Ume

Umesh Rajorla
Silicon (si) atoms have fow valance electrons ie.
15. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS numbe o elctrons in the outermost orbit is 4. Therefore
the totl number ot valene eechons in the crystod of
Semiconductors - 4N.

The naeials which have

and resistivity Conducivity
inbetuween Comductors and inswlotors (.) IB the intesatomic spacing of the si atoms is Very
calla senicondutoYS. ae Lange Cr =d), then thene is no interatomic interacion.
Examples - Silicon (si), Germanjum CGe) etc. (i) when the intezatomic spqcing
Enengy Band Theory f Solids greoter han c, then thre is no visible spliting f
energy devels.
Accovding to Bchr's theory Hhee Qse wel|
oufine enssgy devels o} electrons (i3) [Link] jnteratomic. spaing r Às equad to c, the
im an
number of toms ae brought close to oneatom. Ittolarge [Link] otemast shell elechrons .o neighboweing
another form
a crysta, they begin to influence each other. silicon atoms stat changing ie. the spiHngot these
Duu to this enezy vels OcCws, Whee£s thee is no chanje in the
interatomic. interaction hee is no mÍdifiçation in the eneray. wels o electrons in the nner. shells.
enegy Levels of the electrons in the tay shel bus
thee is a coscrable moi icaon in the energy dwels
cif the electrons in the outey shels. (iv) whn intercomic spacin .x ies inbetween b and c
( b<r< c), instead a single ss or sp dwel, we
r FORBIDDEN
get a drge number of cdosely packad dveds. whet 2N
$C.B. rels coresponding to a singe ss dve!
for a Single sp lerel f an isolated atom. and GN levels
ENERGY GAP
!3p2
of enea dvels redues the Ths spreading
and 3p levels of fee atom. engy gap betoen ss
3s2
vB.

This colletion of closely spacud levels is called an

ENERGY energy band
2p°
(v) when the inderctornic
iCRYSfAL LATTICE SPACING
2s2
but greater than spacing y
a (r=b>a )the becomes equa) to b
1s? energy gap
3s and sp evels Cormpleely disappeons " Tn Such q betoean
t is not possible to stuaton,
INTERATOMIC SPACING, r
belongin to 3s nd spdtingush
subshells.
between the electrons
We
4N levels are Hle amd 4N evels are an ondy Say that
To uncestand modification in enylevels of elecons ermpty
Corbjde a sicon crystal Contaning N
atoms.
Near Nawalgarh Bus
 Umesh Rajoria Umesh Rajorla
(vi ) when the intesatomic s pacing r becomes equ to
a(r=a) ten the band of4N Aleol Semiconductors
energy ueds Tn senicondutors thhe valne bond
is sepaatesl from the band. of 4N
unfillee energy totaly filled 'and the Conduchion bandl s
levels by an 'eneigy ap caled enen8band ap
whleh but tHhe enhy gap betuen Conolyction bamd and empy
enoted by Eg! valanee band quite Small. It is less Hhan 3 U.
The dower Completly filled bomd is calleo E for gemanjun ds or2 ev and for silicen it is 1u.
Valanea band omd the uoper nfilled banol is alled At cero kelin tempesatue semiconductor bahaves
Conolucion band, The minimm enegy requred fo s insulato.
sifting elecetrons from valanee ban to Condycion
band equa to engy band gap (Eg. Insulators -
Ln insulators t e ener 3ap s quite
Empty
4N States Lage E, >3w). Du to Lange eneAyY gap no elechnn
(cB) s able to go from the valane bid to the. ConducHion
bond. Hence electical corduhon in these mateials
ds impossible amd they behave as insulators.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR,S -
Filled 4N States
VB.) A pwe Semi conluetor wichis free terey
Lmpuit s called intrinsic semiconuetor.
Differenu betwen Meta<s (Comductors), Tnsulators Examples - sili£on (si) and Germanium Csed.
and semi conluetors on the basss t Enengy Bonos
Conductors (Metals) - In Conductors the Conduetion
ENOTY
cnd valanea band partly ovelap each othe and there |CONDUCTION
BAND
is no engy gab in between ENERGY
CONDUCTION GAP Eg= 0.72ev
BAND EMPTY FiLLED
CONDUCTION VALENCE
OVERLAPPEO BAND EMPTY (E,
<30V) BAND
CONDUCTION
BAND

FILLED FILLED
Silicon (14) 1s2s2p3sp
VALENCE
BAND
VALENCE
BAND
VALENCE
BAND
Gemanium (32) 1s2s2p3s3ps3°ys up
Conoluctors Inulatrs SemiConductors Both the atoms (si and Ge) have four valarnce ctectrons.
AlAAe Aleheole
 K Umesh Rajoria
Umesh Rajoria
The fow valane electons at a gemanium atom EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTORS
form fowr covalent bands by shang the electrons
of neigouing fow gemanium atoms. Adoped semiconduetor or a semiconductor with,
Suitable impwity atom adel to t is Called extrinsic
band
The is minimum engy reguured to break a Covalent stmiconductor.
o72
ew for Ge od 1.l e for sj. At YoDm Extrinsie semiCernluetors e o twD types
tem peratw when an eleetron breaks away from a Ci) n-type SemiconducBoy ii) P- type Semiconcluetor
Covalent bond , the empty plae or vacaney utt in
the bon is Called a hole. (i) n-type Semiconcuctor
an exteonal electie feld is aþe,
whern
thgse free euctrons omd holes move in opposite when a pwe semiconaluctor of siicon (si) or
irectons and constitute a Cunt. Te number Germenium (Ge) u odoped with pentavalnt toms whieh
of free electYons, amd holes e exactly equal in have' fie Valance leetrons (Phasphorus, Arsenie, antimony
an itrinsic Sernicoroluctor. oY Bismuth ) then is cale! ntype semiconductor.
ne = nh The fowr o the fre valance electrons o the
impwity atoms wn form Covalent band with he
Aso ihe Copetuctvity ot intrinsic semi conelytoy is adjoinir fow atms os the sillcon , cohile the tifth
vey he). Re. hole is Consialac as an acthve particle electron is free to move. Thws each impity atom
added donotes one
n te votane ban , having a posiive chage equa ~ree eleetron to the crystal hese
impwity tonns are caled donor otoms.
Lo thi otan ele tron.
Sine the Conduetion ot electricity i due
to the motion ot eletrons l ie: negative charge) so
Doping i Dping is a prDCess of addition o a that the reulting is seniomdutor Calleo n-tye
or donor type aemiemdu tor.
olesiyatle Imipui ty atans to a pure semiconaluctor to
moolify ts propeties in a controlled nmanner. The impurity
ivms added ae calleod dopats.
o a semiconcluetor increases ts electreal s0.045ev
Canncluctivity great extent. for Si
DONOR
ENERGY
STATE
Methods ef dopingi
() Aoel the impuity afons in the melt of semiconductor
t )Zmplant dopant atoms by bombeing the semiconducty
ith their Lons. n-type Semicanuctors electrons ae majority
(i) Heattie SemiCendluctur in atmsphere o} dopant atoms. Cavsies and hiles ae mìnority caies.
Near Naw2learh Rc c Near Nawalgarh Rus Stand sikar
 Umesh Rajorla

(is ) P- typ SemiConductor Distincton between zntinsie and extrensic sem conductors
when a pure semicoductox o silicon Csi) EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
or èermanium CGe) i doped with a Controlled amount INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
oh trivalent atoms , wich have thre valana electrons 1. tisprepared by doping asmaliquanty ofumpuity
1, It is pure semiconducting material and no the pure semiconducting material.
(Boron, Aluminiunm, Gallium, Indiumn) then ti Called impurity atoms are added to it. atoms
2. Examples are silicon and germanium crystals
P-ype cemiconluctor. 2. Examples are crystalline forms of pure silicon with impurity atoms of arsenic, antmony. phos
and gemaniura.
The three valance electrons o the inpwity phorous etc. or indium, boroD, alumnium ete.
atn will form Covaent bonds with the acoining thre 3. The number of free electrons in conduction band 3. The pumber of free electrons and boles is never
and the nuraber of holes in valence band is equal. There is excess of electrons 11 n-type
atoms ob gemanium ( Ge), ohile these wtl be ne semiconductors and excess of holes in p-type
incormplete coalent bond with a nelghbowing Ge atom, eXACtly equal and very small indeed. semiconductors.
this oeficieney ot an electron creates a hole'. 4. Itselectrical conductivity is low. 4. Is electrical conductivity is high.
The trivalent atoms ahe calleol acceptor atoms and 5. Its electrical conductivity is a function of 5. Its elecurical conductivity depends upon tbe
the conductiorn ot electicity occus olue to motion ot temperature alone. teraperabre as well as on the quantity of mpuity
atoms doped in the structure.
holes (ie- positive charges),so the resutina semjconcucor
is calld p-type oY acceptor type sermjcondu ctor.

Difesence betueen N-type and p-type Semiconductors

.. Holei
n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTÓR
ACCEPTOR 1. Itis an extrinsic semiconductor which is obtained 1. Itis an extrinsic semiconduçtor which is obuained
ENERGY by doping the impurity atons of Vth group of by doping the impuriy atoms of Mgoup of
STATE periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon periodic table to the pur gaanium ot siicoa
JT,01 to .045eV semiconductor. semiconductor.
2. The inpurity atoms added, provide extra 2. The impurity atoms added, create vacancies af
electrons the structure, and are called donor electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and ure
atoms. called acceptor atoms.
3. The electrons are majority cariers and holes are 3. The holes are majority carriers and elcctrons ure
In p-tpe senmiconductor elecons ae
Cajers and hioles ee majority Caiess. minori ty minority cariers.
4. The clectron density (n,) is much greater than
minority carmers.
4. The bole density (n,) is mnch gret hm the
the bole density (n;), i.e., n, >> a electron deosity (n,), Le.,n, > n,
5. The donor energy level is close to the conduction 5. The acceptor energy level is close to valence band
band and far away from valence band. and is far away from conducoon band.

Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, SIkar o8

 P-N TUNC TION Due to diffusiorn ot electrons and hles a Layer of
when a p-pe smicmaluctr crystal s joineol posi tively chasge cdonor atoms in n-region and a Lasyer of
th an ntype amiconductor crystal,then the resulting ngativey changed acceptor atoms in p-regicn are created
pangement calld a p-njunichion or junchon diode This positive and negative spaee charge regions on both
sides o P-n junctHori wil form a region och has
immobile ions and is called oupleton regiom.
Fosmation os PN-Tunchion
To make a P-njunction , the ntype cmd p-type Du to positive and ngative space chage regon
silicon ystals ae cut into thin wafers. T; placed
on q wafer at pn junction, an electric fekal is setp acioss
and juneion. Due to this electric fed webpel at the
ef n- type siion , an alumiium film id junction ,an electon on p-siole of the junchon moves to
heated to a temperature sso, auminium dfuses n-side and a holes on n-sile of junction moves to p
into silicon and a p-ape semicondutor is formed on side ot juncton
o n-ty pe semiconeuctor Such a fosmation o P-gion
Ihe moton of these chage caiess du
on n-Tegion is calld p-n junction. to electrie fied i called drit. As a rutt o} it,a drift
Diffusion and Drift - cheent staits, which is opposite in direct iorn to the difsion
Cwsent.
when p-n junction s fomed due to oitference In the begining the di fusion Current is lange
nConcenthation ot change cajns in two regions o} Pn but chift Cusnt aal. As the olitusionmjunction proess incrases
Conti
|junction, the eectrons trom n-region itfuse though hues, the stength ot electrie field acrass te
the junction into p-region and holes trom p. region amd thesby drift usent .increases. This process conties
difuse into n-regiorn. The mohon of chage carriers ges until the oitfusion cwent becomes eal to the dnft
rise to difusion cwrent across the juneion. Current Now the p-n junction is sald to be be in equih
brium state md thee i no current across he pnjunction.
Hole VB Electron At this stage, the potentia barris across the junchan has
maximum value Va. Now the movementt ot majority chage
caies acroSS the junction stops and the potetial acts
o o as a barier, henu koow) as potential baier.
Ve At roomm tumperatahe (3oo k) Va about [Link]
for Ge on o"7V for si. The value ot Vs increases with
rise mtumperatue for Ge and Si.
Electron Depletion Layer Hole
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O9
 GHING SCIENCE CAREER COACHING
Umesh Rajorla Umesh Raloria
BIASING OF THE PN
JUNCTION valu of barrier potenhial under
The effective
Thete ae two methods ot YWese bias is (Ve+ V).
i) Forward biasing the p-n Junction
biasing (iö) Reverse biasing
(i)Forwrd Biasing -
A p-n junction it said to be
the pasitive terminl of the forward biased it
to p- siole anad the negative extenal battery is Connected
P-n junction. teminal to the n-side f
too000 Depletion Layer

Tn revebe biasing, there is no Conduction across

the junchon olu to majority c i r s Howevcr a fes
!Vg-V) minokity Caiers ot p-n junction diode cross tthe junchon
ofter being acceleAated by high reweYSe bias voltage. They
Depletion Layer Costitute a cwnt whieh s cald reese curent or
leakage cwtent
CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DODE
In forward biasing the fruard voltage opposes the (i) Forwand. Chahacterisics -
potential barrier Vo. As areult of t potena barrier and
width of depletiorn layer decreases. isGTe
The vau ot On plotting a grph between forward bins vatnge
potential barrier in forand basina and foTUard cuent we get the tollowing gaph
(2) Revese Biasing - Forward ‘
Current
mA
A [Link] is said to be reverse biasel if
is Connecjed
the positve terminel of the external battery
to n-side and the negatve tminal to p- aide of the
P-n junction. Threshotd Voltage
Voltage
In reverse biasing the revesse bias valtage supports ifor sillcon dlojes Vh 0.7)

the potentential basierVa. As a result ot t bavies It is found that beyond forward

poteatiad and adth of depletin region inereases. Called Knee voltage lo:3V foy Ge and o7Vvoltage. V=Vka
for Si)the curent
Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 800302413 1, 9309G68859
Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 12
 Umesh Rojorla SCIENCECAREER COACHING Umesh Rajorla

through the junction stants increasing Yapidly with PN-D[oDE AS A RECTIFIER

voltege and showing the inear vaiation, But below
the Kmee voltage th vaiation in Current is negible
md the cwwe is non- inear. RecHfier is a dujce whieh is used for Converting
altnating cuwent/vo tege trdo olirect curent/vatage
() Reverse CharacteristLcs - There aru two types oc recHfier
(1) Haf wave rectifier Gi) Fu wave Recifier
On plotfing a graph between reerse bias voltage
amd Yererse Csent, we t the evease chaactesics as (1) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
shown in f From the cwre. we mDte that in. reverse A.C.
biasing ot P-n junction,the cuunt s very smal (aNA) to be rectfied i co nmectecd to
on d indupendent on voltage upto cetaun reverse bjas the painmary wining AR of a stepdouwn transformer
vo ltage , Known as breakdom voltage S,S2 the secondaiy coil of the transfoYmer, Si is
Conneeted to the porHon P ot the p-njunction. Sa J
Connectecd to the portion n through Load resistance R.
REVERSE BIAS (V) Outpt a fakan acrDsS the Load resistance R.
-8, 6,4 -2
00000000000000
00C00000
OUTPUT TIME
10

OUTPUT

T} the evese bias voltage exceeds the breakalon P

TIME
Voltage, the sewAse cwont through the p-n junction aill
Lincrease abuptly T7 this cwent exceeds the rated valu WORKING -
of P-n junc tHon (specified by manufacturer), the pon junchon
will get danaged. Duing positive haly eycle o A"cr, sppase S1
becomes podjtve, Sa becomes negative
is forwand, biased. The Teslstance ot Pnand the pn junehan
juncion
Lowi Thhe maximum foward current flows in thebecomes
crcut
Cand we gt otput. acrOss - Load.
Duing negative halty cyele os Arc. Sy becomes
negative, and a is posrtive he p-n Junction is rererse
Near Bus
 Umesh Rajoria
VOLTAGE
biased . It otfers high resistance and hence there s
no flow of cwtent and thus no output across Load. INP
TIME
Hence in the output, we have curent correspon
oing to one hals cycle os the wave amd the othe
hals is missing. That ds why the piocess i calleol Due to Due to Due to
VOLTAGEDue to
OUTPUT
hatt wave recHfcation. D2 D1 D2

TIME
(2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER -
For ful wave teeificaion , we have to we Hence the outpt signal voltage is unicirechonal
twwo pin junction dodes D and D. (he cireit i having ripple Cortents It Can be convertedmd
i:e. e. Cormponents q-c.
shown in the ven f'g Componen£s voltage). into dc
filteY crcit.
o00000000900007
D D
veltage by ftering through a
QUTPUT OUTPUT FILTER
A single capacitor oj high vale of capacitance
Connccted across the output af rectifier Can wank as the
ftlter.
Dz Da The Capacitor offers ow impealance to a.c. Component
S (Ke c t ) ond offers in finite imptdana to dc.
Due to it, the ae. Componert s bypasd or
WORKING - filteuel out. Tt produees a vol tage rop across Load
Duing, the posiHve halt cycle os Ac the resistamce RL as a fiteed o.c. oudput, which is almast
dioce DË s foswaTd biased and the olode Da ís ruerse dc. voltage. Such ilter is idely sed dn power suppliu
biased.. The forward current flouos through ciode Di in
the oirection as Bhovon in fe Output votage

Duung the negative haly eycle oc Ac. the

eliode D, i rewerse biased and the diode D is forward INPUT
OUTPUT FILTERED
biased. The foward Cuirent flows through diode Da " Wee A.C.
OF D.C.
RECTIFIER| c OUTPUT
observe thet durig both the half cycles o A.C, Cuitert
through R flous in the same cirechon. Time

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