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Enhancing Learning Through Self-Assessment

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ENHANCING
LEARNING
- throll[h-
Self Assessment
This page intentionally left blank
ENHANCING
LEARNING
thron[h-
Self Assessment
DAVID BOUD

if ~~o~:~;n~~;~palmer
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First Published in 1995
Reprinted in 2003

Transferred to Digital Printing 2005

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study,
or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in
writing of the publishers, or in the case of repro graphic reproduction in
accordance with the terms and licences issued by the Copyright Licensing
Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be
sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

By RoutledgeFalmer,
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016

[Link]

© David Boud and contributers 1995

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 0 74941368 9

Typeset by Books Unlimited (Nottm), Mansfield, NG19 7QZ

 Contents

Acknowledgements vii

1 Introduction 1

PART I SELF ASSESSMENT, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT

2 What is learner self assessment? 11
3 How does self assessment relate to ideas about learning? 24
4 How does self assessment relate to ideas about assessment? 36
5 What is the scope of self assessment? 48
Angela Brew

PART n EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE

6 Self and peer marking in a large technical subject 63
David Boud and Harvey Holmes
7. Self assessment using provided criteria in engineering design 79
David Boud, Alex Churches and Elinor Smith
8. Involving self and peers in the assessment of class participation 93
David Boud and Alan Tyree
9. Using self assessment schedules in negotiated learning 102
10. Using self appraisal with peer feedback in professional
development 118
David Boud and James Kilty
11. Self assessment in different domains 129
Angela Brew

Part m SELF ASSESSMENT AND MARKING

12. What does research tell us about self assessment? 115
David Boud and Nancy Falchikov
13. The role of self assessment in student grading 167

v
ENHANCING LEARNING THROUGH SELF ASSESSMENT

Part IV DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION

14. How can self assessment be implemented? 177
15. How can self assessment strategies be designed? 189
16. How can peers be used in self assessment? 200

Part V CONCLUSION
17. What issues in self assessment are still to be explored? 207

References 223

vi
 Acknowledgements

I wish to particularly thank my co-worker in this book, Angela Brew. Not only
has she written two chapters of her own, but she has given support and
encouragement throughout. Her contribution has been invaluable. Three of
my colleagues made helpful comments on earlier versions of some of the
chapters: Ruth Cohen, Susan Knights and Rod McDonald. I also owe a lot to
my collaborators over the years in exploring self assessment. In particular, I
wish to acknowledge Alex Churches, Nancy Falchikov, Harvey Holmes,
James Kilty, Jackie Lublin, Finn Thorvaldsson and Alan Tyree.
Some chapters draw on previously published papers. Where the original
papers were written with others, this is indicated in the contents list. The
chapters which include content from previous publications which is not
otherwise indicated are: Chapter 4: Boud, D (1995) 'Assessment and learning:
contradictory or complementary?' In Knight, P (ed) Assessmentfor Learning
in Higher Education, London: Kogan Page, 35-48; Chapter 6: Boud, D and
Holmes, W H (1981) 'Self and peer marking in an undergraduate engineering
course', IEEE Transactions on Education E-24, 4,267-74; Chapter 7: Boud,
D, Churches, A E and Smith, E M (1986) 'Student self assessment in an
engineering design course: an evaluation', Internationaljournal ofApplied
Engineering Education, 2, 2, 83-90, with permission of the Editor,
International Journal of Engineering Education; Chapter 8: Boud, D and
Tyree, A L (1980) 'Self and peer assessment in professional education: a
preliminary study in law', Journal of the Society of Public Teachers of Law.
15, 1, 65-74, with permission of Carfax Publishing Company, Abingdon,
Oxfordshire; Chapter 9: Boud, D (1992) 'The use of self-assessment
schedules in negotiated learning', Studies in Higher Education, 17, 2,
185-200; Chapter 10: Boud, D and Kilty, J M (1981) 'Self-appraisal for
university teachers: a guide for workshop leaders', Tertiary Education
Research Centre Occasional Publication No. 19, Kensington: University of
New South Wales, and Boud, D and Kilty, J M (1984) 'Self-appraisal: an
approach to academic staff development', in Cryer, P (ed) Training Activities
for Teachers in Higher Education, Volume Two, Guildford: SRHE and

vii
ENHANCING LEARNING THROUGH SELF ASSESSMENT

NFER-Nelson, 33-44; Chapter 12: Boud, D and Falchikov, N (1989)

'Quantitative studies of student self-assessment in higher education: a critical
analysis of findings', Higher Education. 18, 5, 529-49, with permission of
Kluwer Academic Publishers; and Chapter 13: Boud, D (1989) 'The role of
self assessment in student grading', Assessment and Evaluation in Higher
Education, 14, 1, 20-30, with permission of Carfax Publishing Company,
Abingdon, Oxfordshire. In addition, some of the specific ideas spread
throughout the book were first introduced in my HERDSA Green Guide:
Boud, D (1991) Implementing Student Self-Assessment. 2nd ed, Sydney:
Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia,
included with permission of the Series Editor, HERDSA Guides.
The following made useful contributions to the work reported in these
chapters: Lee Andresen, Kate Day, Dick Frost, Paul Hager, Jan Mclean, Doug
Magin, Alex Main, Haydn Mathias, Peggy Nightingale, John Powell, Mike
Prosser, Peter Reason, Wendy Richards, John Rowan and Helen Simpson. We
acknowledge the assistance provided by all those who responded to our
survey and especially to those colleagues who have permitted us to use
extracts from their work in Chapter 11. Most importantly, this book would
not have been possible without the support and encouragement of all those
students who have participated in the self-assessment activities reported here
and who in their own ways have contributed to the development of the ideas.

viii
 Chapter 1

Introduction

Whenever we learn we question ourselves. 'How am I doing?', 'Is this

enough?', 'Is this right?', 'How can I tell?', 'Should I go further?' In the act of
questioning is the act of judging ourselves and making decisions about the
next step. This is self assessment.
In starting this book, I began to pose myself some questions. I wanted to
bring together previous work on self assessment, work on student learning
and ideas which have followed the renewed interest in self assessment in
higher education in the 1990s. As I progressed, I began to ponder on what
self assessment meant to me now. Did it rest in my earlier conception of it as
a vital skill and attribute of lifelong learning? Was it the one which has
unfortunately become fashionable in some places; a warm up to assessment
by others that often had severe consequences in terms of status and financial
support? Or was it something altogether more personally challenging?
As I began to write, I realised that my motives for focusing on this topic
were much more related to my own history and experiences than I had
expected. Self assessment, while commonly portrayed as a technique to
enhance learning, is more transformative, elusive and confronting to
conventional teaching than it is normally expedient to recognise. As I
thought back to my own images of self assessment and those of students I
knew, I thought of it first as a task with defined outcomes, but then reflected
that, when it is conducted in a context of openness and critical reflection, it
allows for the possibility of seeing oneself and the options which lay before
one in a radically different way. In other words, beyond discussion of
technique and strategy, in self assessment lies something worth striving for
that is more than simply an addition to the teaching and learning repertoire.
To reach this further point involves getting to grips with a range of issues to
do with power and the influence of others. It involves confronting the
controlling role of assessment in educational institutions. And it involves
noting that self assessment is much more than personal introspection. As we
shall see later, it can take on many guises and be used to many different ends.
The book is grounded in my experience of using self assessment in a range

1
ENHANCING LEARNING THROUGH SELF ASSESSMENT

of higher educational and professional settings. It is also grounded in

experiences of being assessed and the feelings which accompany this. Above
all I wanted a pragmatic book which would be helpful to teachers and
students considering using self assessment. To start with the transformative
and challenging aspects is not a good way to commence a practically
oriented book. Faced with the practicalities of how to approach the task, I
had to acknowledge that the starting point for the book was very much my
own.
Although my experience is necessarily unique, the issues with which I deal
in this volume are very common. The many people who have explored the
relationship between assessment and learning will recognise features of the
story. The book presents an account of a number of self assessment projects
undertaken in higher education in a wide range of disciplines and
professional fields of interest, interspersed with my own reflections. At
various points, there are summaries of useful ideas and warnings of pitfalls
to enable the reader to avoid some of the many traps that will be met in using
ideas of self assessment. The realities of working within a system that places
many barriers on the educational innovator are to the fore. Practical
approaches that work within normal constraints on teaching are emphasised.
However, some chapters focus on more fundamental educational issues and
discuss self assessment in relation to them.
The question that had beenconstandy with me was: what are the
implications of writing a book about self assessment? I had assembled a large
volume of useful material, but I had failed to reckon with the reflexive nature
of the task. How could I write a book on self assessment without engaging
in the very act that I was commending to others as worthwhile? There is a
unique challenge and a curious irony in writing about self assessment:
attention is inevitably drawn to the act of self assessment itself and that can
be inhibiting.
Such thoughts are not helpful when it comes to writing any book, let alone
a book on self assessment. Discussing this with my co-worker on this
enterprise led me to ponder on whether there is a model for self assessment
that says one can't continually be assessing oneself; to do so is to inhibit
action. One has to act and then assess; but not both at the same time. So I
had to think of a way of writing without my critical self assessment stopping
me.
The solution to this problem was to accept the advice I give to others using
self assessment (which appears in Chapter 14). This is, identify some criteria
for judging success early in the process then set these aside to be returned to
later. I therefore listed the following:

2
 INTRODUCTION

• inclusion of some autobiographical material to help make the ideas come

alive
• clarity about what is and what is not covered
• rooted in actual practice with examples given
• underpinned by theory and research
• reasonably comprehensive in coverage of higher education
• of practical use to others in implementation
• linked to key ideas in teaching and learning.
Starting with the autobiographical is a way of indicating the very tangible
roots of ideas that might otherwise appear to be a little arbitrary. It provides
a context for my introduction to the sections that follow. Those readers who
prefer not to focus on a personal introduction should skip the next few pages
and proceed directly to the section headed 'Structure of the book'.

My background in self assessment

Why have I been interested in self assessment? I hold the view that research
interests are always prompted at some level by personal experience
(Marshall and Reason, 1993; Reason and Marshall, 1987). So what is it that
has made this an interest which spans more than 20 years? As I thought about
it I realised that my interest in assessment goes back ever further, to
experiences of being assessed, and subsequently to the problems of
assessing my own work. I also suspected that the concern of others with self
assessment is also related to their experiences of being assessed. This
therefore seemed a fruitful place to start.
In reflecting on being assessed what comes to mind are not the successes.
My interest in assessment was related to experiences of failure, feelings of
unfairness when being assessed, increasing doubts about the validity of the
judgements of others, and a slow dawning that it was not others whom I
should be satisfying in my learning endeavours, but myself!
I have been reinforced in my view of the personal impact of assessment by
the work of my former colleagues in the Professional Development Centre
at the UniverSity of New South Wales. Sue Toohey teaches a subject on
assessment in the postgraduate course for university teachers. At the
beginning she asks them to write a short autobiography focusing on their
experiences of being assessed. The results of this are devastating and
students can't stop themselves from referring to it in other classes. They
emerge from the exercise saying to themselves that they must not treat their
students in the same ways in which they were treated. It is clear from their
reports that even successful, able and committed students - those who

3
ENHANCING LEARNING THROUGH SELF ASSESSMENT

become university teachers - have been hurt by their experiences of

assessment, time and time again, through school and through higher
education. This hurt did not encourage them to persist and overcome
adversity: it caused them to lose confidence, it dented their self-esteem and
led them never to have anything to do with some subjects ever again.
I found it strangely reassuring that some of my own problems with
assessment were shared by others. However, the effects in each case are
personal and have a very specific influence over one's life and work.
Sometimes they lead us to avoid entire areas of activity. Sometimes they lead
us to overcompensate and nag away at those areas in which we were found
wanting. Some of the assessment incidents which I recalled having had an
influence - both negative and positive - on me were: first, being told in
primary school that I couldn't write and had nothing to saYi a remark which
for many years was self-fulfilling and probably led to me failing '0' level
English Language twice. Then, I was surprised about my success in school
mathematics and later physics. This led to successful completion of a physics
degree. I remember my experience of 'A' level chemistry as I discovered the
fallibility of my teacher in covering the appropriate syllabus and realising that
I had to make my own assessment of what was required and prepare myself
for the examinations accordingly. Then as a postgraduate student I was given
useful, detailed feedback by a friendly colleague on my first paper for an
international journal. Uncomfortable though this was then, I realised that this
was the first time that I had been given feedback of a type that I could use,
in a context which was supportive and which respected my intentions - Sid
O'Connell was a true teacher. The experience of this helped build confidence
and began to demystify the process of writing.
These experiences laid the foundation for my later interests in self
assessment. My discovery and use of the chemistry syllabus was my first
conscious involvement with self assessment in a relatively structured way,
and my positive experience of getting good quality feedback focused my
mind on the role of peers in the process, the subject of a later chapter.
Following these reflections on being assessed, I recalled meeting the formal
notion of self assessment for the first time. This came in the early 1970s when
I was involved with the Human Potential Research Project at the University
of Surrey. There was a jolt of recognition along with a degree of suspicion
generated by the challenge it presented to someone like me who had
succeeded in a system in which the assessments of others were supreme.
Through my interactions with John Heron on this project, I was conceptually
convinced of the significance of self assessment and started to realise how it
connected to my own biography.
The project I became involved in focused on ways of working with people

4
 INTRODUCTION

in professional and non-professional contexts to help them develop

themselves. Under the inspired leadership of John Heron, the project
explored how the potential of human beings could be more effectively
realised in practical ways. One of these was the design and development of
in-service training courses for groups who previously had no access to any
kind of training or development. Courses for such groups were developed
around the actual needs of the participants, without constraint from an
external syllabus, assessment boards or competency frameworks. Success
was judged on the extent to which the expressed needs of the participants
had been met. These groups were particularly challenging to work with
because many participants worked in contexts which were brutalising and
not respectful of them or their clients. I clearly recall Visiting one of the
institutions from which they came. I found a hospital for the mentally
handicapped (as they were then called) that could have come direct from the
pages of Dickens: in the Victorian gloom of the brown-painted corridors
nurses acted as jailers carrying huge bunches of keys for the locked wards;
patients were punished by being placed in padded isolation cells if they
'misbehaved'. Some of the staff who came to our courses had been in the
same job for the past 40 years with no opportunity to step aside and reflect on
their practice. Meeting the needs of these participants involved overcoming their
suspicion and resentment about being 'sent' on a course and dealing with a
degree of personal inflexibility that was not surprising in the circumstances.
In these courses, if learners were to take responsibility for their own
learning then part of this process was, inevitably, their involvement in
making assessments of their own learning goals, the activities in which they
were to engage and the ways in which they would judge the outcomes.
Doing this was easier said than done and much effort was directed towards
establishing a climate in which participants could set aside their job role and
respond as people whose own needs were important. As course leaders we
would often spend time licking our wounds after emotionally-draining
sessions which were part of the process of working with the needs presented.
In that context the only form of assessment which was conceivable was self
assessment by the course participants, informed from time-to-time by the
comments of peers and staff members.
This experience was a great shock to me, as a science graduate of only a
few years standing. It seemed to turn my previous experience of teaching
and learning on its head. It posed the fundamental question: what are
teaching, learning and assessment really about? Are they the relatively
well-ordered and formalised process which I had experienced as a student
or did they constitute the searching, challenging, agonising struggle for
meaning and growth which I was now confronting? My conception now

5
ENHANCING LEARNING TIIROUGH SELF ASSESSMENT

encompasses both, but my faith in existing structures of teaching and

assessment had gone. At school and university I had had doubts about the
strange processes I was expected to participate in as a student, for example,
spending hours memorising information which I knew I would never use
again. However, the arbitrary, sOcially-constructed nature of university
courses and particularly the assessment element, became apparent in a way
that meant that I could never return naively to the cosy assumptions of the
examination, the assignment and the rest of the teacher-determined
paraphernalia of the educational institution.
Although this experience had challenged my conceptions of assessment,
it occurred in a university context that was quite unusual. The next step
therefore was to consider the consequences for more conventional settings.
The Human Potential Project was also committed to working with 'normal'
university courses and a little later organised the first of a pair of intensive
workshops on what were called experiential techniques in higher education.
In these workshops a group of people explored the application of strategies
and techniques which had previously been used in the personal and
professional development context to see how they could be used within the
mainstream of the university. Apart from the realisation that experiential
exercises could be used as readily in academic subjects as in practical areas
such as communication, the main impact on me was in the clarification and
development of ideas about self and peer assessment (Boud et aI., 1972).
While I was becoming increasingly confident about the importance of self
assessment in higher education, I did not have the opportunity to apply the
ideas in my own teaching until I moved to Australia in 1976. I was given
responsibility for the design and teaching of the two core units in a
postgraduate course in science education at the Western Australian Institute
of Technology (now Curtin University). As I was surrounded by colleagues
in the Department of Applied Physics who did not regard this as their own
field of expertise, I was left very much to my own devices. The course I
developed included a major emphasis on students setting their own goals,
curriculum negotiation and, of course, self and peer assessment. As I
appeared to know what I was doing and I presented it in a way which
suggested that such an approach was not unusual, my ideas were accepted
and students took readily to making their own assessments, though not
without some initial trepidation. In keeping with the spirit of staff-student
collaboration which the course aimed to engender, one of the students
worked with me to write an account of the process (Boud and Prosser, 1980).
We saw self assessment as a significant component in a mix of strategies
which aimed to create collaboratively designed courses to meet the needs of
students and the subject. I thought this design was simply an application of

6
 INTRODUcnON

what I had learned from the in-service courses, to a mainstream, accredited

course, but it was regarded by others as a rather more significant shift of
approach and a version of our paper appeared in Malcolm Knowles'
well-known collection Andragogy in Action (Boud and Prosser, 1984).
Self assessment appeared to be effective but I soon discovered an
additional challenge. I was responsible for offering the same subjects in
distance learning mode. Could I use the same emphasis on collaborative
design with self assessment when I did not have direct contact with students?
At first I was intimidated by the prospect. There was only a small group of
students but they were spread over the state - which was of a similar area to
Western Europe. They couldn't afford to travel to a single face-to-face
meeting and telephone contact was prohibitively expensive. I had already
designed the internal version of the course so there was no alternative to
making the distance version equivalent, even though curriculum negotiation
by post over many thousands of kilometres was a very slow, and Singularly
non-spontaneous, process. Peer feedback and self assessment were in fact
not particularly difficult to incorporate although I felt that the students had
much less opportunity to explore and contribute to alternatives approaches
than they would have had if they were sitting together in the same room
(Boud, 1981). Teaching through paper and tape provided a discipline which
forced me to be much more explicit and unambiguous about what was involved
than I had been previously. The crucial importance of such explicitness in all
communications about self assessment became apparent much later.
My next move took me to the Tertiary Education Research Centre at the
University of New South Wales (UNSW) and away from teaching students.
My only access to students was through the colleagues I was assisting with
their teaching and learning concerns. While it was frustrating not being able
to work directly with students, I was presented with the challenge of
communicating my ideas about self assessment to colleagues in many
different diSciplines and developing self assessment strategies which fitted
their particular context. This led to many fruitful projects in architecture,
engineering, law and social work. Many of these were written up and
published in collaboration with the staff concerned. The examples in
Chapters 6 to 8 of the book draw from these papers. What I discovered was,
not surprisingly, that self assessment practices need to be created for the
particular subject matter within a particular context. It is not possible to take
an idea off the shelf and translate it easily into another situation. I also
discovered that self assessment is an innovation which, if suitably designed,
can fit any context. Some of the courses with which I was working were very
conventional in format; nevertheless self assessment could be introduced
into these as readily as into more innovative courses.

7
ENHANCING LEARNING THROUGH SELF ASSESSMENT

Although I was not teaching students, I was extensively involved in staff

development. Ideas about self assessment surely could be used in the
professional development context as well as the undergraduate. Prompted
by some earlier work by John Heron (Heron, 1981), I developed with one of
John's colleagues,James Kilty, an approach to staff development workshops
which revolved around participants focusing on their own practice, making
a self assessment of it informed by peers and subsequently implementing the
outcomes. This approach proved quite robust and it has now been used with
many different professional groups beyond the immediate teaching context
(see Chapter 10).
Finally, after many years of working only through others, I taught classes
of my own again. The first was a Masters subject on the evaluation of
ech,lcational programmes - a suitable subject in which to explore self
assessment both theoretically and experientially. I adopted a similar
negotiated approach to the one I used in Western Australia. Over many
cycles of modification in collaboration with different classes of students I
developed an approach to self assessment which seemed especially suited
for courses which emphasise student autonomy and collaborative learning
and which had the advantage of students producing a document which
summarised their learning at many different levels (see Chapter 9). After
moving to my present institution, the University of Technology, Sydney, I
have been able to use this approach without the constraint of having to
generate marks which fitted a normal distribution.
This brings me almost up to date. Towards the end of my time at UNSW I
had been increaSingly undertaking empirical research on self assessment
ranging from evaluations of the innovations which I have described, to
analysis of quantitative research on self marking. The time had come to put
this together in one place. Hence the present volume.

Structure of the book

The book is about self assessment in higher education. It is concerned

exclUSively with self assessment of learning. The learner mayor may not
identify as a student and may not necessarily be enrolled in a formal course
of study. Self assessment has as important a role in staff development,
management development (eg, Boydell and Pedler, 1981) and informal
learning as in award bearing courses.
Self assessment as a term is now used in many different ways, so it is
important to distinguish different uses. Self assessment has been applied to
individual learners and assessment of their learning as well as to institutions

8
 INTRODUCTION

and departments. In the latter, self assessment is applied to an internal

appraisal of aspects of institutional performance, often as a prelude to an
external judgement, possibly associated with funding. In the higher
education quality movement in the UK self assessment is used in this latter
manner. In my view, this aspect is appropriately called self evaluation, as it
relates more to the evaluation of departments and courses than to the
assessment of individuals.
More widely, self assessment is being used for purposes which have
nothing to do with education and training. It is worth mentioning them in
passing as they may begin to influence learners' perceptions of self
assessment. Australians, for example, are now very familiar with what is
termed the 'self assessment' of personal income tax. Self assessment in this
context is a substitute for the detailed checking of each tax return by a tax
officer. The return is accepted on trust, but the number of random audits has
dramatically increased. Self assessment thus has a sting in its tail. Such usage
can influence the conception of taxpayers towards what might otherwise be
a more friendly view of self assessment. As self assessment becomes
associated with other social practices it will be increasingly necessary to
consider its connotations to learners. The apparent essential 'self-ness' of self
assessment may be an illusion, as in the tax case, or a sweetening of the pill
of external assessment.
This book is not about a new strategy for assessment nor even an approach
to course design. It is about an issue which is central to all education and
training in whatever context it occurs. Self assessment is not something to be
added to the repertoire of teaching activities. It is a matter which needs to be
taken into account in all considerations of learning.
Although the book focuses on self assessment, it necessarily reflects my
own conceptions of what is important in teaching and learning in higher
education. It stresses the importance of learners constructing rather than
receiving knowledge, of promoting the taking of responsibility for learning,
of communicating and expressing what learners know and understand and
of taking a critical stance to received wisdom.
Part I provides a framework for discussing self assessment. It starts in
Chapter 2 by addressing the questions of what self assessment is and why we
should be concerned with it now. This places the discussion which follows
in context and emphasises the key features of self assessment and the
varieties of ways in which it can be used.
Chapters 3 and 4 consider the broader context of self assessment and
discuss ideas which are closely related to it. The first of these chapters looks
at what is known about learning and how ideas about student learning, learning
from experience and reflective practice can link with self assessment. Chapter 4

9
ENHANCING LEARNING THROUGH SELF ASSESSMENT

reviews current ideas about student assessment in higher education and

extracts issues which must also be considered in the self assessment context.
Chapter 5 starts by presenting self assessment in a wider social context-
how it relates to the aims of education and the concerns of society. It
proceeds to explore different conceptions of knowledge and how these can
influence the design of self assessment procedures. The chapter establishes
a framework for categorising self assessment practices in terms of knowledge
interests of teachers and points to the use of self assessment in different
subject areas.
Part II presents a range of specific examples of self assessment in practice.
Each chapter describes different strategies in the context of different
disciplinary areas. Chapter 6 considers how self and peer marking can be
used in a technical electronics subject; Chapter 7 looks at self assessment of
engineering design exercises; Chapter 8 examines the use of self and peer
assessment of class participation in law; Chapter 9 presents the use of an
intensive self assessment process in a postgraduate subject in education; and
Chapter 10 provides an example of the use of self appraisal informed by
peers in staff development. The section concludes with Chapter 11 where
samples of strategies which have been developed in other subject areas for
different purposes are discussed in terms of the framework established
earlier.
Part III, on self assessment and marking, starts with research on self
assessment. The empirical literature comparing student self marking with
marking by staff is considered in Chapter 12. Chapter 13 proceeds to address
the question of whether self assessment can be used for formal assessment
purposes and, if so, under what circumstances.
Part IV considers some of the practical issues which arise from the
examples given and the research presented. Chapter 14 looks at implemen-
tation and evaluation issues; Chapter 15 provides guidance on the design of
self assessment procedures and Chapter 16 considers how peers and other
parties can be used to enhance self assessment. The book concludes with a
summary of good practice and speculates on issues of importance which
have yet to be explored. Chapter 17 proposes some ideas for future
development and returns to the criteria outlined earlier.
In keeping with the different emphases of each section, the voice changes
from autobiographical to descriptive, to analytical, to pragmatic and to
speculative depending on the material being considered. Many people have
contributed to the development of the ideas and practices described here and
these are either indicated as chapter authors or mentioned in the
acknowledgments section.

10
References

Table of Contents

vi 177 189 200 207 223

 References

Anderson, G, Boud, D and Sampson, J (1994) 'Expectations of quality in the

use of learning contracts', Capability: 1be International Journal of
Capability in Higher Education, 1, 1,22-31.
Anderson, G, Boud, D and Sampson, J (forthcoming) Learning Contracts: A
Practical Guide, London: Kogan Page.
Andrews, P H (1987) 'Gender differences in persuasive communication and
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