)
 where a place adverbial
when a time adverbial
why the word reason
Notes:
• That is used with people and things as an alternative to who and which.
• The possessive whose is used both for people and things.
• Whom is used for people, but only when it makes the function of complement in the relative
clause. Whom is mostly used in formal written texts. In informal texts and in speech, the most
common form is who.

The defining relative clauses:

The defining relative clauses are used to define or give important information about a noun (the
antecedent). Without the relative clause, the idea is incomplete and it makes no sense.
Examples:
• Mr Smith is the man who / that will help you in your new job. (Cat. Mr Smith és l’home que
t’ajudarà a la teva nova feina.)
• That’s the park where I met my wife twenty years ago. (Cat. Aquest és el parc on vaig conèixer la
meva dona fa vint anys.)
• The things which / that you have bought are on the table. (Cat. Les coses que has comprat estan
sobre la taula.)
• Here is the woman who/that knows so much about computers. (Cat. Aquí està la dona que sap tant
d’ordinadors.)
• Is that the boy whose sister died in an accident? (Cat: És aquest el noi la germana del qual va morir
en un accident?)
• The people whom we met in the meeting were all Australian. (Cat. Les persones que vam conèixer a
la reunió eren totes australianes.)
• The reason why they have come is unkown. (Cat. La raó per la qual han vingut és desconeguda.)
• He is looking for a job which /that suits his interests. (Cat. Està buscant una feina que s’avingui amb
els seus interessos.)

The non-defining relative clauses:

This type of relative clause does not define or give important information. It simply adds some extra
information about the antecedent. Non-defining relative clauses are always written between
commas (sometimes in brackets). We can eliminate the relative clause without affecting the
meaning of the sentence.
Examples:
• Mr Smith, who has a lot of experience, will help you in your new job. (Cat: Mr Smith, que té molta
experiència, t’ajudarà en la teva nova feina.)
• This park, where I met my wife twenty years ago, is one of the smallest in the town. (Cat: Aquest
parc, on vaig conèixer la meva dona fa vint anys, és un dels més petits de la ciutat.)
• The things, which I bought yesterday, are on the table. (Cat. Les coses que vaig comprar ahir són a
la taula.)
• This hotel, where Madonna stays when she’s in the city, is the most expensive I know. (Cat. Aquest
hotel, on s’hi allotja Madonna quan ve a la ciutat, és el més car que conec.)
• My company, which repairs computers, is called HappyComputers Ltd. (Cat. La meva
empresa, que repara ordinadors, es diu HappyComputers Ltd.)
• Sabrina, whom I met in a wedding, is now my wife. (Cat. Sabrina, a qui vaig conèixer a un
casament, és ara la meva dona.)
• In 1964, when I was born, my parents moved to this house. (Cat. L’any 1964, que és quan jo vaig
néixer, els meus pares es van traslladar a aquesta casa.)
In non-defining relative clauses, the relative pronouns that and why are not used.
Omission of the relative pronoun
 In the spoken language, it is possible to express a relative sentence without the relative pronoun, but
only when the relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative clause. Compare these two
sentences:
• The person (whom) I met last night was Jackson (Cat. La persona a qui vaig conèixer anit era en
Jackson): you can say the sentence without whom because the pronoun is the indirect object of the
relative clause, and not the subject.
• The person who came to the party last night was Jackson (Cat. La persona que va venir a la festa
d’anit era en Jackson): you cannot eliminate who because it is the subject of the relative clause.