Process Instrumentation 3A (PINA301)

TOPIC 5 – UNIT OPERATORS

N.B Prescribed/Recommended Books
Instrument Engineers Handbook (Vol. 1): Process Measurement & Analysis
Instrument Engineers Handbook (Vol. 2): Process Control and Optimization
Process Industrial Control Handbook
PINA NOTES
PAST EXAM PAPERS

Mthabiseni Mbokazi
 UNIT OPERATIONS
BOILERS (page 1645, Vol 2)
➢ Used in many process facilities.
➢ Main aim of a boiler is to create steam, which is a simple way of transporting heat energy from one plant to
another.
➢ Steam is used to turn turbine blades and produce electricity.
➢ Main aim is to provide safe and efficient control.

Types of Boilers
➢ Coal/Gas.
➢ Biofuel

Control Mechanisms
1. Safety interlocks.
2. Air/Fuel ratio control.
3. Steam drum level.
4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) control.
5. Steam temperature control.
6. Percentage Excess Oxygen (efficiency.)

BOILERS: OPERATION (Page 1645, Fig. 8.6b, Vol 2) - Read

▪ Feedwater goes into the Boiler Drum, and it is heated using
the Tubes.
▪ The water goes into another small drum, the Mud Drum.
▪ Steams comes out, heated gases will be passed between the
Tubes.
▪ These gases heat up the liquid in the drum.
▪ Steam is then exhausted out.
▪ The Air and Fuel are mixed together then ignited to create a
flame.

Furnace
Working Principle of a Boiler – Click Here
▪ Feed water come in at FT-109, and the valve control the amount of water going to the steam drum.
▪ On the Steam Drum, there is water, the Economizer pre-heats the water going through the drum.
▪ Steam flows out of the drum, then go to the Furnace where the steam is Superheated (Superheated steam is used
to drive turbines)
▪ Fuel come in through FT-103 and FT-103B to the furnace.
▪ The air goes through PT-126, the air heater allows the air to be heated.
▪ On the Combustion Zone, combustion will occur and then heat the tubes with the gases produced.
▪ Force Drive fan (FD) forces air to go in.
▪ Induced Drive fan (ID) forces the excess gases produced after heating to be expelled through a Flue Stack

Fuel Combustion: Fuel (oil, natural gas, or solid fuels like coal or biomass) is burned in the Combustion Zone to
produce heat.
Water to Steam: The heat generated warms water in pipes, turning it into steam.
Steam Superheating: The steam rises to the steam drum and passes through a superheater for further heating.
Heat Recovery: An Economizer recovers heat from the flue gas to preheat incoming water, enhancing efficiency.
Air Heating: Air is preheated by an air heater before entering the combustion zone for better fuel burning.
Emission Control: After combustion, flue gas is expelled through a Flue Stack

BOILERS: FIRING RATE DEMAND

Computation of FRD
▪ Feedwater comes into the steam drum.
▪ There is a Pressure (PT), Flow Rate (FT) and the Temperature (TT) and these need to be monitored.
▪ Usually pressure is the Set Point, the Steam Demand is going to be some load.
▪ Logic Computation takes Pressure, Flow Rate and Temperature to compute a Firing Rate Demand (FRD) Signal.
▪ The FRD signal is used to control Air and Fuel intake.
BOILERS: SAFETY INTERLOCKS (Page 1648, Vol 2)
1. Purge Interlock
Used to clean air in the furnace to prevent explosion.
Prevents fuel from being admitted to an unfired furnace until the furnace has been thoroughly air purged.
2. Low Air Flow Interlock / Low Fuel Supply Interlock
Fuel is shut off upon loss of air flow or combustion air fan or blower.
3. Loss Of Flame Interlock
Use flame detection sensors like IR sensor which gives off signal back to the DCS if flame is lost.
4. Fan Interlock
Stop forced draft fan upon loss of induced draft fan.
5. Low Drum Level Interlock
Shuts off fuel on low water level in boiler drum because the tubes will be exposed.
6. High Combustibles Interlock
Shuts off fuel on highly combustible content in the flue gases.

BOILERS: FUEL CONTROL (Page 1660, Vol 2)

Two Categories
1. Measurable Fuels
2. Unmeasured Fuels

Measurable Fuels –
➢ Are fuels that can be measured directly such as oil, diesel, and gas.
Example 1- Click Here & Here

▪ Feedwater comes into the FT-103 and FY-103 for computation.

▪ Differential Pressure is used by orifice to convert the rate of the fuel to a flowrate.
▪ Flowrate is proportional to some constant and Square Root of the Differential Pressure.
▪ To get linear relation between the flowrate and the pressure across the orifice plate.
▪ In closed loop the measurable fuel is controlled.
Flow Transmitter (FT 103): Measures the flow rate of the fuel. It sends a signal proportional to the flow rate to
the flow indicator controller.
Flow Ratio Controller (FRC 103): Receives the signal from the flow transmitter. It compares the measured flow
rate with the ‘Fuel demand’ setpoint and sends a corrective signal to the control valve if necessary.
Control Valve (FC): Adjusts the fuel flow based on the signal from the flow indicator controller to maintain the
desired setpoint.
Remote Actuation or Indication (RA and PI): Suggests remote capabilities for actuation or pressure indication,
which can be part of a larger automated system for monitoring and control.
Example 2 - Click Here & Here

▪ There are 2 fuels used in conjunction to one another.

▪ Fuel Demand signal is sent to a controller.
▪ The controller can see, serving a signal to two Differential valves.
▪ FK is a bias controller and can be tweaked on the DCS.
Gas and Oil come, The FTs measure Flow Rate of Gas and Oil
Flow Ratio Controller maintains the ratio of Gas and Oil using signals from the FTs.
The valves FCs regulate flow of gas and oil based on the signal of FRC.
Total Fuel Calculation - FY combines flow of gas and oil and computes Total Fuel Consumption on an air basis.

Unmeasured Fuels
➢ Are fuels that cannot be measured directly e.g., coal, wood, and bagasse.
➢ To determine calorific content of fuel other methods are used.
Example 1

▪ Coal Demand for FRD comes to the FRC-103.

▪ FRC gives a signal out for more coal.
▪ Coal come in and it is crushed using a Conveyor.
▪ Air is added which conveys dust to the furnace.

Example 2

▪ This uses weight.

▪ Coal come in via a conveyor.
▪ The weight of the coal is then measured.
▪ Then it goes to the crusher mill and to the pulverized.
▪ Can use ultrasonic above the conveyor.
▪ Nuclear source is also used.
▪ Current can also be used for the conveyor motor.
 Coal comes into the Conveyor Belt; the amount is of coal is monitored by weight.
The weight of the coal is converted into a signal, the signal represents the amount of coal being fed into the Mill.
The Mill grinds the coal into a fine powder and Pulverized. The speed of the mill is controlled based on the weight
signal.
After the coal has been pulverized, it is transported pneumatically (by air) to the burner.
If the actual flow rate of coal (as measured by the FT) is less than the Set Point, the control system will increase
the amount of coal being fed into the mill (and vice versa).
Primary Air is supplied to aid in the combustion of the coal.

BOILERS: AIR CONTROL USING DAMPERS

➢ Dampers are butterfly valves which open up to 90 degrees.
➢ Varying dampers air control can be achieved.
➢ Dampers are mechanically driven and can be pneumatically driven as well.
➢ If there is a pump, there is no need for dampers, the flow rate can be controlled using the pump by manipulating
the pump speed.

BOILERS: BALANCED DRAFT AIR CONTROL (Page 1667, Vol 2)

▪ Combustion air will come in.

▪ The Flowrate is measured, then to the flow controller and it is used to control the damper.
▪ The PT, for pressure measuring, it goes to the Pressure Controller and that controls the damper on the output.
▪ The Flow Control on the input is set up for a specific FRD.
▪ Air goes into the furnace and develops some pressure; the pressure then affects the FD fan.
▪ The ID fan pushes out, the damper the measures the pressure.
▪ Air will come in and there will be pressure developed.
▪ The air goes into the boiler furnace through the dampers.
▪ The control measure is the absolute temperature.
BOILERS: CLOSED LOOP AIR/FUEL RATIO CONTROL (Page 1668, Vol 2) - Click Here
➢ Fuel and Air are controlled for correct mixture for good combustion.
➢ The fuel can be measurable or unmeasurable.
➢ If it is measurable Mass Flow Meters measures the fuel directly and a flow controller FRC.
➢ For the air there is FD fan, the fan can be controlled directly using VSD.
➢ If there is a pump there is no need for dampers because the pump speed can be manipulated, therefore
manipulating the Air Flow Rate.
➢ The flow transmitter FT-104 has a square root extraction and it is then sent to the central controller and flow
control.
▪ FRD is sent to both FRCs, FRCs can be tweaked because they are ratio controllers.
▪ FRCs are tweaked because fuel burns faster and slow in some instances.
▪ If the fuel burns faster, then there should be Air-Follow the Fuel.
▪ A certain ratio is set on FRC-104 and the ratio on the Air is manipulated, so that it follows the fuel to maintain a
good combustion.
▪ If the fuel burns slow, there will be Fuel-Follows the Air
▪ FRC-103 is set to a certain ratio, then tweaked/manipulated to have a good combustion.
▪ Fuel Flow and Air Flow ratio are matched for proper Fuel/Air Ratio, this is done by matching Air to Fuel Ratio in
the field combustion.
BOILERS: DRUM LEVEL CONTROL (Page 1670, Vol 2)
Level ‘Shrink’ and Swell

▪ Fuel water comes into the boiler drum, the tubes have to be heated up.
▪ Fuel comes in, then heated up by the burner by heating the tubes.
▪ Level is manipulated by open/close of the valve of the valve.
▪ Side glass on the side of the boiler drum, to give visual indication.
▪ False water indication is caused by having too much impurities on the drum, gives false water information by
bubbles.
▪ TDS control to remove unwanted particles is needed.
▪ When the steam increase, pressure will drop because more steam is pulled off.
▪ False indication will go up, which is known as Boiler Swell.
▪ When the steam drops, pressure will increase.
▪ There is steam flow rate drop, pressure will increase, then push down on the steam form layer.
▪ This will cause Boiler Level to Shrink

Two Element (page 1672, Vol 2) - Read Here

▪ Alternative signal is the Flowrate of steam.
▪ Feedwater comes in, through the drum and valve, steam goes out.
▪ LCR – Level Controller controls the feed water level.
▪ Alternative signal (flow rate of steam) is added to the level to compensate for swell and shrink.
▪ Two Element because Flowrate of the Steam is measured and level of the liquid in the steam drum.
Three Element (page 1672, Vol 2) - Read Here
➢ Has three elements coming in which are Level in the Tank, Flowrate Out, Feedwater Flowrate.

▪ Feedwater comes in through the Flow Transmitter and valve.

▪ Flowrate of the steam going out is compensated for.
▪ Pressure inside the steam drum PT-118 compensate for the density of the steam.
▪ Feedwater flowrate is controlled with the valve.
▪ The level inside the tank is added to the feedwater flowrate.
BOILERS: STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL

▪ The purpose of steam temperature control is to improve the thermal efficiency of steam turbines.
▪ Steam is heated up to a certain point, then it is cut off and regulated using spray water.
▪ Steam come in then heated up, then it comes out and sent to the furnace pipes.
▪ Then ejected to the steam pipes, where there is a steam.
▪ The super heater, which adds water to cool down the steam.
BOILERS: EXCESS O2

➢ Measuring excess Oxygen gives the liquid measure.

➢ With air deficiency there are high total losses, incomplete combustion losses.

➢ With excess air there is flue gas loss (all heat energy is taken and transmitted to the environment) and radiation
and wall losses.
➢ On the middle there is chemically correct air-fuel ratio
➢ Excess oxygen can be used to give chemically correct air-fuel ratio.
➢ At low loads there is less demand for steam
➢ At high loads there is percentage of 15%
CONTROL SCHEME – AIR/FUEL RATIO CONTROL

▪ Air comes in through the fan, fuel come in through FT-103 in the valve.
▪ Firing Rate Demand signal is sent to FRC-104
▪ Oxygen is measured to get the system with a good excess profile.
▪ At the AIT-107 oxygen is measured out of the stack, then sent to a controller (ARC).
▪ The set point of ARC-107 is the steam demand.
▪ As the steam demand increases, boiler load increases, a new set point is set.
▪ As the boiler load increases, the set point is set to go from 5% to 15%.
▪ The output is sent to the ratio compensator.
▪ The output will set the ratio control such that the air is controlled efficiently to match the steam.
 CHILLERS/ REFRIGERATION
➢ Mainly used in plants where, chilled, or cooled water is required.
➢ The small industrial refrigerators are usually provided with either Direct Expansion or Thermostatic Expansion-
Based throttling control.

DIRECT EXPANSION TYPE SYSTEM

➢ If warm is water flowing through the evaporator, but it is not in contact with the evaporator.
➢ The evaporator uses the load to cool water.

Components of refrigeration System

1. Compressor → connected by a series of pipelines, inside the pipelines there is a refrigerant gas which has low
boiling point.
Ammonia, Carbon Dioxide are refrigerant gas examples.
The compressor pushes the refrigerant gas.
2. Condenser and Receiver → usually has a fan, to push away the energy into the atmosphere.
3. Pressure Control Valve (PCV) → refrigerant gas is at high pressure (H.P) after the valve it will be at Low Pressure
(L.P).
Direct Expansion because of PCV, which controls regulation using the valve.
4. Evaporator → direct expansion because of the valve which controls the pressure using regulation. Evaporator is
connected to a load; the evaporator cools warm water.
The refrigerant gas is a liquid when it arrives at the evaporator, it then evaporates into a gas and goes back to the
compressor.

Operating of Expansion Type System.

▪ The Compressor will push the refrigerant gas to The Condenser.
▪ The Condenser condenses the water gas into liquid.
▪ The liquid goes to the PCV, it goes from High Pressure to Low Pressure.
▪ At The Evaporator the liquid evaporates into a gas when it evaporates it cools down or becomes cold, it then
absorbs the heat from the warm water inside the coil.
▪ The heat is taken by the gas, and the gas becomes hot, it then goes to the compressor.
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION TYPE SYSTEM
➢ Oil separator prevents oil from entering the evaporator, condenser, and the valve.
➢ Works the same as the Expansion Type Working Principle – Click Here
▪ Thermostatic Control Valve (TCV) adjusts to allow more or less refrigerant
to pass through depending on the cooling load. This is where the refrigerant
expands and cools.
▪ The refrigerant absorbs heat from the environment in The Evaporator,
changing from a low-pressure liquid into a low-pressure gas.
▪ The low-pressure gas then moves to The Compressor, where it is
compressed into a high-pressure gas.
▪ The high-pressure gas moves to The Condenser where it releases heat and
changes into a high-pressure liquid. This liquid goes through The Receiver
and back to the TCV, completing the cycle.
ON/OFF CONTROL OF SMALL UNITS
Temperature High Switch
➢ Small industrial refrigeration units can be controlled in an on/off manner. In this configuration the machine is
started when the refrigerated water temperature reaches a pre-set high and stopped when it reaches a pre-set
low limit.
➢ This system includes a conventional superheat control valve, a low-pressure-drop evaporator, a reciprocating
on/off compressor, and an air-cooled condenser.
➢ The purpose of this refrigeration package is to maintain the temperature of a chilled water supply to the plant
within some set limits.

Working Principle Temperature High Switch

▪ The High-Temperature Switch (TSH) is the main controller.
▪ Whenever the temperature of the chilled water drops below a pre-set value the refrigeration unit is turned off
▪ And when the chilled water temperature rises to some other level it is restarted.
▪ This on/off cycling control is accomplished by the temperature switch, which is opening and closing a solenoid
valve to keep the water temperature low enough.
▪ The closing of this valve causes the compressor suction pressure to drop.
▪ When it reaches the set point of the Low-Pressure Switch (PSL), it stops The Compressor.
▪ While the unit is running, the expansion valve maintains the refrigerant superheat constant, and the safety
interlocks protect the equipment.
▪ These interlocks include such features as turning off the compressor if the fan motor stops or if the compressor
discharge pressure becomes too high (PSH) for some other reason.
 DISTILLATION COLUMNS
DISTILLATION EQUIPMENT.

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➢ Used in refinery and petrol chemical industries, like Engen, BP, and Sasol
➢ Function of a Distillation column is to separate a raw material to usable products like Crude Oil, pumped to a
distillation Column, then oil is made up of components (x + y = z).
➢ The oil is heated up in the column separation will occur.
Example – Crude Oil – Click Here or Click Here
▪ If crude oil is pumped into the column, which made up x & y (60% & 35%).
▪ The other 5% is other unknown, making up crude oil.
▪ The crude oil is heated up, and separation will occur through different boiling points of x & y.
▪ If x boils faster than y, x will turn into a vapor more faster.
▪ There will be more product of y at the top, at the bottom there will be x, crude will have more of x than y.
▪ There will be a distillate product at the top.
▪ At the bottom there will be a byproduct.

DISTILLATION COLUMNS: LIQUID GAS INTERACTION (Fig 8.19b, Page 1893, Vol. 2)
▪ Inside the column the product is heated up, the vapour will rise up. Separating
trays allow for proper mixing.
▪ The vapour will condensate on the trays
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▪ The tray will be heated by the vapour/steam as well, the condensed vapour will
boil, until the last tray
▪ The top tray will have more concentration of the product.
▪ There will be an overflow, and the condensed separated liquid will mix the
vapour and that aids in the distillation.
DISTILLATION COLUMNS: VARIABLES (Fig 8.19g, Page 1896, Vol. 2)

Variables to be controlled in distillation column are as follows:

Feed Temperature → The product has to come in a certain temperature because if cold product is pumped there will
be an upset in terms of the temperature.
Flow Rate → Flow is controlled by a valve.
Composition → Components of the products, the percentage has to be known. Products come in and has to be heated
up.
Pressure of the product - relates to the temperature of the column, that determine the quality of the product.
If the pressure is not controlled at a decent level the composition of Y will be compromised.
There is a temperature gradient at the bottom, there is a high temperature as you go up the column the
temperature gets low as you go down the column.
The temperature gradient at the column is controlled at a certain level.
Vapour is taken off at the top, then cooled down with chilled/cool water.
The chilled water has a net effect of condensing the vapour. The vapour is turned back into liquid.

DISTILLATION COLUMNS: INFERRING COMPOSITION FROM TEMPERATURE (Fig 8.19s, page 1907, Vol.
2)
 The product contains a composition of X and Y, 1% & 98%.
The operator can measure the composition by taking a sample to the lab, measuring the composition directly and
this is time consuming.
To compensate for this, the temperature is Inferred to the composition (composition is inferred to the
temperature).
If the temperature of the column is known, the concentration will be known as well.

DISTILLATION COLUMNS: DIRECT COMPOSITION MEASUREMENT USING ANALYSERS (Fig 8.19v, page
1908, Vol. 2)

The composition of the product can be found by using an analyser.

The AT (Analytical Transmitter) controls the product going out using a valve.
AT measures the product analytically.
Depending on the set point at ARC, reflux can be manipulated.
If a low concentration of the specific product is measured the valve close
Then more concentration will be pumped back to the distillation column.
Once the concentration levels are good, the valve will open.

DISTILLATION COLUMNS: PRESSURE CONTROL (Fig 8.19ff, Page 1914, Vol. 2)

Column Pressure Control with Inert Present
▪ The pressure control is needed because of inert gases.
▪ Inert gas does not occur all the time.
▪ Inert gases are gases that do not react, these gases blanket the top of the column.
▪ As there are more gases pushing towards the top, the pressure is going to rise. This is going to be released.
▪ To release the pressure by opening PCV 1, opening the valve decreases the pressure of the column.
▪ When the PCV 1 valve is closed, the pressure will increase up until the point it is too high.
▪ PCV 1 will be fully open, the VPC (Vapour Pressure Control) reacts to the high pressure and open up.
▪ The control action V only occurs when there are excessive inert gases present.
▪ Then all the inert gases are vented out to the atmosphere.

COLUMN PRESSURE CONTROL WHEN THE DISTILLATE IS IN THE VAPOR PHASE AND CONTAINS INERT FOR
VARIABLE (Fig 8.19gg, Page 1914, Vol. 2)

▪ The product is taken out as a vapour product D.

▪ Cooling water is not controlled directly, the flow rate is controlled.
▪ The pressure inside the accumulator tank is controlled.
▪ Pressure controller on the column, operates the vapour pressure valve.
▪ Accumulator tank is connected to the distillation column.
▪ Increasing /accelerating level inside the tank will affect the pressure.
▪ The more the valve open, the more condensate
▪ The level is going to rise
▪ There is no effect of inert gases.
COLUMN PRESSURE CONTROL CONSTANT CONDENSER WATER FLOW (Fig 8.19ff, Page 1914, Vol. 2)

▪ There is constant water flow, there is no control over the chilled water.
▪ The vapour condenses, turns into a liquid, the pressure is measured.
▪ The valve controls the accumulated tank pressure, there by controlling the distillation column pressure as well.
▪ Taken off of the liquid into the vapour to control the amount of level.

NEGATIVE PRESSURE (Fig 8.19kk, Page 1917, Vol. 2)

Vacuum Column Pressure Control.
Negative Pressure

Steam Injector

▪ Air and Steam are directed towards a Steam Injector. The steam path is regulated by a valve controlled by a
Pressure Indicator Controller (PIC).
▪ PIC adjusts the steam valve to regulate the pressure within the system.
▪ Pressure Transmitter (PT) measures the pressure and provides feedback to the PRC.
▪ Level Transmitter (LT) and Level Indicator Controller (LIC) monitor and control the liquid level within the
column.
 DISTILLATION COLUMNS: FEED CONTROL
➢ The use of a temperature-flow cascade loop improves the column, feed temperature controls provided by a
preheater.

Heat Excreted

▪ The aim to heat up the feed and have it gone to the distillation column at a specific flowrate.
▪ Temperature control - there is a cascade control, the temperature of the feed is measured directly.
▪ The set point is sent to Temperature Recording Controller (TRC), of the primary loop-Temperature Controller.
▪ The output is sent to the FRC of the secondary loop, then the steam is manipulated.
▪ By allowing moist to enter the heat exchanger, the feed will be heated up faster.
▪ The purpose of the cascade is to speed up, the process.
▪ To improve the response characteristic, the cascade control is used.
▪ The flow rate of the feed is measured by FT then taken to FC which will receive the set point.
▪ By manipulating the valve close to the column, the feed flowrate is manipulated.
▪ Feed flow rate is usually a constant
▪ Feed flowrate and feed temperature have a direct impact on the distillation column.

DISTILLATION COLUMNS: REBOILER CONTROL

➢ The Heat Content of The Bottoms Products Can Be Utilized to Preheat the Feed to The Column in An Economizer
Preheater
▪ The feed is heated up.
▪ The economiser instead of using steam the heat from the reboiler passed to the feed.
▪ If the steam comes in the steam Reboiler it will heat up the bottom section, it will be circulated.
▪ The heat will go out on the bottom product (B)
▪ Economiser is also a heat exchanger, the feed (F), coming to the economiser heats up using the bottom’s
temperature.
▪ There is a three-way valve, the bottom can move directly to it or it can bypass it.
▪ There is no cascade control set point is set on the TRC.
▪ LT is the level of the bottom’s product.
▪ The amount of liquid taken out has a direct relation to the level in the distillation column.
 HEAT EXCHANGERS

COOL
HOT

➢ Heat Exchangers are used to convey heat from one substance to another.
➢ If a hot object is close to a cool object, the two objects will reach a medium temperature.
➢ Example of a heat exchanger is a car radiator, which has normal water passed to the engine block.
➢ Basic Law of Thermodynamics will be used to explain heat exchangers.

𝑇2 −𝑇1

𝐸 = 𝐶𝑝𝑊 (∆𝑇)

❖ The specific heat capacity (𝐶𝑝) is unique to the substance/liquid flowing.

❖ If steam comes in through the process fluid (𝑊) is relating to the mass of flow rate, the more liquid going into the
exchanger the more heat energy is needed to come through from the steam.
❖ Flow rate is important because an increasing process flow rate will require an increase in steam flow rate (𝑊𝑠)
❖ The more steam energy the more energy transfer there will be.

𝐻𝑠𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊𝑝𝑊(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

➢ Heat exchangers in industry are used to pass heat from one plant to another.
➢ In a steam heater there are four process variables (two flows, two temperatures) and one defining equation
(conservation of energy), hence the number of degrees of freedom of that process is three.

Heat Exchanger Symbol

HEAT EXCHANGERS: BASIC FEEDBACK CONTROL (Page 2079, Fig. 8.29e, Vol. 2)
➢ The feedback temperature controller of a process heater can throttle either the inlet or the outlet of the heating
medium on this nonlinear and variable gain process.

▪ The process come through by manipulating the valve, how much we want to heat up can be manipulated.
▪ The position of the TIT is crucial, it must not be too far as it will give a lag.
▪ Valve is on the cooling line.

HEAT EXCHANGERS: 3 WAY VALVES (PROPORTIONING VS. MIXING) (Fig 8.29f, Page 2080, Vol. 2)
1. Diverter Valve – Click Here
➢ When a diverter valve is used to control a cooler, it does not eliminate nonlinearity, but it does speed the response
and minimize fouling.
➢ The use of a three-way valve does not change the nonlinear nature of the heat exchanger, because the process
gain will still vary with load, but the dynamic response of the loop will still be improved.
➢ This is because the bypass will shorten the time delay between a change in valve position and the response at the
temperature sensor.

Operation of a Diverter
▪ liquid flow through an exchange from a three-way valve.
▪ Liquid will bypass the heat exchanger if the valve is closed and flow to the D direction.
▪ Liquid will not heat up or cool down.
▪ If it is open, it will not flow to the D-direction but W direction all the way to the heat exchanger.

2. Mixing Valve – Click Here

➢ The valve is on the outlet of the exchanger, it is called the Mixing Valve.
➢ A mixing valve can be used to control the cooler. It has a flow to open inner valve for stability.
➢ Liquid flow through the valve, which has two inputs and one output when the valve is closed the liquid flows
through the exchanger.
➢ when the valve is opened it will bypass the exchanger.
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3. Split Range Configuration

Exchanger Bypass – Click Here
➢ Two single seated valves can be used instead of 3-way valve.
➢ This is called Split Range Configuration, in Split Range Configuration there is increasing signal valves opening and
closing.
➢ There is an increasing signal, the valves open and close.
➢ FO will fully open on low signal and FC will fully close.
➢ As FC opens up, FO will close.

HEAT EXCHANGERS: CONDENSATE TRAPS

➢ Other mechanisms to heat exchanger like Condensate Traps

Two Control Loops

➢ Low condensing pressure situation is a result of the combination of low load and high heat transfer surface area,
it is possible to prevent it from developing by reducing the heat-transfer area, this can be achieved by using a
Control Loop.
➢ The steam trap has been replaced by a level control loop.
➢ With this instrumentation, it is possible to adjust the size of the heater by changing the level set point to match
the process load.
➢ The use of two control loops can maintain sensitive temperature control without condensate removal problems.
➢ Allows for pressure balancing.
 Continuous Drainer Traps
➢ There is a small float ball and float assembly.
➢ When there is a steam passing through the heat exchanger and it is cooled down, the heat exchanger will collect
Condensate, which is a negative impact as it affects the heat transfer.
➢ This is known as a Steam/condensate Trap it collects the condensate in another vessel.
➢ When the condensate level increases to high levels the FC valve will open.

HEAT EXCHANGER PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION

Plate and Shell Tube

Shell Tube – Click Here or Shell Tube Operation

Steam Tube
Process

Process

➢ It has a shell.
➢ There is no direct contact between the steam and the process.
➢ If there is a leakage, the steam is only going to come into contact with the process.
➢ It is In-expensive compared to the plate.
➢ It is simple to construct.
➢ The process and steam are in an opposite direction.
Plate – Click Here

Steam
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Process

➢ Series of plates stacked together.

➢ Heat generated will radiate through the plates to the cooler sections.
➢ When there is a leakage there is no direct contact between the steam and the process.
➢ Used in daily industry.
 pH MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL.
➢ pH = -log (𝐻+), range of 0-14, (𝐻+||| 𝐻−) − High 𝐻+ -> acidic solution.
➢ Low 𝐻+-> alkaline solution.
➢ Large rangeability and sensitivity.
➢ Dead time is long and can be severe on most control systems.
➢ pH is a non-linear process.
➢ pH is used in wastewater treatment plants, pharma companies.

pH Percentage Hydrogen

Hydrogen ions

Hydroxyl ions

➢ pH is the negative log of the amount of H+, the more the H+ the more acidic it is.
➢ The more the OH-, there more alkaline it is.
➢ Highly sensitive at the neutral regions
➢ At the neutral points, change from basic to acidic is very fast.
➢ Some systems are batch systems are batch mixed process, the liquid is stopped from flowing in, then it is mixed
with a reagent which an acid or base to neutralize the solution.
➢ The mixer is allowed to reach a prescribed mixer value.
➢ Continuous Process - liquid is continuously allowed to enter the tank and the reagent is continuously allowed to
enter the tank.
➢ The process of mixing and change in pH is continuous.
➢ Sometime will be needed to get pH to change from one point to another.
 pH Measurement and Control

pH Set Point

➢ This is a continuous method of controlling pH.

➢ The product is manipulated, pH is measured by pH meter which gives a signal or feedback to the controller which will
control the valve manipulating the reagent (Acid or Basic Solution).

Titration Curves Strong Base - Strong Acid

▪ Between 0 and 3 it is easy to control, between 3 and 12 become increasingly difficult to

control because the titration curve at those points is very steep.
▪ Any change in a valve leads to large swing in pH.
▪ Between 12 and 14 it will be easier to control.

➢ Steep titration curve near the middle spectrum of pH.

➢ Strong Base-Weak Acid, Weak Base - Strong Acid and Strong Base - Strong Acid are difficult to control.
 ▪ Curve is not steep.
▪ A curve can be used, and the process can be easily controlled.
▪ When doing pH control there must be titration curve available to
distinguish the type of system you have.

➢ If you have a high gain system, then the control cannot be used.

Typical Problems With pH Control

1. Large dead time with process reaction.
2. Instrumentation and/or F.C.E nonlinearities.
3. Inherent nonlinear nature of process.
4. High sensitivity with other variables.
5. Inconsistent mixing/agitation.
6. Valve turndown ratio insufficient.
7. Incorrect sensor placement.
8. Sensor degradation and fouling.

Feedback Control Techniques for pH

1. PID control may be suitable for weak acid/weak base solutions with an appropriate valve.
2. PID control with gain scheduling.
3. Model predictive control.
4. Fuzzy control.
5. PID control with fuzzy gain scheduling.
6. Artificial neural network control.

DEAD TIME COMPENSATION USING SMITH PREDICTOR

▪ Smith Predictor is a feedforward controller.

▪ System has a large dead time, like when putting acid in a tank it will take a long time to react which whatever.
▪ Reagent that we try to mix it with
▪ The controller sends a signal to a valve, which affects the process.
▪ Disturbances could be form of changing the pH of the Acid.
▪ If the model and process where the signal coming out would be zero.
 Set Point – the desired pH valve that has set to maintain.
Error – the difference between the set point and the actual pH value (Process Variable, PV).
Controller – takes the error as input and generates a controller output.
Process – represents the actual pH system, it could be a chemical reactor, water treatment plant.
Disturbance – external factors affecting the pH, such as changes in temperature, impurities, or flow rate.
Process Model – includes parameters like gain, time constants and deadtime, predicts how the pH will respond to
disturbances. It provides estimates of the pH considering the deadtime.
Predicted Process Variable with Disturbances – the model’s prediction of pH with disturbances.
Disturbances Free PV – the model’s prediction of pH with no disturbances.
Estimated Disturbances – the difference between the predicted pH with disturbances and the disturbance free
prediction. The estimation helps compensate for deadtime.

Split Range Control Techniques for pH – Click here

➢ Split Range Control can be used to improve pH.
➢ There are two valves, operating on 1 controller.
➢ depending on pH of the process the acid valve/base valve can be opened/closed to control the pH.

pHT-1 measures the pH level in the TK-100

The pH Indicator Controller (pHIC) receives the pH measurement.
CV-101 Controls acid flow from the acid feed tank (TK-101).
CV-102 Controls base flow from the base feed tank (TK-102).

Operation
▪ If pH is too high (Alkaline), the control valve CV-101 opens to allow acid flow into TK-100.
▪ If pH is too low (Acidic), the control valve CV-102 opens to allow base to flow into the tank TK-100

COORDINATION OF CONTROL VALVES FOR SPLIT RANGE FLOW CONTROL

Valve Position
REGENT RANGEABILITY
➢ Feed forward added to the flow rate.

▪ Uses Small and Large valve to improve rangeability of

the pH system.
▪ Splitter Block splits the signal between the two valves.
▪ When pH is neutral Small Valve is used for control.
▪ When pH is high the Large Valve is used for control.

pH STAGE CONTROL (Page 2123, Fig. 8.23i, Vol. 2)

▪ The process involves three tanks, each with specific pH

set points for the influent and effluent.
▪ Tank 1 receives influent with a valve set at pH = 1 or 13,
indicating extreme acidic or basic conditions.
▪ Tank 2 connected to Tank 1, it adjusts the pH to a less
extreme level, set at pH = 3 or 11.
▪ Tank 3 further neutralizes the pH to a range of 7 to 8,
Agitator

which is close to neutral.

▪ At the output comes out pH

▪ Reagent comes in, then it goes to the 3 different tanks 1, 2 and 3 via control valves.
▪ Process influent comes in, there are 3 tanks, 3 agitators - M and 3 controllers -pHC.
▪ There 3 set points as well.
▪ On each stage the pH is changed, it gets small until the desired pH is reached.
pH LIME BASE NEUTRALIZATION

▪ Lime is mixed.
▪ Process comes through the Feed; powder lime is mixed with water.
▪ Mixing happens at the reagent solution then it is added to the feed via Valve 1
▪ Then the pH is controlled using Valve 1

SOME pH CONTROL DESIGN RULES TO REMEMBER

1. Instruments are sometimes the source of problems, i.e., noise, drift, hysteresis.
2. Sensor location is vital and control setpoint should not be near the steep part of the titration curve. There Sensor
lag time. More than 2 sensors can be used on critical applications.
3. pH electrode fouling may occur, cross contamination and submersion assembly issues.
4. Limit the effect of dead time with good regent control valve placement.
5. A regent flow meter is sometimes necessary.
6. Use of feed forward signals for the determination of suitable setpoints.
7. Inline sensors should be selected over other types due to reduced complexity, cost and reduced dead time.
8. Use of smaller mixing tanks or inline mixing systems.
 CHEMICAL REACTORS
➢ Common in plants to mix two products.
➢ Need for precise recipe charging.
➢ Minimum heat-up time without temperature overshoot.
➢ Maximize reaction rate within limits of coolant availability.
➢ Accurate and fast endpoint determination.

CSTR CONTROL - CONTINUOUS STIRRED TANK REACTOR

▪ Reactant product goes in A+B, C is the product.

▪ Coolant goes in the Jacketed Reactor.
▪ Heat is generated when A+B are mixed together.
▪ Same time there is a catalyst to speed up the reaction.
▪ If the reaction goes too slow it causes instability.

TYPE OF REACTORS
1. Batch Reactor – Closed
2. Continuous Reactor

1. Batch Reactor – Closed

▪ Batch reactor is fast.

▪ Add A + B stir to allow to mix.
▪ Jacket is controlled around the reactor.
▪ Stirring is stopped and C is extracted.
 ▪ Concentration, temperature, and heat variables are shown as a function of
time for a consecutive reaction, where A is first converted to B and then B
into C.
▪ In this reaction the heat generated by the reaction is greater during the
conversion of A to B, but the reactor temperature is controlled at an
optimum setting to ensure maximum conversion in a minimum amount of
time.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF REACTOR IS ESSENTIAL.

➢ Thermal runaway due to exothermic reaction.
➢ Use of catalyst
➢ Reaction rate versus temperature

TEMPERATURE COOLING SYSTEMS (Page 1738, Vol 2)

➢ Temperature sensor location aims maximize metal to metal contact, avoid corrosion, minimize distance between
multiple sensors, reduce thermal heat lag.
➢ Coolant flow rate considerations: constant flow rate is dangerous when product feed is variable, water flow
through heat exchanger used for regulation, jacket dead time must be considered to reduce cycling effect.

1. Once Through Cooling

▪ Has a reactor vessel which has a jacket around it.
▪ Heating medium goes through and then it gets returned back.
▪ There is a simple feedback control, TT which is measuring the reaction inside the vessel, A+B measuring the
temperature then controlling the temperature reaction using the valve by adjusting how much of heat medium
is going through the jacket.
▪ In chemical reactors with once-through cooling, the coolant temperature is not uniform, and the process dead
time varies with load.

2. Re-Circulated Cooling

▪ The heating medium is circulated, through the jacket.

▪ The TT is located there to maximise metal to metal contact to get a much quicker response, to avoid corrosion, to
minimize the distance between multiple sensors and to reduce thermal heat lag.
▪ Coolant Flow Rate - there should not be a constant cooling flow rate.
▪ Dead time need to be considered.
Reactor Gain Drops with Increased Cooling.
Highly Nonlinear.
CASCADE CONTROL (MASTER FASTER THAN SLAVE) - Page 1740, Fig. 8.9j, Vol. 2

▪ Master Controller (PID) is the primary controller that

sends setpoint to Slave Controller.
▪ It uses a PID algorithm to quickly respond to changes in
the process.
▪ Slave Controller (Proportional) is the Secondary
Controller, which operates on proportional control only,
contributing to 15% of the operation.
▪ It follows the Setpoint determined by the Master
Controller.

▪ The Master Controller is on the inside of the reactor which sends set point to the Slave controller.
▪ The slave Controller responds to the temperature on the coolant side.
▪ There is only one heating medium.

TWO DIRECTIONAL CASCADE LOOP - Page 1741, Vol 2, Fig. 8.9i

▪ There is heating Supply Medium and the Cooling Medium.

▪ There is a Split Rage Configuration
▪ It is a Cascade Control coupled with Split Rage Control
▪ Cooling medium will be a range of 0-50% and the heating medium will be between 50-100%.

Master Controller TRC sets the primary setpoint

Slave Controller receives the setpoint from the Master Controller.
Temperature Transmitters (TT) measures the process temperature and provide feedback to the controllers.
Manual Loading Station allows manual setting of the temperature limit.
Split Range Configuration manages the flow of Heating and Cooling mediums to maintain the desired
temperature, with heating adjustable between 50-100% and cooling between 0-50%.