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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Flag of UNESCO
Abbreviation UNESCO
Formation 16 November 1945; 78 years ago
Type United Nations specialized agency
Legal status Active
Headquarters Paris, France
Director-General Audrey Azoulay
Deputy Director-General Xing Qu
Parent organization United Nations Economic and Social Council
Website [Link] Edit this at Wikidata
icon Politics portal
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO;
pronounced /juːˈnɛskoʊ/)[1][a] is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN)
with the aim of promoting world peace and security through international
cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture.[2][3] It has 194 member
states and 12 associate members,[4] as well as partners in the non-governmental,
intergovernmental and private sector.[5] Headquartered in Paris, France, UNESCO has
53 regional field offices[6] and 199 national commissions.[7][8]

UNESCO was founded in 1945 as the successor to the League of Nations' International
Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.[9] UNESCO's founding mission, which was
shaped by the events of World War II, is to advance peace, sustainable development
and human rights by facilitating collaboration and dialogue among nations.[10] It
pursues this objective through five major programme areas: education, natural
sciences, social/human sciences, culture and communication/information. UNESCO
sponsors projects that improve literacy, provide technical training and education,
advance science, protect independent media and press freedom, preserve regional and
cultural history, and promote cultural diversity.[11][12][13] The organization
prominently helps establish and secure World Heritage Sites of cultural and natural
importance.[14]

UNESCO is governed by the General Conference composed of member states and

associate members, which meets biannually to set the agency's programs and budget.
It also elects members of the executive board, which manages UNESCO's work, and
appoints every four years a Director-General, who serves as UNESCO's chief
administrator.

History
Origins
UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League
of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, to elect a Commission to study the
feasibility of having nations freely share cultural, educational and scientific
achievements.[15][16] This new body, the International Committee on Intellectual
Cooperation (ICIC), was created in 1922[17] and counted such figures as Henri
Bergson, Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, Robert A. Millikan, and Gonzague de Reynold
among its members (being thus a small commission of the League of Nations
essentially centred on Western Europe[18]). The International Institute for
Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC) was then created in Paris in September 1924, to act
as the executing agency for the ICIC.[19] However, the onset of World War II
largely interrupted the work of these predecessor organizations.[20] As for private
initiatives, the International Bureau of Education (IBE) began to work as a non-
governmental organization in the service of international educational development
since December 1925[21] and joined UNESCO in 1969, after having established a joint
commission in 1952.[22]

Creation
After the signing of the Atlantic Charter and the Declaration of the United
Nations, the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME) began meetings in
London which continued from 16 November 1942 to 5 December 1945. On 30 October
1943, the necessity for an international organization was expressed in the Moscow
Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States and the
USSR. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October
1944. Upon the proposal of CAME and in accordance with the recommendations of the
United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO), held in San
Francisco from April to June 1945, a United Nations Conference for the
establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened
in London from 1 to 16 November 1945 with 44 governments represented. The idea of
UNESCO was largely developed by Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the
United Kingdom, who had a great deal of influence in its development.[23] At the
ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, and
a Preparatory Commission was established.[24] The Preparatory Commission operated
between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946 — the date when UNESCO's Constitution
came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state.
[25]

The first General Conference took place from 19 November to 10 December 1946, and
elected Julian Huxley to Director-General.[26] United States Army colonel,
university president and civil rights advocate Blake R. Van Leer joined as a member
as well.[27] The Constitution was amended in November 1954 when the General
Conference resolved that members of the executive board would be representatives of
the governments of the States of which they are nationals and would not, as before,
act in their personal capacity.[28] This change in governance distinguished UNESCO
from its predecessor, the ICIC, in how member states would work together in the
organization's fields of competence. As member states worked together over time to
realize UNESCO's mandate, political and historical factors have shaped the
organization's operations in particular during the Cold War, the decolonization
process, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[29][30]

Development
Among the major achievements of the organization is its work against racism, for
example through influential statements on race starting with a declaration of
anthropologists (among them was Claude Lévi-Strauss) and other scientists in 1950
and concluding with the 1978 Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice.[31]

In 1955, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO saying that some of the
organization's publications amounted to "interference" in the country's "racial
problems".[32] It rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson
Mandela.[33][34]

One of the early work of UNESCO in the education field was a pilot project on
fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, which was launched in 1947.
Following this project one of expert missions to other countries, included a 1949
mission to Afghanistan.[35] UNESCO recommended in 1948 that Member countries should
make free primary education compulsory and universal.[35] The World Conference on
Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, started a global movement in 1990 to
provide basic education for all children, youths and adults.[35] In 2000, World
Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, led member governments to commit for achieving
basic education for all in 2015.[35]
The World Declaration on Higher Education was adopted by UNESCO's World Conference
on Higher Education on 9 October 1998,[36] with the aim of setting global standards
on the ideals and accessibility of higher education.

UNESCO's early activities in culture included the International Campaign to Save

the Monuments of Nubia, launched in 1960.[37] The purpose of the campaign was to
move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after
the construction of the Aswan Dam. During the 20-year campaign, 22 monuments and
architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series
of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan), Fes (Morocco), Kathmandu (Nepal),
Borobudur (Indonesia) and the Acropolis of Athens (Greece).[38] The organization's
work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.[39] In 1976, the World
Heritage Committee was established and the first sites were included on the World
Heritage List in 1978.[40] Since then important legal instruments on cultural
heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003
(Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage)[41] and 2005
(Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
Expressions).[42]

An intergovernmental meeting of UNESCO in Paris in December 1951 led to the

creation of the European Council for Nuclear Research, which was responsible for
establishing the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)[43] later on, in
1954.[44]

Arid Zone programming, 1948–1966, is another example of an early major UNESCO

project in the field of natural sciences.[45]

In 1968, UNESCO organized the first intergovernmental conference aimed at

reconciling the environment and development, a problem that continues to be
addressed in the field of sustainable development. The main outcome of the 1968
conference was the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme.[46]

UNESCO has been credited with the diffusion of national science bureaucracies.[47]

In the field of communication, the "free flow of ideas by word and image" has been
in UNESCO's constitution since it was established, following the experience of the
Second World War when control of information was a factor in indoctrinating
populations for aggression.[48] In the years immediately following World War II,
efforts were concentrated on reconstruction and on the identification of needs for
means of mass communication around the world. UNESCO started organizing training
and education for journalists in the 1950s.[48] In response to calls for a "New
World Information and Communication Order" in the late 1970s, UNESCO established
the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems,[49] which
produced the 1980 MacBride report (named after the chair of the commission, the
Nobel Peace Prize laureate Seán MacBride).[49] The same year, UNESCO created the
International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), a multilateral
forum designed to promote media development in developing countries.[50] In 1993,
UNESCO's General Conference endorsed the Windhoek Declaration on media independence
and pluralism, which led the UN General Assembly to declare the date of its
adoption, 3 May, as World Press Freedom Day.[51] Since 1997, UNESCO has awarded the
UNESCO / Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize every 3 May.[52]

21st century
UNESCO admitted Palestine as a member in 2011.[53][54]

Laws passed in the United States after Palestine applied for UNESCO and WHO
membership in April 1989[55][56] mean that the US cannot contribute financially to
any UN organization that accepts Palestine as a full member.[57][58] As a result,
the US withdrew its funding, which had accounted for about 22% of UNESCO's budget.
[59] Israel also reacted to Palestine's admittance to UNESCO by freezing Israeli
payments to UNESCO and imposing sanctions on the Palestinian Authority,[60] stating
that Palestine's admittance would be detrimental "to potential peace talks".[61]
Two years after they stopped paying their dues to UNESCO, the US and Israel lost
UNESCO voting rights in 2013 without losing the right to be elected; thus, the US
was elected as a member of the executive board for the period 2016–19.[62] In 2019,
Israel left UNESCO after 69 years of membership, with Israel's ambassador to the UN
Danny Danon writing: "UNESCO is the body that continually rewrites history,
including by erasing the Jewish connection to Jerusalem... it is corrupted and
manipulated by Israel's enemies... we are not going to be a member of an
organisation that deliberately acts against us".[63]

2023 saw Russia excluded from the executive committee for the first time, after
failing to get sufficient votes.[64] The United States stated it's intent to rejoin
UNESCO in 2023, 5 years after leaving, and to pay it's $600 million in back dues.
[65] The US was readmitted by the UNESCO General Conference that July.[66]

Activities

UNESCO offices in Brasília

UNESCO implements its activities through the five programme areas: education,
natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, and communication and
information.[67]

UNESCO supports research in comparative education, provides expertise and fosters

partnerships to strengthen national educational leadership and the capacity of
countries to offer quality education for all. This includes the
UNESCO Chairs, an international network of 644 UNESCO Chairs, involving over 770
institutions in 126 countries
Environmental Conservation Organization
Convention against Discrimination in Education adopted in 1960
Organization of the International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA) in an
interval of 12 years
Publication of the Education for All Global Monitoring Report
Publication of the Four Pillars of Learning seminal document
UNESCO ASPNet, an international network of more than 12,000 schools in 182
countries
UNESCO does not accredit institutions of higher learning.[68]

UNESCO also issues public statements to educate the public:

Seville Statement on Violence: A statement adopted by UNESCO in 1989 to refute the
notion that humans are biologically predisposed to organized violence.
Designating projects and places of cultural and scientific significance, such as:
Global Geoparks Network
Biosphere reserves, through the Programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB), since
1971
City of Literature; in 2007, the first city to be given this title was Edinburgh,
the site of Scotland's first circulating library.[69] In 2008, Iowa City, Iowa,
became the City of Literature.[70][71]
Endangered languages and linguistic diversity projects (UNESCO Atlas of the World's
Languages in Danger)
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Memory of the World International Register, since 1997
Water resources management, through the International Hydrological Programme (IHP),
since 1965
World Heritage Sites
World Digital Library
Encouraging the "free flow of ideas by images and words" by:
Promoting freedom of expression, including freedom of the press and freedom of
information legislation, through the Division of Freedom of Expression and Media
Development,[72] including the International Programme for the Development of
Communication[73]
Promoting the safety of journalists and combatting impunity for those who attack
them,[74] through coordination of the UN Plan of Action on the Safety of
Journalists and the Issue of Impunity[75]
Promoting universal access to and preservation of information and open solutions
for sustainable development through the Knowledge Societies Division,[76] including
the Memory of the World Programme[77] and Information for All Programme[78]
Promoting pluralism, gender equality and cultural diversity in the media
Promoting Internet Universality and its principles, that the Internet should be (I)
human Rights-based, (ii) Open, (iii) Accessible to all, and (iv) nurtured by Multi-
stakeholder participation (summarized as the acronym R.O.A.M.)[79]
Generating knowledge through publications such as World Trends in Freedom of
Expression and Media Development,[80] the UNESCO Series on Internet Freedom,[81]
and the Media Development Indicators,[82] as well as other indicator-based studies.
Promoting events, such as:
International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for
the Children of the World: 2001–2010, proclaimed by the UN in 1998
World Press Freedom Day, 3 May each year, to promote freedom of expression and
freedom of the press as a basic human right and as crucial components of any
healthy, democratic and free society.
Criança Esperança in Brazil, in partnership with Rede Globo, to raise funds for
community-based projects that foster social integration and violence prevention.
International Literacy Day, 8 September each year
International Year for the Culture of Peace, 2000
Health Education for Behavior Change programme in partnership with the Ministry of
Education of Kenya which was financially supported by the Government of Azerbaijan
to promote health education among 10-19-year-old young people who live in informal
camp in Kibera, Nairobi. The project was carried out between September 2014 –
December 2016.[83]
World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development 21 May each year
Founding and funding projects, such as:
Migration Museums Initiative: Promoting the establishment of museums for cultural
dialogue with migrant populations.[84]
UNESCO-CEPES, the European Centre for Higher Education: established in 1972 in
Bucharest, Romania, as a decentralized office to promote international co-operation
in higher education in Europe as well as Canada, USA and Israel. Higher Education
in Europe is its official journal.
Free Software Directory: since 1998 UNESCO and the Free Software Foundation have
jointly funded this project cataloguing free software.
FRESH, Focusing Resources on Effective School Health[85]
OANA, Organization of Asia-Pacific News Agencies
International Council of Science
UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors
ASOMPS, Asian Symposium on Medicinal Plants and Spices, a series of scientific
conferences held in Asia
Botany 2000, a programme supporting taxonomy, and biological and cultural diversity
of medicinal and ornamental plants, and their protection against environmental
pollution
The UNESCO Collection of Representative Works, translating works of world
literature both to and from multiple languages, from 1948 to 2005
GoUNESCO, an umbrella of initiatives to make heritage fun supported by UNESCO, New
Delhi Office[86]
UNESCO-CHIC BIRUP, UNESCO-CHIC Group (China) Biosphere Rural and Urbanization
Programme[87]
The UNESCO transparency portal[88] has been designed to enable public access to
information regarding the Organization's activities, such as its aggregate budget
for a biennium, as well as links to relevant programmatic and financial documents.
These two distinct sets of information are published on the IATI registry,
respectively based on the IATI Activity Standard and the IATI Organization
Standard.

There have been proposals to establish two new UNESCO lists. The first proposed
list will focus on movable cultural heritage such as artifacts, paintings, and
biofacts. The list may include cultural objects, such as the Jōmon Venus of Japan,
the Mona Lisa of France, the Gebel el-Arak Knife of Egypt, The Ninth Wave of
Russia, the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük of Turkey, the David (Michelangelo) of
Italy, the Mathura Herakles of India, the Manunggul Jar of the Philippines, the
Crown of Baekje of South Korea, The Hay Wain of the United Kingdom and the Benin
Bronzes of Nigeria. The second proposed list will focus on the world's living
species, such as the komodo dragon of Indonesia, the panda of China, the bald eagle
of North American countries, the aye-aye of Madagascar, the Asiatic lion of India,
the kākāpō of New Zealand, and the mountain tapir of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.
[89][90]

Media
UNESCO and its specialized institutions issue a number of magazines.

Created in 1945, The UNESCO Courier magazine states its mission to "promote
UNESCO's ideals, maintain a platform for the dialogue between cultures and provide
a forum for international debate". Since March 2006 it has been available free
online, with limited printed issues. Its articles express the opinions of the
authors which are not necessarily the opinions of UNESCO. There was a hiatus in
publishing between 2012 and 2017.[91]

In 1950, UNESCO initiated the quarterly review Impact of Science on Society (also
known as Impact) to discuss the influence of science on society. The journal ceased
publication in 1992.[92] UNESCO also published Museum International Quarterly from
the year 1948.

Official UNESCO NGOs

UNESCO has official relations with 322 international non-governmental organizations
(NGOs).[93] Most of these are what UNESCO calls "operational"; a select few are
"formal".[94] The highest form of affiliation to UNESCO is "formal associate", and
the 22 NGOs[95] with formal associate (ASC) relations occupying offices at UNESCO
are:

Abbr Organization
IB International Baccalaureate
CCIVS Co-ordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service
CIPSH International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies (Conseil
International de Philosophie et des Sciences Humaines; publishes Diogenes)
CIOFF International Council of Organizations of Folklore Festivals and Folk Arts
(Conseil International des Organisations de Festivals de Folklore et d'Arts
Traditionnels)
EI Education International
IAU International Association of Universities
IFTC International Council for Film, Television and Audiovisual Communication
ICOM International Council of Museums
ICSSPE International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education
ICA International Council on Archives
ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites
IFJ International Federation of Journalists
IFLA International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
IFPA International Federation of Poetry Associations
IMC International Music Council
IPA International Police Association
INSULA International Scientific Council for Island Development
ISC International Science Council (formerly ICSU and ISSC)
ITI International Theatre Institute
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
IUTAO International Union of Technical Associations and Organizations
UIA Union of International Associations
WAN World Association of Newspapers
WFEO World Federation of Engineering Organizations
WFUCA World Federation of UNESCO Clubs, Centres and Associations

UNESCO Institute for Water Education in Delft

Institutes and centres
The institutes are specialized departments of the organization that support
UNESCO's programme, providing specialized support for cluster and national offices.

Abbr Name Location

IBE International Bureau of Education Geneva[96]
UIL UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning Hamburg[97]
IIEP UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning Paris
(headquarters) and Buenos Aires and Dakar (regional offices)[98]
IITE UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education Moscow[99]
IICBA UNESCO International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa Addis
Ababa[100]
IESALC UNESCO International Institute for Higher Education in Latin America
and the Caribbean Caracas[101]
MGIEP Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development
New Delhi[102]
UNESCO-UNEVOC UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational
Education and Training Bonn[103]
ICWRGC International Centre for Water Resources and Global Change Koblenz[104]
IHE IHE-Delft Institute for Water Education Delft[105]
ICTP International Centre for Theoretical Physics Trieste[106]
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics Montreal[107]
Prizes
UNESCO awards 26 prizes[108] in education, natural sciences, social and human
sciences, culture, communication and information as well as peace:

Education
UNESCO/King Sejong Literacy Prize
UNESCO/Confucius Prize for Literacy
UNESCO-Japan Prize on Education for Sustainable Development
UNESCO Prize for Girls' and Women's Education
UNESCO/Hamdan Bin Rashid Al-Maktoum Prize for Outstanding Practice and Performance
in Enhancing the Effectiveness of Teachers
UNESCO King Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa Prize for the Use of Information and
Communication Technologies in Education
Natural Sciences
L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science
UNESCO/Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science
UNESCO-Equatorial Guinea International Prize for Research in the Life Sciences
Carlos J. Finlay Prize for Microbiology
UNESCO/Sultan Qaboos Prize for Environmental Preservation
UNESCO-Russia Mendeleev International Prize in the Basic Sciences
UNESCO-Al Fozan International Prize for the Promotion of Young Scientists in STEM
Michel Batisse Award for Biosphere Reserve Management
Social and Human Sciences
UNESCO Avicenna Prize for Ethics in Science
UNESCO/Juan Bosch Prize for the Promotion of Social Science Research in Latin
America and the Caribbean
UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize for the Promotion of Tolerance and Non-Violence
UNESCO-Sharjah Prize for Arab Culture
UNESCO/International José Martí Prize
UNESCO-UNAM / Jaime Torres Bodet Prize in social sciences, humanities and arts
Culture
Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguarding and Management of Cultural
Landscapes (UNESCO-Greece)
Communication and Information
UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize
UNESCO/Emir Jaber al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah Prize to promote Quality Education for
Persons with Intellectual Disabilities
UNESCO/Jikji Memory of the World Prize
Peace
Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize
Inactive prizes
International Simón Bolívar Prize (inactive since 2004)
UNESCO Prize for Human Rights Education
UNESCO/Obiang Nguema Mbasogo International Prize for Research in the Life Sciences
(inactive since 2010)
UNESCO Prize for the Promotion of the Arts
International Days observed at UNESCO
International Days observed at UNESCO are provided in the table below:[109]

Date Name
14 January World Logic Day
24 January World Day for African and Afrodescendant Culture[110]
24 January International Day of Education
27 January International Day of Commemoration in Memory of the Victims of the
Holocaust
11 February International Day of Women and Girls in Science
13 February World Radio Day
21 February International Mother Language Day
4 March UNESCO World Engineering Day for Sustainable Development
8 March International Women's Day
14 March International Day of Mathematics
20 March International Francophonie Day
21 March International Day of Nowruz
21 March World Poetry Day
21 March International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
22 March World Water Day
5 April International Day of Conscience
6 April International Day of Sport for Development and Peace
15 April World Art Day
23 April World Book and Copyright Day
30 April International Jazz Day
3 May World Press Freedom Day
5 May African World Heritage Day
5 May World Portuguese Language Day
16 May International Day of Light
21 May World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development
22 May International Day for Biological Diversity
5 June World Environment Day
8 June World Oceans Day
17 June World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought
7 July Kiswahili Language Day
18 July Nelson Mandela International Day
26 July International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem
9 August International Day of the World's Indigenous People
12 August International Youth Day
23 August International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its
Abolition
8 September International Literacy Day
9 September International Day to Protect Education from Attack
15 September International Day of Democracy
20 September International Day for University Sport
21 September International Day of Peace
28 September International Day for the Universal Access to Information
5 October World Teachers' Day
6 October International Geodiversity Day[111]
11 October International Day of the Girl Child
13 October International Day for Disaster Reduction
17 October International Day for the Eradication of Poverty
24 October United Nations Day
27 October World Day for Audiovisual Heritage
2 November International Day to End Impunity for Crimes Against Journalists[112]
3 November International Day for Biosphere Reserves[113]
First Thursday of November International day against violence and bullying at
school including cyberbullying[114]
5 November World Day of Romani Language
5 November World Tsunami Awareness Day
10 November World Science Day for Peace and Development
14 November International Day against Illicit Trafficking in Cultural Property[115]
Third Thursday of November World Philosophy Day
16 November International Day for Tolerance
18 November International International Day of Islamic Art[116]
25 November International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women
26 November World Olive Tree Day[117]
29 November International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People
1 December World AIDS Day
2 December World Futures Day[118]
3 December International Day of Persons with Disabilities
10 December Human Rights Day
18 December International Migrants Day
18 December World Arabic Language Day
Member states
Main article: Member states of UNESCO

UNESCO member states

UNESCO member state dependent territory with separate NOC
UNESCO associates
UNESCO observers
As of July 2023, UNESCO has 194 member states and 12 associate members.[119] Some
members are not independent states and some members have additional National
Organizing Committees from some of their dependent territories.[120] UNESCO state
parties are the United Nations member states (except Israel[121] and
Liechtenstein), as well as Cook Islands, Niue and Palestine.[122][123] The United
States and Israel left UNESCO on 31 December 2018,[124][125] but the U.S. rejoined
in 2023.[65][66]

Governing bodies
Director-General
As of June 2023, there have been 11 Directors-General of UNESCO since its inception
– nine men and two women. The 11 Directors-General of UNESCO have come from six
regions within the organization: West Europe (5), Central America (1), North
America (2), West Africa (1), East Asia (1), and East Europe (1).
To date, there has been no elected Director-General from the remaining ten regions
within UNESCO: Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central and North Asia, Middle East,
North Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, South Africa, Australia-Oceania, and
South America.

The list of the Directors-General of UNESCO since its establishment in 1946 is as

follows:[126]

Directors-General of UNESCO
Order Image Name Country Term
1st Julian Huxley United Kingdom 1946–1948
2nd Jaime Torres Bodet Mexico 1948–1952
– John Wilkinson Taylor United States acting 1952–1953
3rd Luther Evans United States 1953–1958
4th Vittorino Veronese Italy 1958–1961
5th René Maheu France acting 1961; 1961–1974
6th Amadou-Mahtar M'Bow Senegal 1974–1987
7th Federico Mayor Zaragoza Spain 1987–1999
8th Koïchiro Matsuura Japan 1999–2009
9th Irina Bokova Bulgaria 2009–2017
10th Audrey Azoulay France 2017–Incumbent
General Conference
This is the list of the sessions of the UNESCO General Conference held since 1946:
[127]

Session Location Year Chaired by from

1st Paris 1946 Léon Blum France
2nd Mexico City 1947 Manuel Gual Vidal Mexico
3rd Beirut 1948 Hamid Bey Frangie Lebanon
1st extraordinary Paris 1948
4th Paris 1949 Edward Ronald Walker Australia
5th Florence 1950 Stefano Jacini Italy
6th Paris 1951 Howland H. Sargeant United States
7th Paris 1952 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan India
2nd extraordinary Paris 1953
8th Montevideo 1954 Justino Zavala Muniz Uruguay
9th New Delhi 1956 Abul Kalam Azad India
10th Paris 1958 Jean Berthoin France
11th Paris 1960 Akale-Work Abte-Wold Ethiopia
12th Paris 1962 Paulo de Berrêdo Carneiro Brazil
13th Paris 1964 Norair Sisakian Soviet Union
14th Paris 1966 Bedrettin Tuncel Turkey
15th Paris 1968 William Eteki Mboumoua Cameroon
16th Paris 1970 Atilio Dell'Oro Maini Argentina
17th Paris 1972 Toru Haguiwara Japan
3rd extraordinary Paris 1973
18th Paris 1974 Magda Jóború Hungary
19th Nairobi 1976 Taaita Toweett Kenya
20th Paris 1978 Napoléon LeBlanc Canada
21st Belgrade 1980 Ivo Margan Yugoslavia
4th extraordinary Paris 1982
22nd Paris 1983 Saïd Tell Jordan
23rd Sofia 1985 Nikolai Todorov Bulgaria
24th Paris 1987 Guillermo Putzeys Alvarez Guatemala
25th Paris 1989 Anwar Ibrahim Malaysia
26th Paris 1991 Bethwell Allan Ogot Kenya
27th Paris 1993 Ahmed Saleh Sayyad Yemen
28th Paris 1995 Torben Krogh Denmark
29th Paris 1997 Eduardo Portella Brazil
30th Paris 1999 Jaroslava Moserová Czech Republic
31st Paris 2001 Ahmad Jalali Iran
32nd Paris 2003 Michael Omolewa Nigeria
33rd Paris 2005 Musa Bin Jaafar Bin Hassan Oman
34th Paris 2007 Georgios Anastassopoulos Greece
35th Paris 2009 Davidson Hepburn Bahamas
36th Paris 2011 Katalin Bogyay Hungary
37th[128] Paris 2013 Hao Ping China
38th Paris 2015 Stanley Mutumba Simataa[129] Namibia
39th Paris 2017 Zohour Alaoui[130] Morocco
40th Paris 2019
Ahmet Altay Cengizer[131]

Turkey
41st[132] Paris 2021 Santiago Irazabal Mourão Brazil
42nd[133] Paris 2023 Simona Miculescu Romania
Executive Board
Biennial elections are held, with 58 elected representatives holding office for
four years.

Term Group I
(9 seats) Group II
(7 seats) Group III
(10 seats) Group IV
(12 seats) Group V(a)
(13 seats) Group V(b)
(7 seats)
2017–
2021
Finland
Portugal
Turkey

Albania
Belarus
Bulgaria

Cuba
Grenada
Jamaica
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Venezuela

Bangladesh
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Philippines

Burundi
Equatorial Guinea
Ethiopia
Madagascar
Zambia
Zimbabwe

Egypt
Jordan
Morocco

2019–2023[134]
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
Switzerland

Hungary
Poland
Russia
Serbia

Argentina
Brazil
Dominican Republic
Uruguay

Afghanistan
Kyrgyzstan
Philippines
Pakistan
South Korea
Thailand

Benin
Congo
Guinea
Ghana
Kenya
Namibia
Senegal
Togo

Saudi Arabia
UAE
Tunisia

2021–2025[135]
Austria
Iceland
Turkey

Armenia
Azerbaijan
Lithuania

Chile
Grenada
Haiti
Mexico
Paraguay
Saint Lucia

China
Cook Islands
 India
Japan
Philippines
Vietnam

Angola
Botswana
Congo
Djibouti
South Africa
Tanzania

Egypt
Jordan
Kuwait

2023–2027[136]
France
Germany
Italy
Spain
United Kingdom
United States

Albania
Czech Republic
Serbia
Slovakia

Argentina
Brazil
Cuba
Dominican Republic

Australia
Bangladesh
Indonesia
Pakistan
South Korea
Sri Lanka

Burkina Faso
Côte d'Ivoire
Gabon
Liberia
Mauritius
Mozambique
Nigeria

Iraq
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia

Offices and headquarters

Main article: World Heritage Centre

The Garden of Peace at UNESCO headquarters

The UNESCO headquarters is located at Place de Fontenoy in Paris, France. Several
architects collaborated on the construction of the headquarters, including Bernard
Zehrfuss, Marcel Breuer and Luigi Nervi.[137] It includes a Garden of Peace which
was donated by the Government of Japan.[138] This garden was designed by American-
Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener
Toemon Sano. In 1994–1995, in memory of the 50th anniversary of UNESCO, a
meditation room was built by Tadao Ando.[139]

UNESCO's field offices across the globe are categorized into four primary office
types based upon their function and geographic coverage: cluster offices, national
offices, regional bureaus and liaison offices.

Field offices by region

The following list of all UNESCO Field Offices is organized geographically by
UNESCO Region and identifies the members states and associate members of UNESCO
which are served by each office.[140]

Africa
Abidjan – National Office to Côte d'Ivoire
Abuja – National Office to Nigeria
Accra – Cluster Office for Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra
Leone and Togo
Addis Ababa – Liaison Office with the African Union and with the Economic
Commission for Africa
Bamako – Cluster Office for Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali and Niger
Brazzaville – National Office to the Republic of the Congo
Bujumbura – National Office to Burundi
Dakar – Regional Bureau for Education in Africa and Cluster Office for Cape Verde,
Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, and Senegal
Dar es Salaam – Cluster Office for Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles and
Tanzania
Harare – Cluster Office for Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe
Juba – National Office to South Sudan
Kinshasa – National Office to the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Libreville – Cluster Office for the Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and São Tomé and Príncipe
Maputo – National Office to Mozambique
Nairobi – Regional Bureau for Sciences in Africa and Cluster Office for Burundi,
Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan and Uganda
Windhoek – National Office to Namibia
Yaoundé – Cluster Office to Cameroon, Central African Republic and Chad
Arab States
Amman – National Office to Jordan
Beirut – Regional Bureau for Education in the Arab States and Cluster Office to
Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Palestine
Cairo – Regional Bureau for Sciences in the Arab States and Cluster Office for
Egypt and Sudan
Doha – Cluster Office to Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates and Yemen
Iraq – National Office for Iraq (currently located in Amman, Jordan)
Khartoum – National Office to Sudan
Manama – Arab Regional Centre for World Heritage
Rabat – Cluster Office to Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia
Ramallah – National Office to the Palestinian Territories
Asia and Pacific
See also: UNESCO Asia Pacific Heritage Awards
Almaty – Cluster Office to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
Apia – Cluster Office to Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands,
Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Tokelau (Associate Member)
Bangkok – Regional Bureau for Education in Asia and the Pacific and Cluster Office
to Thailand, Burma, Laos, Singapore and Vietnam
Beijing – Cluster Office to North Korea, Japan, Mongolia, the People's Republic of
China and South Korea
Dhaka – National Office to Bangladesh
Hanoi – National Office to Vietnam
Islamabad – National Office to Pakistan
Jakarta – Regional Bureau for Sciences in Asia and the Pacific and Cluster Office
to the Philippines, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and East Timor
Manila – National Office to the Philippines
Kabul – National Office to Afghanistan
Kathmandu – National Office to Nepal
New Delhi – Cluster Office to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives and Sri Lanka
Phnom Penh – National Office to Cambodia
Tashkent – National Office to Uzbekistan
Tehran – Cluster Office to Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and Turkmenistan
Europe and North America
Brussels – Liaison Office to the European Union and its subsidiary bodies in
Brussels
Geneva – Liaison Office to the United Nations in Geneva
New York City – Liaison Office to the United Nations in New York
Venice – Regional Bureau for Sciences and Culture in Europe
Latin America and the Caribbean

Carondelet Palace, Presidential Palace – with changing of the guards. The Historic
Center of Quito, Ecuador, is one of the largest, least-altered and best-preserved
historic centres in the Americas.[141] This centre was, together with the historic
centre of Kraków in Poland, the first to be declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO
on 18 September 1978.
Brasília – National Office to Brazil[142]
Guatemala City – National Office to Guatemala
Havana – Regional Bureau for Culture in Latin America and the Caribbean and Cluster
Office to Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti and Aruba
Kingston – Cluster Office to Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,
Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago as well as the
associate member states of British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Curaçao and Sint
Maarten
Lima – National Office to Peru
Mexico City – National Office to Mexico
Montevideo – Regional Bureau for Sciences in Latin America and the Caribbean and
Cluster Office to Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay
Port-au-Prince – National Office to Haiti
Quito – Cluster Office to Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela[143]
San José – Cluster Office to Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua and Panama
Santiago de Chile – Regional Bureau for Education in Latin America and the
Caribbean and National Office to Chile
Partner organisations
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
Blue Shield International (BSI)
International Council of Museums (ICOM)
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
International Institute of Humanitarian Law (IIHL)
Controversies
New World Information and Communication Order
UNESCO has been the centre of controversy in the past, particularly in its
relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, Singapore and the former
Soviet Union. During the 1970s and 1980s, UNESCO's support for a "New World
Information and Communication Order" and its MacBride report calling for
democratization of the media and more egalitarian access to information was
condemned in these countries as attempts to curb freedom of the press. UNESCO was
perceived as a platform for communists and Third World dictators to attack the
West, in contrast to accusations made by the USSR in the late 1940s and early
1950s.[144] In 1984, the United States withheld its contributions and withdrew from
the organization in protest, followed by the United Kingdom in 1985.[145] Singapore
withdrew also at the end of 1985, citing rising membership fees.[146] Following a
change of government in 1997, the UK rejoined. The United States rejoined in 2003,
followed by Singapore on 8 October 2007.[147]

China
UNESCO has been criticized as being used by the People's Republic of China to
present a Chinese Communist Party version of history and to dilute the
contributions of ethnic minorities in China such as Uyghurs and Tibetans.[148][149]
[150]

Israel
Israel was admitted to UNESCO in 1949, one year after its creation. Israel has
maintained its membership since then. In 2010, Israel designated the Cave of the
Patriarchs in Hebron and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem – both in the West Bank – as
National Heritage Sites and announced restoration work, prompting criticism from
the Obama administration and protests from Palestinians.[151] In October 2010,
UNESCO's executive board voted to declare the sites as "al-Haram al-Ibrahimi/Tomb
of the Patriarchs" and "Bilal bin Rabah Mosque/Rachel's Tomb" and stated that they
were "an integral part of the occupied Palestinian Territories" and any unilateral
Israeli action was a violation of international law.[152] UNESCO described the
sites as significant to "people of the Muslim, Christian and Jewish traditions",
and accused Israel of highlighting only the Jewish character of the sites.[153]
Israel in turn accused UNESCO of "detach[ing] the Nation of Israel from its
heritage", and accused it of being politically motivated.[154] The Rabbi of the
Western Wall said that Rachel's tomb had not previously been declared a holy Muslim
site.[155] Israel partially suspended ties with UNESCO. Israeli Deputy Foreign
Minister Danny Ayalon declared that the resolution was a "part of Palestinian
escalation". Zevulun Orlev, chairman of the Knesset Education and Culture
Committee, referred to the resolutions as an attempt to undermine the mission of
UNESCO as a scientific and cultural organization that promotes cooperation
throughout the world.[156][157]

On 28 June 2011, UNESCO's World Heritage Committee, at Jordan's insistence,

censured[clarification needed] Israel's decision to demolish and rebuild the
Mughrabi Gate Bridge in Jerusalem for safety reasons. Israel stated that Jordan had
signed an agreement with Israel stipulating that the existing bridge must be
dismantled for safety reasons; Jordan disputed the agreement, saying that it was
only signed under U.S. pressure. Israel was also unable to address the UNESCO
committee over objections from Egypt.[158]

In January 2014, days before it was scheduled to open, UNESCO Director-General,

Irina Bokova, "indefinitely postponed" and effectively cancelled an exhibit created
by the Simon Wiesenthal Centre entitled "The People, The Book, The Land: The 3,500-
year relationship between the Jewish people and the Land of Israel". The event was
scheduled to run from 21 January through 30 January in Paris. Bokova cancelled the
event after representatives of Arab states at UNESCO argued that its display would
"harm the peace process".[159] The author of the exhibition, professor Robert
Wistrich of the Hebrew University's Vidal Sassoon International Centre for the
Study of Anti-Semitism, called the cancellation an "appalling act", and
characterized Bokova's decision as "an arbitrary act of total cynicism and, really,
contempt for the Jewish people and its history". UNESCO amended the decision to
cancel the exhibit within the year, and it quickly achieved popularity and was
viewed as a great success.[160]

On 1 January 2019, Israel formally left UNESCO in pursuance of the US withdrawal

over the perceived continuous anti-Israel bias.[161]

Occupied Palestine Resolution

Main article: Occupied Palestine Resolution
On 13 October 2016, UNESCO passed a resolution on East Jerusalem that condemned
Israel for "aggressions" by Israeli police and soldiers and "illegal measures"
against the freedom of worship and Muslims' access to their holy sites, while also
recognizing Israel as the occupying power. Palestinian leaders welcomed the
decision.[162] While the text acknowledged the "importance of the Old City of
Jerusalem and its walls for the three monotheistic religions", it referred to the
sacred hilltop compound in Jerusalem's Old City only by its Muslim name "Al-Haram
al-Sharif", Arabic for Noble Sanctuary. In response, Israel denounced the UNESCO
resolution for its omission of the words "Temple Mount" or "Har HaBayit", stating
that it denies Jewish ties to the key holy site.[162][163] After receiving
criticism from numerous Israeli politicians and diplomats, including Benjamin
Netanyahu and Ayelet Shaked, Israel froze all ties with the organization.[164][165]
The resolution was condemned by Ban Ki-moon and the Director-General of UNESCO,
Irina Bokova, who said that Judaism, Islam and Christianity have clear historical
connections to Jerusalem and "to deny, conceal or erase any of the Jewish,
Christian or Muslim traditions undermines the integrity of the site.[166][167] "Al-
Aqsa Mosque [or] Al-Haram al-Sharif" is also Temple Mount, whose Western Wall is
the holiest place in Judaism."[168] It was also rejected by the Czech Parliament
which said the resolution reflects a "hateful anti-Israel sentiment",[169] and
hundreds of Italian Jews demonstrated in Rome over Italy's abstention.[169] On 26
October, UNESCO approved a reviewed version of the resolution, which also
criticized Israel for its continuous "refusal to let the body's experts access
Jerusalem's holy sites to determine their conservation status".[170] Despite
containing some softening of language following Israeli protests over a previous
version, Israel continued to denounce the text.[171] The resolution refers to the
site Jews and Christians refer to as the Temple Mount, or Har HaBayit in Hebrew,
only by its Arab name – a significant semantic decision also adopted by UNESCO's
executive board, triggering condemnation from Israel and its allies. U.S.
Ambassador Crystal Nix Hines stated: "This item should have been defeated. These
politicized and one-sided resolutions are damaging the credibility of UNESCO."[172]

In October 2017, the United States and Israel announced they would withdraw from
the organization, citing in-part anti-Israel bias.[173][174]

Palestine
Palestinian youth magazine controversy
In February 2011, an article was published in a Palestinian youth magazine in which
a teenage girl described one of her four role models as Adolf Hitler. In December
2011, UNESCO, which partly funded the magazine, condemned the material and
subsequently withdrew support.[175]

Islamic University of Gaza controversy

In 2012, UNESCO decided to establish a chair at the Islamic University of Gaza in
the field of astronomy, astrophysics, and space sciences,[176] fueling controversy
and criticism. Israel bombed the school in 2008 stating that they develop and store
weapons there, which Israel restated in criticizing UNESCO's move.[177][178]

The head, Kamalain Shaath, defended UNESCO, stating that "the Islamic University is
a purely academic university that is interested only in education and its
development".[179][180][181] Israeli ambassador to UNESCO Nimrod Barkan planned to
submit a letter of protest with information about the university's ties to Hamas,
especially angry that this was the first Palestinian university that UNESCO chose
to cooperate with.[182] The Jewish organization B'nai B'rith criticized the move as
well.[183]

Listing Nanjing Massacre documents

In 2015, Japan threatened to halt funding for UNESCO over the organization's
decision to include documents relating to the 1937 Nanjing massacre in the latest
listing for its "Memory of the World" program.[184] In October 2016, Japanese
Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida confirmed that Japan's 2016 annual funding of ¥4.4
billion had been suspended, although he denied any direct link with the Nanjing
document controversy.[185]

US withdrawals
The United States withdrew from UNESCO in 1984, citing the "highly politicized"
nature of the organisation, its ostensible "hostility toward the basic institutions
of a free society, especially a free market and a free press", as well as its
"unrestrained budgetary expansion", and poor management under then Director-General
Amadou-Mahtar M'Bow of Senegal.[186]

On 19 September 1989, U.S. Congressman Jim Leach stated before a congressional

subcommittee:[187]

The reasons for the withdrawal of the United States from UNESCO in 1984 are well-
known; my view is that we overreacted to the calls of some who wanted to radicalize
UNESCO, and the calls of others who wanted the United States to lead in
emasculating the UN system. The fact is UNESCO is one of the least dangerous
international institutions ever created. While some member countries within UNESCO
attempted to push journalistic views antithetical to the values of the west, and
engage in Israel bashing, UNESCO itself never adopted such radical postures. The
U.S. opted for empty-chair diplomacy, after winning, not losing, the battles we
engaged in... It was nuts to get out, and would be nuttier not to rejoin.

Leach concluded that the record showed Israel bashing, a call for a new world
information order, money management, and arms control policy to be the impetus
behind the withdrawal; he asserted that before departing from UNESCO, a withdrawal
from the IAEA had been pushed on him.[187] On 1 October 2003, the U.S. rejoined
UNESCO.[186]

On 12 October 2017, the United States notified UNESCO that it would again withdraw
from the organization, on 31 December 2018; Israel followed suit.[188] The
Department of State cited "mounting arrears at UNESCO, the need for fundamental
reform in the organization, and continuing anti-Israel bias at UNESCO".[173]

The United States has not paid over $600 million in dues[189] since it stopped
paying its $80 million annual UNESCO dues when Palestine became a full member in
2011. Israel and the US were among the 14 votes against the membership out of 194
member countries.[190] When the U.S. announced that it was rejoining the body in
2023, it also pledged to pay all past due payments.[65]

Kurdish–Turkish conflict
On 25 May 2016, Turkish poet and human rights activist Zülfü Livaneli resigned as
Turkey's only UNESCO goodwill ambassador. He highlighted the human rights situation
in Turkey and the destruction of historical Sur district of Diyarbakir, the largest
city in Kurdish-majority southeast Turkey, during fighting between the Turkish army
and Kurdish militants as the main reasons for his resignation. Livaneli said: "To
pontificate on peace while remaining silent against such violations is a
contradiction of the fundamental ideals of UNESCO."[191]

Campaigns against illicit art trading

In 2020 UNESCO stated that the size of the illicit trade in cultural property
amounted to 10 billion dollars a year. A report that same year by the Rand
Organisation suggested the actual market is "not likely to be larger than a few
hundred million dollars each year". An expert cited by UNESCO as attributing the 10
billion figure denied it and said he had "no idea" where the figure came from. Art
dealers were particularly critical of the UNESCO figure, because it amounted to 15%
of the total world art market.[192]

In November 2020 part of a UNESCO advertising campaign intended to highlight

international trafficking in looted artefacts had to be withdrawn, after it falsely
presented a series of museum-held artworks with known provenances as recently
looted objects held in private collections. The adverts claimed that a head of
Buddha in the Metropolitan Museum's collection since 1930 had been looted from
Kabul Museum in 2001 and then smuggled into the US art market; that a funerary
monument from Palmyra that the MET had acquired in 1901 had been recently looted
from the Palmyra Museum by Islamic State militants and then smuggled into the
European antiquities market, and that an Ivory Coast mask with a provenance that
indicates it was in the US by 1954 was looted during armed clashes in 2010–2011.
After complaints from the MET, the adverts were withdrawn.[193]

Products and services

UNESDOC Database[194] – Contains over 146,000 UNESCO documents in full text
published since 1945 as well as metadata from the collections of the UNESCO Library
and documentation centres in field offices and institutes.
Information processing tools
UNESCO develops, maintains and disseminates, free of charge, two interrelated
software packages for database management (CDS/ISIS [not to be confused with UK
police software package ISIS]) and data mining/statistical analysis (IDAMS).[195]

CDS/ISIS – a generalized information storage and retrieval system. The Windows

version may run on a single computer or in a local area network. The JavaISIS
client/server components allow remote database management over the Internet and are
available for Windows, Linux and Macintosh. Furthermore, GenISIS allows the user to
produce HTML Web forms for CDS/ISIS database searching. The ISIS_DLL provides an
API for developing CDS/ISIS based applications.
OpenIDAMS – a software package for processing and analysing numerical data
developed, maintained and disseminated by UNESCO. The original package was
proprietary but UNESCO has initiated a project to provide it as open-source.[196]
IDIS – a tool for direct data exchange between CDS/ISIS and IDAMS
See also
icon Schools portal
icon Science portal
icon Society portal
icon Politics portal
World portal
Academic mobility network
League of Nations archives
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
UNESCO Reclining Figure 1957–58, sculpture by Henry Moore
UniRef
National Commissions for UNESCO
International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport
Notes
French: Organisation des Nations unites pour l'éducation, la science et la culture
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Further reading
Finnemore, Martha. 1993. "International Organizations as Teachers of Norms: The
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cutural [sic] Organization and Science
Policy." International Organization Vol. 47, No. 4 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 565–597
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