Module -2
Design Factors
1. Design wheel load
The thickness design of flexible pavement primarily depends upon the various factors associated
with wheel loads of heavy vehicles. Higher magnitude of wheel load obviously need thicker
pavement, provided other design are the same.
The various wheel load factors to be considered in pavement design are
1. Maximum wheel load
2. Contact pressure
3. Wheel load configuration such as dual or multiple wheel load assembly
4. Repetition of loads
Maximum wheel load:
In the design of a pavement, the knowledge of maximum wheel load is more important than gross
weight of the vehicle. In evaluating the magnitude of the wheel load to be selected as design
criterion, the legal axle load specified in the area should be taken into account. The IRC has
specified the maximum legal load as 8170 kg, and maximum equivalent single wheel load as 4085
kg.
It is observed that the two wheels should be spaced sufficiently closely and the area of subgrade
Stressed by each wheel overlaps.
The space of wheel load gives an idea how the load of a vehicle acts on the surface of the pavement.
Typically wheel load configuration of a tractor trailer unit of a heavy vehicle is shown below.
The total load influences the thickness of the pavement while tyre pressure influences the quality of
surface course. Actually the magnitude of vertical pressure at any depth of soil subgrade depends
upon the surface pressure as well as on the total load.
The vertical stress at any depth can be computed by using Boussineeq equation:
Where
σz = vertical stress at any depth ‘z’
p = surface pressure
a = radius of loaded area
z = depth at which stress is computed
2. Contact pressure
The influence of tyre pressure is predominant in the upper layers of the pavement surface. The
effect of tyre pressure diminishes at a greater depth and the total load exhibits a considerable
influence on the vertical stress magnitudes. Tyre pressure of high magnitudes therefore demand
high quality materials in upper layers of the pavement.
Generally the wheel load is assumed to be distributing over a circular area. But by the
measurements of the imprint of tyres with different load and inflation pressures, it is seen that the
contact areas in many cases are elliptical in shape. With reference to tyre pressure, three terms are
in use:
1. Tyre pressure
2. Inflation pressure
3. Contact pressure
Tyre pressure and Inflation pressure mean exactly the same. The contact pressure is found to be
more than tyre pressure when the tyre pressure is less than 7 kg/cm² and vice versa. Contact
pressure is given by
Load on wheel
Contact Pressure=
Contact area∨ Area of imprint
Relationship between Tyre and Contact Pressure
The ratio of contact pressure to tyre pressure is defined as Rigidity Factor. The value of rigidity
factor is 1.0 for an average tyre pressure of 7 kg/cm². This value is higher than unity for lower tyre
pressure and less than unity for tyre pressures higher than 7 kg/cm². The rigidity factor depends
upon the degree of tension developed in the walls of the tyres.
3. Design life
the design life or performance period refers to the period of time for which the initially designed
pavement structure will last before any rehabilitation is needed. Where the level of serviceability is
the Criterion for pavement design. The design life is the time elapsed as a new, reconstructed or
rehabilited pavement structure deteriorates form its initial level of serviceability. It Largely depend
on type and Level of maintenance provided over me design life. AASHTO provides the following
guidelines to fix design life
[Link] Highway conditions Analysis period (years)
1 High volume urban roads 30 – 50
2 High volume rural roads. 20 – 50
3 Low volume paved surface 15 – 25
4 Low volume aggregate surface 10 – 20
4. Reliability.
Basically the term reliability stands for the probability that any particular type of distress or
combination of distress will remain below or within the permissible value during design life. This
concept incorporates a certain amount of certainty that the designed pavement will serve
satisfactorily during the entire design life. Baked on the AASHTO guidelines of reliability for
various functional classifications, following levels of reliability could be adopted for Indian
conditions.
Recommended level of
Sl.
Type of road reliability, %
No
Urban Rural
1 NH 85 – 99.9 85 – 99.9
2 SH 80 – 99 75 – 95
3 MDR 80 – 95 75 – 85
4 ODR & VR 50 – 80 50 – 80
5. Traffic factors
a) Wheel Load: Pavement wheel load causes stresses and strains in pavement layers and
subgrade. The tyre pressure determines the area of application of wheel load.
b) Impact: Imperfections in surface of flexible pavement and at joints for rigid pavement causes
additional loads due to impact.
c) Repetition of wheel loads: Apart from single wheel load design criterion, the cumulative
load applications during the design life cause plastic and elastic deformations.
d) Position of wheel load across pavement: The concentration of Wheel load at a localised
width of the pavement can cause extra distress.
e) Iron-tyred vehicles: Bullock carts with iron tyres can cause severe stresses in pavements.
6. climatic factors
a) Rainfall: It affects pavement drainage and strength of the sub-grade thus it is a significant
factor.
b) Frost action: Frost and heavy action cause additional stress in pavement.
c) Temperature: Variation in temperature can cause stresses in the pavement.
7. Road geometry
a) Horizontal curves: Pavements are subjected to extra stresses because effect of centrifugal
force especially at centre of road and also curve resistance is maximum for which is needed
to provide additional Sectional size.
b) Vertical curve: Pavements on grades are subjected to extra forces due to acceleration,
deceleration and braking.
8. Subgrade strength and drainage
a) Sub-grade strength: Sub-grade soil and compacted density affect the pavement design
considerably.
b) Drainage: Surface and sub-surface drainage of pavement from adjoining land also affect
sub-grade strength. AASHTO Pavement design method are selected on the basis of the
quality of drainage as under
Sl. No Quality of drainage Water removed within
1 Excellent 2 hours
2 Good 1 day
3 Fair 1 week
4 Poor 1 month
5 Very Poor Water will not drain
Equivalent Single wheel load (ESWL)
Vehicles are provided with dual wheel assembly or tandom dual wheel assembly to the rear axles.
This arrangement increases the load carrying capacity of vehicles. But for the design purposes the
magnitude of single wheel load is considered. Hence a single wheel load that produces the same
effect (interns of stress or deflection) as that dual wheel assembly at any depths is called ESWL.
The concept ESWL is shown in above figure.
The effect of dual wheel assembly is shown in following figure
Upto the depth of d/2 each wheel load 'P' acts independently and after this point the stresses induced
due to each load begins to overlap. At depth 2 S and above, the stresses induced are due to the effect
of both wheels as the area of overlap is considerable. So the total Stresses due to the dual wheels at
any depth greater than 2 S is considered to be ESWL of magnitude 2P.
Determination of ESWL
ESWL is determined by using following methods.
1. By Boyd and Foster method
2. Boussinesq's method
3. Foster and Ahulwin method.
ESWL by Boyd and Foster method (Graphical method)
1. Find the co-ordinates of x and y
where x = (P, d/2) and y = (2P, 2S).
2. Find the log value of these Coordinates
where x = (log P, log d/2) and y=(log 2p, log 2S)
3. Plot these coordinates in an ordinary graph and find ESWL for required thickness or depth Z
1. A dual wheel load assembly has a total load of 4100kg and contact radius of 10 cm. The centre
to centre distance b/w wheel is 35 cm. Determine ESWL by using graphical method at a depths
of 20 cm and 35 cm.
Solution
Here 2P = 4100kg ∴ P = = 2050 kg, S = 35 cm ∴ 2S = 70 cm and a = 10 cm
4100
2
S=d+2a
∴ d= 15 cm
35=d + 2 × 10
X has coordinates (P, d/2) = (2050, 7.5)
Y has coordinates (2P, 2S) = (4100, 70)
X(log P, log d/2) = (log 2050, log 7.5)
= (7.6, 2.01)
Y (log 2P, log 2S) = log 4100, log 70)
= (8.31, 4.24)
X and Y points are plotted on a ordinary graph b/w ESWL and pavement thickness
ESWL @ 20 cm depth = 2697 kg
ESWL @ 35 cm depth = 3295 kg
2. Calculate ESWL of dual wheel assembly carrying 2044 kg each for pavement thickness of 15,
20 and 25cm centre to centre tyre spacing = 27 cm and distance between the walls of tyres = 11
cm
ESWL by Boussinesq's or stress criteria method
In equal stress criteria, the ESWL is taken in such way that the single wheel load that produces a
stress at certain depth equal to the stress produced by dual wheel load assembly at same depths then
the load is taken as ESWL i. e. stress due to single wheel load is equal to the stress due to dual
wheel load.
( ) ( )
PS
σz
qs
=Pd
σz
qd
Where Ps = Equivalent Single wheel load (ESWL)
Pd= Load on each of dual wheels
σz
=Vertical stress factor under a Equivalent Single Wheel Load
qs
σz
=Vertical stress factor under dual wheels
qd
The maximum subgrade stress under a Single wheel Load occurs at point vertically below the
centre of one wheel. The maximum stress under dual wheel load assembly is not known and
determined by comparing the stresses at three points: Point-1 under the centre of one wheel, point-3
at the centre b/w two wheels and point-2 midway between 1 and 3. The stress factor at each point is
obtained by superposition of two wheels and maximum stress factor is found.
1. A set of dual wheel load assembly has a total load of 40 kN, Contact radius of 114mm and centre
to centre spacing of 343 mm. Determine the ESWL by Boussinesq's method for pavement
thickness of 343 mm.
Solution
2 Pd= 40 kN, ∴ Pd = 20KN, a=114mm, S = 343mm and z = 343 mm
z 343
= =3
a 114
For LWL radial distances @ point-1 r = 0, point -2 r= 85.75mm and point ③ r= 171.5mm
For RWL radial distances @ point-1=343mm, point -2 r = 257.25 mm and point ③ r= 171.5mm
Vertical stress Factor under dual wheel loads
LWL RWL Total
Key σz
r σz r σz
points
a qs a qs qd
1 0 0.143 3 0.030 0.173
2 0.75 0.126 2.25 0.053 0.179
3 1.5 0.088 1.5 0.088 0.176
σz
Maximum Stress factor for ESWL, = 0.143
qs
σz
Maximum Stress factor for dual wheel load , = 0.179
qd
()
σz
∴ @ z = 343mm, ESWL = Pd
qd 0.179
=20 × =25.03 kN
σz 0.143
qs
2. A dual wheel load assembly has a total load of 6000 kg with a contact pressure of 8 kg/cm². If
the clear gap b/w wheels is 30 cm. Using stress criteria determine ESWL for a pavement
thickness 30 cm.
Solution
2 Pd= 600 kg, ∴ Pd = 3000 kg, z=30 cm, q = 8 kg/cm² and d = 30 cm
a=
√ √
Pd
πq
=
3000
π×8
=10.92 cm say a=11cm
For LWL radial distances @ point-1 r = 0, point -2 r = 13cm and point ③ r = 26 cm
For RWL radial distances @ point-1=52cm, point -2 r = 39 cmand point ③ r= 26 cm
Vertical stress Factor under dual wheel loads
LWL RWL Total
Key σz
r σ z r σ z
points
a qs a qs qd
1 0 0.18 4.72 0.006 0.186
2 1.18 0.17 3.54 0.019 0.189
3 2.36 0.065 2.36 0.065 0.130
σz
Maximum Stress factor for ESWL, = 0.18
qs
σz
Maximum Stress factor for dual wheel load, = 0.189
qd
()
σz
∴ @ z = 30 cm, ESWL = Pd
qd 0.189
=3000 × =3150 kg
σz 0.18
qs
ESWL by Foster and Ahulvin's method or equivalent deflection criteria method
In deflection criteria, ESWL is taken in such way that the single wheel load that produces a
deflection of certain depth equal to the deflection produced by dual wheel load assembly at same
depth then the load is taken of ESINL
Ps × Fs = Pd × Fd
∴ Ps = × F d
Pd
Fs
Where PS = Single wheel load or ESWL
Pd= Load on each of the dual wheels
Fs = Maximum deflection factor due to single wheel load
Fd = Maximum deflection factor due to dual wheel load
The maximum subgrade deflection under single wheel load occurs of point below the centre of one
wheel. The maximum deflection under dual wheel Load assembly is not known and determined by
comparing the stresses at three points: point-1 under the centre of one wheel, point-3 at the centre
b/w two wheels and point-2 midway b/w 1 and 3. The deflection factor at each point is obtained by
superposition of two wheels and maximum deflection factor is found.
1. A set of dual wheel load assembly has a total load of 40 kN, Contact radius of 114mm and centre
to centre spacing of 343 mm. Determine the ESWL by Foster and Ahulvin's method for
pavement thickness of 343 mm.
Solution
2 Pd= 40 kN, ∴ Pd = 20 kN, a=114mm, S = 343mm and z = 343 mm
z 343
= =3
a 114
For LWL radial distances @ point-1 r = 0, point -2 r= 85.75mm and point ③ r= 171.5mm
For RWL radial distances @ point-1=343mm, point -2 r = 257.25 mm and point ③ r= 171.5mm
Vertical stress Factor under dual wheel loads
LWL RWL
Key Total
points r r Fd
FS FS
a a
1 0 0.478 3 0.236 0.741
2 0.75 0.443 2.25 0.318 0.761
3 1.5 0.380 1.5 0.380 0.760
Maximum Stress factor for ESWL, FS = 0.478
Maximum Stress factor for dual wheel load , Fd = 0.761
∴ @ z = 343mm, ESWL = Pd ( )
Fd 0.761
=20 × =31.84 kN
FS 0.478
Equivalent Wheel Load Factors (EWLF)
Equivalent Wheel Load is a single wheel load equivalent to the repeated application of any
particular wheel load on the pavement which requires the same thickness and strength of pavement.
If a particular pavement structure fails with number of repetitions of load P 1 kg and similarly, if N₂
number of repetitions of load P₂ kg can also cause failure of the same pavement structure, then P 1
N1 and P2 N2 are considered equivalent.
Based on the experience gained after the AASHO Road Tests and analysis, Equivalent Wheel Load
Factors or Equivalent Axle Load Factors for vehicles with single & axle and tandem axles were
generated.
Wheel load Repetitions to Equivalent to
EWLF
kg failure number 2268 kg
2268 105,000 1.0 1
2722 50000 2.0 2
3175 22500 4.7 4
3629 13000 8.2 8
4082 6500 16.3 16
4536 3300 32.0 32
4990 1700 62.0 64
5443 1000 105.0 128
Generally accepted approach for the conversion of axle loads of different magnitudes in terms of
the standard axle is represented as below and is called as the ‘Fourth Power Law’.
( )
4
Given Wheel load
Equivalent Wheel Load factor=
Standard wheel load
( )
4
P1
E W L F=
P
1. Determine the Equivalent Wheel Load Factor of the following two axle loads in terms of the
standard axle load is 8.16 t.
(a) LCV with rear axle load of 2.0 t.
(b) HCV with rear axle load of 15.5 t.
Solution
( )
4
P1
E W L F=
P
( )
4
( a ) E W L F of LCV = 2.0 =0.0036
8.16
( )
4
( b ) E W L F of HCV = 15.5 =13.02
8.16
2. Determine the Equivalent Wheel Load Factor value of the following two axle loads in terms of
the standard axle load is 8.16 t.
(a) LCV with rear axle load of 1.8 t.
(b) HCV with rear axle load of 16.0 t.
Solution
( )
4
P1
E W L F=
P
( )
4
( a ) E W L F of LCV = 1.8 =0.00234
8.16
( )
4
( b ) E W L F of HCV = 15.5 =14.78
8.16
Problems on design repetitions
1. Calculate the design repetitions for 20 year period for various wheel loads equivalent to 22.68
kN Wheel load using the following data on 4 lane roads.
Wheel load kN 22.68 27.22 31.75 36.29 40.82 45.36
Traffic volume 22 33 25 30 13 12
Solution
Wheel Traffic Days / Number Percentage of total
load kN volume year of year EWLF Traffic volume
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ =②×③×④×⑤
22.68 22 365 20 1 160600
27.22 33 365 20 2 481800
31.75 25 365 20 4 730000
36.29 30 365 20 8 1752000
40.82 13 365 20 16 1518400
45.36 12 365 20 32 2803200
∴ Design repetitions equivalents of 22.68 KN wheel load / lane
Total estimated repetitions (two directions) 7446000
=1446000/4
= 1861500
2. Calculate design repetitions for 20 years period for various wheel loads equivalent to 2268 kg
wheel load using the following data on four lane road.
Percentage of
Wheel load Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
total traffic
kg both directions
volume
2268 13.17
2722 15.30
3175 11.76
215 (total volume)
3629 14,11
4082 6.21
4536 3.84
Solution
Percentage of total Traffic
Wheel Days / Number
Traffic volume
load kg ADT year of year EWLF
volume③ ⑦=②×③×④×⑤×⑥
① ② ④ ⑤ ⑥
2268 215 13.17/100 365 20 1 206703
2722 215 15.30/100 365 20 2 480267
3175 215 11.76/100 365 20 4 738293
3629 215 14,11/100 365 20 8 1771652
4082 215 6.21/100 365 20 16 1599455
4536 215 3.84/100 365 20 32 2933082
∴ Design repetitions equivalents of 2268 kg wheel load / lane
Total estimated repetitions (two directions) 7729452
=7729452/4
= 1932366
3. Calculate the design repetitions for 20 year period for various wheel loads equivalent to 22.68
kN Wheel load using the following data on 4 lane roads.
Wheel load kN 22.68 27.22 31.75 40.82 45.36 49.90 54.43
Traffic volume 30 25 20 15 10 5 1
Solution
Wheel load Traffic Days / Number Percentage of total
kN volume year of year EWLF Traffic volume
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ =②×③×④×⑤
22.68 30 365 20 1 219000
27.22 25 365 20 2 365000
31.75 20 365 20 4 584000
40.82 15 365 20 16 1752000
45.36 10 365 20 32 2336000
49.90 5 365 20 64 2336000
54.43 1 365 20 128 934400
Total estimated repetitions (two directions) 8526400
∴ Design repetitions equivalents of 22.68 KN wheel load / lane =8526400/4
= 2131600