UNIT-1

Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral
devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating
System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc. The OS helps you to communicate with the computer
without knowing how to speak the computer’s language. It is not possible for the user to use
any computer or mobile device without having an operating system.

Definition: An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting and Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users
History and Evolution of OS
Operating system is divided into four generations, which are explained as follows:
First Generation (1945-1955)
It is the beginning of the development of electronic computing systems which are substitutes
for mechanical computing systems. Because of the drawbacks in mechanical computing
systems like, the speed of humans to calculate is limited and humans can easily make mistakes.
In this generation there is no operating system, so the computer system is given instructions
which must be done directly.
Example: Type of operating system and devices used is Plug Boards.
Second Generation (1955-1965)
The Batch processing system was introduced in the second generation, where a job or a task
that can be done in a series, and then executed sequentially. In this generation, the computer
system is not equipped with an operating system, but several operating system functions exist
like FMS and IBSYS.
Example: Type of operating system and devices used is Batch systems.
Third Generation (1965-1980)
The development of the operating system was developed to serve multiple users at once in the
third generation. Here the interactive users can communicate through an online terminal to a
computer, so the operating system becomes multi-user and multiprogramming.
Example: Type of operating system and devices used is Multiprogramming.
Fourth Generation (1980-Now)
In this generation the operating system is used for computer networks where users are aware
of the existence of computers that are connected to one another.
At this generation users are also comforted with a Graphical User Interface (GUI), which is an
extremely comfortable graphical computer interface, and the era of distributed computing has
also begun.
With the occurrence of new wearable devices like Smart Watches, Smart Glasses, VRGears,
and others, the demand for conventional operating systems has also increased.
And, with the onset of new devices like wearable devices, which includes Smart Watches,
Smart Glasses, VR gears etc, the demand for unconventional operating systems is also rising.
Example: Type of operating system and devices used is personal computers
Basic OS Functions:
1. Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program
to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities
for memory management:
• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part
are not in use.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and
how much.
• Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
2. Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and
for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. Process management involves
various tasks like creation, scheduling, termination of processes, and a dead lock. Process is a
program that is under execution, which is an important part of modern-day operating systems.
The OS must allocate resources that enable processes to share and exchange information. It
also protects the resources of each process from other methods and allows synchronization
among processes.
An Operating System does the following activities for processor management:
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this
task is known as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
3. Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. Device
management in an operating system means controlling the Input/Output devices like disk,
microphone, keyboard, printer, magnetic tape, USB ports, camcorder, scanner, other
accessories, and supporting units like supporting units control channels. It does the following
activities for device management:
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.
4. File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.
 An Operating System does the following activities for file management:
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs:
• Security : By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance : Recording delays between request for a
service and response from the system.
• Job accounting: Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.
• Error detecting aids: Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other softwares and users:Coordination and assignment
of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

Resources Abstraction
Resource abstraction is a technique used in operating systems to hide the details of a resource
from users and programs. By hiding the details of a resource, the operating system can provide
a simpler and more consistent interface to users and programs.
Resource abstraction is used to hide the details of many different types of resources, including
hardware resources, software resources, and data resources. Hardware resources include
devices such as printers and disk drives. Software resources include files, network connections,
and process control blocks. Data resources include databases and message queues.
The operating system manages all of these resources and provides a consistent interface to
users and programs. Users and programs access resources through system calls, which are
abstractions of the underlying resource. For example, the open system call is used to open files,
and the read system call is used to read data from files. The OS provides a variety of other
services to users and programs, such as process control, memory management, and file system
management. These services are also implemented using resource abstraction.
Resource abstraction is a powerful technique that allows the operating system to hide the details
of its implementation from users and programs. By hiding the details of its implementation, the
operating system can provide a simpler and more consistent interface to users and programs.
Generally An OS abstraction layer(OSAL) presents a representation of the common system
functionality that is offered by any Operating system by providing meaningful and easy-to-use
wrapper functions that in turn encapsulate the system functions offered by the OS to which the
code needs to be ported.
Types of Operating Systems
[Link] Operating System
Def: An operating system that allows multiple programmes to run simultaneously on a single
processor machine is known as a multiprogramming operating system.
• This multiprogramming allows several jobs to be in memory at the same time, thus
ensuring the CPU utilisation and CPU has always has a job to execute.
Types of Multiprogramming Operating Systems:

• Multitasking Operating System

• Multiuser Operating System

Multitasking Operating System

A multitasking operating system enables the execution of two or more programs at the same
time. The operating system accomplishes this by shifting each program into and out of
memory one at a time. When a program is switched out of memory, it is temporarily saved
on disk until it is required again. It is a logical extension of a multiprogramming system that
enables multiple programs simultaneously.

Multiuser Operating System

A multiuser operating system allows many users to share processing time on a powerful
central computer from different terminals. The operating system accomplishes this by
rapidly switching between terminals, each of which receives a limited amount of processor
time on the central computer. The operating system changes among terminals so quickly that
each user seems to have continuous access to the central computer.
The concept/working of multiprogramming:
• All the jobs that enter the system are stored in the job pool( in disc). The operating
system loads a set of jobs from job pool into main memory and begins to execute.
• During execution, the job may have to wait for some task, such as an I/O operation,
to complete. In a multiprogramming system, the operating system simply switches
to another job and executes.
• When that job needs to wait, the CPU is switched to another job, and so on.
• When the first job finishes waiting and it gets the CPU back.
• As long as at least one job needs to execute, the CPU is never idle.
• Multiprogramming operating systems use the mechanism of job scheduling and CPU
scheduling.
Multiprogramming:

• This multiprogramming operating system try's to take as many processes into the
RAM(Main Memory).
• In the above figure we can see that for a process (JOB A) which wants to perform some
input/output operation, in that case the process will be sent for I/O operation and in the
mean time the CPU will start executing another process (JOB B).
• Similarly if the job B wants to perform or require some input output operations, then
the CPU will start executing another process Job C.
• If a process does not want to perform any kind of I/O operation then CPU will first
execute the job completely and then goes for second one in the job pool.
Advantages:
• It has a faster response time.
• It may be beneficial to run multiple jobs in a single application at the same time.
• It aids in the computer’s overall optimization of job throughput.
• In comparison to long-term work, short-term jobs are completed swiftly.
• It may aid in reducing turnaround time for short-duration tasks.
 • It contributes to higher CPU utilisation and is never idle so, resources are wisely
allocated.
Disadvantages:
• It’s quite complex and sophisticated.
• CPU scheduling is necessary.
• Since all types of tasks get stored in the main memory, memory management is required
in the operating system.
• The more difficult challenge is managing all procedures and tasks.
• Long-term jobs will demand a long wait if it has a high number of jobs.

Batch Operating System

In the beginning, computers were extremely large machines that ran from a console. In general,
tape drivers or card readers were used for input, and tape drives, punch cards, and line printers
were used for output. Users had no direct interface with the system, and job execution was
done in a batch system. These systems are known as batched operating systems, and users have
to prepare a job separately to execute it.
There were no developed operating systems, complex computer architecture, or secondary
memory devices in the 1950s and 1960s. Instead, large mainframe computers were used to
process data, with punched cards or magnetic tapes serving as input and output. The primary
problem at the time was a lack of hard disks. In the early 1950s, General Motors Research
Laboratories (GMRL) introduced the first Single-Stream batch processing systems. It only
executed one job at a time, and data was sent in batches or groups. The batch operating system
eliminates the setup time issue.
Batch processing was very popular in the 1970s. The jobs were executed in batches. People
used to have a single computer known as a mainframe. Users using batch operating systems do
not interact directly with the computer. Each user prepares their job using an offline device like
a punch card and submitting it to the computer operator. Jobs with similar requirements are
grouped and executed as a group to speed up processing. Once the programmers have left their
programs with the operator, they sort the programs with similar needs into batches.
The batch operating system grouped jobs that perform similar functions. These job groups are
treated as a batch and executed simultaneously. A computer system with this operating system
performs the following batch processing activities:
1. A job is a single unit that consists of a preset sequence of commands, data, and programs.
2. Processing takes place in the order in which they are received, i.e., first come, first serve.
3. These jobs are stored in memory and executed without the need for manual information.
4. When a job is successfully run, the operating system releases its memory.
Types of Batch Operating System:
1. Simple Batched System
2. Multi-programmed batched system
Simple Batched System: The user did not directly interact with the computer system for job
execution in a simple batch operating system. However, the user was required to prepare a job
that included the program, control information, and data on the nature of the job on control
cards. The job was then submitted to the computer operator, who was usually in the form of a
punch card. The program's output included results and registers and memory dumps in the
event of a program error. The output appeared after some time that could take days, hours, and
minutes.
Multi-programmed batched system: Spooling deals with many jobs that have already been
read and are waiting to run on disk. A disk containing a pool of jobs allows the operating system
to choose which job to run next to maximize CPU utilization. Jobs that come on magnetic tape
or cards directly cannot be run in a different order. Jobs run sequentially because they are
executed in a first-come, first-served manner. When various jobs are stored on a direct access
device, job scheduling becomes possible like a disk. Multi-programming is an important
feature of job scheduling. For overlapped I/O, spooling and offline operations have their
limitations. Generally, a single user could not maintain all of the input/output devices, and CPU
buys at all times.
Why are Batch Operating Systems used? Batch operating systems load less stress on the
CPU and include minimal user interaction, and that is why you can still use them nowadays.
Another benefit of batch operating systems is that huge repetitive jobs may be done without
interacting with the computer to notify the system that you need to perform after you finish that
[Link] batch operating systems weren't interactive, which means that the user did not interact
with the program while executing it. Modern batch operating systems now support interactions.
For example, you may schedule the job, and when the specified time arrives, the computer
acknowledges the processor that the time is up.
How does Batch Operating System work? The operating system keeps the number of jobs
in memory and performs them one at a time. Jobs are processed in a first-come, first-served
manner. Each job set is defined as a batch. When a task is finished, its memory is freed, and
the work's output is transferred into an output spool for later printing or processing. User
interaction is limited in the batch operating system. When the system takes the task from the
user, user is free. You may also use the batch processing system to update data relating to any
transactions or records.
Role of Batch Operating Syste: A batch operating system's primary role is to execute jobs in
batches automatically. The main task of a batch processing system is done by the 'Batch
Monitor', which is located at the low end of the main memory. This technique was made
possible by the development of hard disk drives and card readers. The jobs can now be stored
on a disk to form a pool of jobs for batch execution. After that, they are grouped with similar
jobs being placed in the same batch. As a result, the batch operating system automatically ran
the batched jobs one after the other, saving time by performing tasks only once. It resulted from
a better system due to reduced turnaround time.
Characteristics of Batch Operating System:
1. In this case, the CPU executes the jobs in the same sequence that they are sent to it by
the operator, which implies that the task sent to the CPU first will be executed first. It's
also known as the 'first come, first serve'
2. The word job refers to the command or instruction that the user and the program should
perform.
3. A batch operating system runs a set of user-supplied instructions composed of distinct
instructions and programs with several similarities.
4. When a task is successfully executed, the OS releases the memory space held by that
job.
5. The user does not interface directly with the operating system in a batch operating
system; rather, all instructions are sent to the operator.
6. The operator evaluates the user's instructions and creates a set of instructions having
similar properties.
Advantages:
1. It isn't easy to forecast how long it will take to complete a job; only batch system
processors know how long it will take to finish the job in line.
2. This system can easily manage large jobs again and again.
3. The batch process can be divided into several stages to increase processing speed.
4. When a process is finished, the next job from the job spool is run without any user
interaction.
5. CPU utilization gets improved.
Disadvantages:
1. When a job fails once, it must be scheduled to be completed, and it may take a long
time to complete the task.
2. Computer operators must have full knowledge of batch systems.
3. The batch system is quite difficult to debug.
4. The computer system and the user have no direct interaction.
5. If a job enters an infinite loop, other jobs must wait for an unknown period of time.
Time Sharing Operating System
It allows the user to perform more than one task at a time, each task getting the same amount of
time to execute. Hence, the name time sharing OS. Moreover, it is an extension of
multiprogramming systems. In multiprogramming systems, the aim is to make the maximum
use of the CPU. On the other hand, here the aim is to achieve the minimum response time of
CPU.
Therefore, all the tasks will run smoothly on the system. Hence, its name is also multitasking
operating system. Multiple jobs are running at the CPU time and also, they use the CPU
simultaneously. But, the switching between the tasks is very fast due to which the user feels that
all tasks are running at the same time.

Working of Time Sharing Operating System

The operating system performs time sharing through CPU scheduling and multiprogramming.
Let us study closely the process in a time sharing system. It is as follows:

• It is the division of CPU time for each process when more than one task are given by
the user.
• A short duration of time is chosen for each process. Moreover, this time duration is
very small in the order of 10-100 milliseconds. This time duration is known as time
slot, time slice, or quantum.
• Suppose three processes namely, P1, P2, and P3 are running on the system. Now,
suppose that the quantum is 4 nanoseconds (ns). Now, they will execute in the
following manner.
• Process P1 will execute for 4 ns, as soon a sit gets over, process p2 starts executing for
a duration of 4 ns. Further, when p2 gets complete process P3 executes for 4ns. This
process continues till all the processes gets complete.
• In this way, only one process runs at a time but, the switching between the processes
is very fast. Hence, the user feels that all the processes are running at the same time.

The above diagram shows the working of the time-sharing operating system.
The process 4 in the diagram is shown in active state. Process 5 is in ready state while process
1,2,3 and 6 are in waiting state.
Let's understand what these active state, ready state, and waiting for state mean.
Active state - The process currently using the CPU is said to be in an active state. Only one
process can be inactive state as the CPU can be assigned to only one process at a time for
processing.
Ready state - The process which is ready for execution and is waiting for the CPU to get
assigned to them is said to be in a Ready state. More than one process can be in a Ready state
at a time, but the CPU is allocated to only one of them at a time for processing.
Waiting State - The processes that are not ready for execution and are waiting for some
input/output process to be completed are said to be in waiting state. Once the input/output
process is completed, the process jumps to a Ready state and is ready for execution.
• Once the process executes its one-time quantum, it goes to the Ready state and is ready
for execution again. While if the process gets some input/output operation while in the
active state, it goes to the waiting state and waits there until the input/output is
completed and then goes to the ready state again as soon as the input/output operation
is completed.
Challenges for Time sharing OS:
• Time-sharing operating system also requires high specification hardware as the very
fast switching between the process for CPU execution is required.
• As there is very fast switching between the processes, there is a risk of data mixing
between the processes of different programs.
Advantages:
• Time-sharing operating system works in such a way that it minimises the response time
of the CPU.
• Each process gets an equal opportunity as the processes get equal time quantum for
execution at a time by the CPU.
• CPU idle time is also reduced as the CPU is continuously switching between the process
for the process, so the idle time is minimized in Time-sharing operating system.
Disadvantages:
• There are chances of data mixing due to fast switching between the processes.
• Time-sharing OS faces reliability issues.
• Data communication is a problem in Time-Sharing Operating Systems as
communication is an essential factor for the processes to get the CPU processing time.
Multiprogramming System Time-Sharing System

Multiprogramming operating system allows Time-Sharing is the logical extension of

executing multiple processes by monitoring multiprogramming. In this time-sharing Operating
their process states and switching between system, many users/processes are allocated with
processes. computer resources in respective time slots.

The processor and memory underutilization The processor's time is shared with multiple users.
problem is resolved, and multiple programs That's why it is called a time-sharing operating
run on the CPU. That's why it is called system.
multiprogramming.

Multiprogramming OS has no fixed time slice. Time-sharing OS has a fixed time slice.

In a multiprogramming OS system, before In a time-sharing OS system, executive power is

finishing a task, the executive power is not taken off before finishing execution.
taken off.

Here the system does not take some time to Here the system works for the same or less time on
work on different processes. each process.

In Multiprogramming OS, the system depends In time-sharing, the OS system depends on time to
on devices to switch between tasks such as I/O switch between different processes.
interrupts.

The system model of a multiprogramming A system model of the time-sharing system is

system is multiple programs. multiple programs and multiple users.

Multiprogramming system maximizes The Time-sharing system minimizes response

response time. time.

Example: Mac OS, Window OS, Example: Windows NT server, Unix, Linux,
microcomputers such as MP/M, XENIX, and Multics, TOPS-10, TOPS-20
ESQview
Multiprocessing Operating System
In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. There are more than one processors
present in the system which can execute more than one process at the same time. This will
increase the throughput of the system.

In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. More than one processor present in the
system can execute more than one process simultaneously, which will increase the throughput
of the system.

Network Operating System

An Operating system, which includes software and associated protocols to communicate with
other computers via a network conveniently and cost-effectively, is called Network Operating
System.
OS for Personal Computers
Operating system is the single most important application that manages resource and memory
allocation and schedules tasks. They come preloaded in computers. The Operating system loads
into the memory and runs every time a computer is booted. Most modern Operating systems
use Graphical User Interface. With GUI, the user can interact with the computer by clicking
menu buttons, icons on screen. There are some main types of OS for personal computers.
1. MS-Windows
2. Ubuntu
3. Mac OS
4. Fedora
5. Chrome OS
1) MS-Windows - Best For Apps, Browsing, Personal Use, Gaming, etc.
Price: $119 – $199$ (Pro)
Windows is the most popular and familiar operating system on this list. From Windows 95, all
the way to the Windows 10, it has been the go-to operating software that is fueling the
computing systems worldwide.
Features:
• A robust User Interface which helps in easier navigation, with a start menu on the
left side by listing out options and representing applications.
• The Task View feature lets the users switch between multiple workspaces at once,
by displaying all the open Windows.
• Two separate user interfaces, one for mouse and keyboard, and the ‘Tablet Mode’
designed for touchscreens.
• Multifactor authentication technology for higher security like BIN, PIN, Fingerprint
recognition, etc.
• Automatically compress system files to reduce the storage footprint.
Verdict: The Windows software is simply best because of how it has evolved with time. Its
security system is state-of-the-art, its user interface allows convenient usage irrespective of the
device that you are using it on. The only thing that will pinch some is its price.
Website: Microsoft
2) Ubuntu: Best for Open Source Downloading, Running Apps, Browsers, and Gaming.
Price: Free
Ubuntu is a Linux based OS that comes with everything that you are looking for in an operating
system. It is perfect for organizations, schools, and home use. It is free to download, use, and
share and that alone should be worth checking this app out. It is backed by Canonical which is
a global software company, and now by the leading Ubuntu service providers.
Features
• Ubuntu is an Open Source software, which allows it to be freely downloaded, used
and shared by its users.
 • It comes with a built-in firewall and virus protection software, by making it the most
secure OS around.
• You get five years of security patches and updates.
• Ubuntu is fully translated into 50 different languages.
• It works and is compatible with all the latest laptops, desktops and touch screen
devices.
Verdict: Ubuntu is a great option for those with holes for pockets. Its open-source feature is
enticing enough to attract many users. But, it also makes up in quality by providing a robust
interface, and security features that are too hard to pass on.
Website: Ubuntu
3) Mac OS: Best For Apple-exclusive Apps, Dynamic Desktop, etc.
Price: Free with Apple Devices.
The Mac OS has been the staple of almost all Apple devices as we can remember. It has evolved
with time to include the features that first and foremost define innovation. In recent years, the
MAC operating systems have been completely free with the occasional free upgrade by its
developers. For Apple users, there is no other option except the MAC OS.
Features
• The new dark mode gives your desktop interface a more dramatic look which is
easier on the eyes.
• A dynamic desktop which helps to automatically organize your desktop files by
kind, date or tag.
• Continuity camera that scans or photographs a document nearby your iPhone and
automatically appears on your mac.
• Discover handpicked apps with the MAC app store.
• New iTunes that allows users to search for songs with few lyrics.
• Prevent websites from tracking your Mac by making your profile more anonymous
online.
Verdict: Mac’s biggest accomplishment is how dynamic the look and design of its interface
appears. It is probably one of the best looking OS today. Now, Apple is allowing its users to
get their hands on this OS and all its upgrades for free, and this has alleviated a lot of burden
from Apple users who are already paying heftily for the Apple devices.
Website: Apple
4) Fedora : Best For Open Source Development, Corporate Use, etc.
Price: Free
Fedora is another Linux based system which gives Ubuntu’s open-source features a run for the
money. Fedora is reliable, user-friendly and makes for a powerful operating system for any
laptop and desktop computer. Fedora is the Operating system that is for casual users and caters
to students, hobbyists, and professionals working in corporate environments.
Features
• A sleek new user interface that allows the developers to focus on their code on
Gnome 3 environment.
• It offers a complete open-source toolbox with languages, tools, and utilities in all
just a click or commands away.
• Allows digging into powerful virtualization tools to get virtual machines up and
running.
• Containerize the own applications or deploy applications out of the box with OCI
(Open Container Initiative) image support.
Verdict: Although also good for personal use, fedora works best for developers in the corporate
environment. It has all the tools and utilities that a developer needs to work on in their projects
and is free of cost!
Website: Fedora
5) Chrome OS: Best For a Web application.
Price: Free
Chrome OS is another Linux-kernel based operating software that is designed by Google. As
it is derived from the free chromium OS, it uses the Google Chrome web browser as its
principal user interface. This OS primarily supports web applications.
Features
• An integrated media player that enables the users to play MP3’s, view JPEG’S and
handle other multimedia files while offline.
• Remote application access and virtual desktop access.
• Chrome OS is designed to be compatible with all the Android applications.
• With Chrome OS it is possible to run Linux applications.
Verdict: Chrome OS is an operating software that works fine, but there is still a lot of promise
to what it might eventually become. For now, it is good for multi-media, Linux and Android
applications. For the other features, we will have to just wait and watch.
Website: Chrome OS
Workstations Operating Systems
There are huge numbers of Operating systems developed in the past 2 to 3 decades. Every
computing device has some sort of operating system that runs within it, similarly the
workstations also supports many operating systems but there are four main operating systems
that are currently used every where. These four main operating systems for the workstations
are:
• Windows OS
• Linux OS
• Mac OS
• Chrome OS
Windows Operating system: The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems has been
the largest installation operating systems in the desktop and laptop PC market. Windows family
is developed by the American company i.e. Microsoft and these are commercial operating
systems which means that we can only use these when we purchase its license from the
[Link] windows family has many versions of operating systems but the most
popular was the windows7 because it is friendly user OS as compared to others. Its latest
version is windows 10. Some of the major versions of the windows operating systems are
shown in the table below.
Major windows Operating systems

Linux OS:
Linux was developed in 1991 by Linus Torvalds and it is one of the derivative of UNIX. Linux
is also the least popular operating system for workstation [Link] is open source
operating system which means that anyone can download it, use it and can modify it according
to their will. Linux is basically a command-line operating system. However, many distributions
(distros) come with a desktop environment (DE) that provides a GUI for Linux users. One of
the most popular distros for casual users is Ubuntu. There are also other distros in Linux like
Linux Mint, Debian, KDE, and Red Hat.
In the Ubuntu interface, the topmost Launcher button is the Dash button, which is almost
equivalent to Windows’ Start button. We install applications in Ubuntu mostly through CLI.
Apple OS:
Apple introduced the Macintosh computer in 1984 and it had a very easy-to-use interface —
the first popular WIMP(Window, Icon, Menu and Pointer) interface. The OS on the first Mac
was simply called System. Many previous versions using the word ‘system’ are system 1–7 in
which System 7 was the last version to use the “System” name.
With update 7.6, Apple dropped the title and renamed it Mac OS. Mac OS X was the tenth
version of the Mac series of operating systems which has many updated features as compared
to its previous ones. Similarly, Max OS X has many updated versions and Apple has named
each version after large cats
Various updated versions of Mac OS X

Mac OS X has also user friendly interfaces like windows and these are also a commercial
operating systems which require proper license before use it. These are used in high visual
projects because they have high definition graphics as compared to all other types of operating
systems.
Chrome OS:
Chrome OS was developed by Google and launched in 2011. Chrome OS is supposed to be
lightweight and perform the most common tasks users need today. Chrome desktop looks like
most other modern OS desktops, with a launcher in the lower-left corner, a taskbar, and status
tray with a clock in the lower-right [Link] interesting thing about Chrome OS is that it
stores very little on the local computer. Everything is stored on the cloud. Chrome operating
systems are mostly found on the small mini Netbooks which are also called Chromebooks.
These don’t have proper versions like the windows or mac OS, but instead these are
automatically updated through the Internet.
Handheld Operating System
Handheld operating systems are available in all handheld devices like Smartphones and
tablets. It is sometimes also known as a Personal Digital Assistant. The popular handheld
device in today’s world is Android and iOS. These operating systems need a high-processing
processor and are also embedded with various types of sensors.
Some points related to Handheld operating systems are as follows:
1. Since the development of handheld computers in the 1990s, the demand for
software to operate and run on these devices has increased.
2. Three major competitors have emerged in the handheld PC world with three
different operating systems for these handheld PCs.
3. Out of the three companies, the first was the Palm Corporation with their
PalmOS.
4. Microsoft also released what was originally called Windows CE. Microsoft’s
recently released operating system for the handheld PC comes under the name
of Pocket PC.
5. More recently, some companies producing handheld PCs have also started
offering a handheld version of the Linux operating system on their machines.

Features of Handheld Operating System:

1. Its work is to provide real-time operations.
2. There is direct usage of interrupts.
3. Input/Output device flexibility.
4. Configurability.
Types of Handheld Operating Systems:
Palm OS:
• Since the Palm Pilot was introduced in 1996, the Palm OS platform has
provided various mobile devices with essential business tools, as well as the
capability that they can access the internet via a wireless connection.
• These devices have mainly concentrated on providing basic personal-
information-management applications. The latest Palm products have
progressed a lot, packing in more storage, wireless internet, etc.
Symbian OS:
• It has been the most widely-used smartphone operating system because of its
ARM architecture before it was discontinued in 2014. It was developed by
Symbian Ltd.
• This operating system consists of two subsystems where the first one is the
microkernel-based operating system which has its associated libraries and the
second one is the interface of the operating system with which a user can
interact.
• Since this operating system consumes very less power, it was developed for
smartphones and handheld devices.
• It has good connectivity as well as stability.
• It can run applications that are written in Python, Ruby, .NET, etc.
Linux OS:
• Linux OS is an open-source operating system project which is a cross-platform
system that was developed based on UNIX.
It was developed by Linus Torvalds. It is a system software that basically
allows the apps and users to perform some tasks on the PC.
 • Linux is free and can be easily downloaded from the internet and it is considered
that it has the best community support.
• Linux is portable which means it can be installed on different types of devices like
mobile, computers, and tablets.
• It is a multi-user operating system.
• Linux interpreter program which is called BASH is used to execute commands.
• It provides user security using authentication features.
Windows OS:
• Windows is an operating system developed by Microsoft. Its interface which is
called Graphical User Interface eliminates the need to memorize commands for
the command line by using a mouse to navigate through menus, dialog boxes, and
buttons.
• It is named Windows because its programs are displayed in the form of a square.
It has been designed for both a beginner as well professional.
• It comes preloaded with many tools which help the users to complete all types of
tasks on their computer, mobiles, etc.
• It has a large user base so there is a much larger selection of available software
programs.
• One great feature of Windows is that it is backward compatible which means that
its old programs can run on newer versions as well.
Android OS:
• It is a Google Linux-based operating system that is mainly designed for
touchscreen devices such as phones, tablets, etc.
There are three architectures which are ARM, Intel, and MIPS which are used by
the hardware for supporting Android. These lets users manipulate the devices
intuitively, with movements of our fingers that mirror some common motions such
as swiping, tapping, etc.
• Android operating system can be used by anyone because it is an open-source
operating system and it is also free.
• It offers 2D and 3D graphics, GSM connectivity, etc.
• There is a huge list of applications for users since Play Store offers over one
million apps.
• Professionals who want to develop applications for the Android OS can download
the Android Development Kit. By downloading it they can easily develop apps
for android.
Advantages of Handheld Operating System:
1. Less Cost.
2. Less weight and size.
3. Less heat generation.
4. More reliability.
Disadvantages of Handheld Operating System:
Some disadvantages of Handheld Operating Systems are as follows:
1. Less Speed.
2. Input / Output System (memory issue or less memory is available).
Real Time Operating System
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a special-purpose operating system used in computers
that has strict time constraints for any job to be performed. It is employed mostly in those
systems in which the results of the computations are used to influence a process while it is
executing. Whenever an event external to the computer occurs, it is communicated to the
computer with the help of some sensor used to monitor the event. The sensor produces the
signal that is interpreted by the operating system as an interrupt. On receiving an interrupt, the
operating system invokes a specific process or a set of processes to serve the interrupt.

This process is completely uninterrupted unless a higher priority interrupt occurs during its
execution. Therefore, there must be a strict hierarchy of priority among the interrupts. The
interrupt with the highest priority must be allowed to initiate the process , while lower priority
interrupts should be kept in a buffer that will be handled later. Interrupt management is
important in such an operating system.
Real-time operating systems employ special-purpose operating systems because conventional
operating systems do not provide such [Link] various examples of Real-time
operating systems are:
• MTS
• Lynx
• QNX
• VxWorks etc.
Applications of Real-time operating system (RTOS):
• Real-time running structures are used inside the Radar gadget.
• Real-time running structures are utilized in Missile guidance.
• Real-time running structures are used in Medical Imaging Systems.
• Real-time running structures are used inside the Fuel injection gadget.
• Real-time running structures are used inside the Traffic manipulate gadget.
Types of Real-time operating system
1. Hard Real-Time operating system
In Hard RTOS, all critical tasks must be completed within the specified time duration,
i.e., within the given deadline. Not meeting the deadline would result in critical failures
such as damage to equipment or even loss of human life.
For Example
Let's take an example of airbags provided by carmakers along with a handle in the driver's seat.
When the driver applies brakes at a particular instance, the airbags grow and prevent the driver's
head from hitting the handle. Had there been some delay even of milliseconds, then it would
have resulted in an accident.
2. Soft Real-Time operating system
Soft RTOS accepts a few delays via the means of the Operating system. In this kind of
RTOS, there may be a closing date assigned for a particular job, but a delay for a small
amount of time is acceptable. So, cut off dates are treated softly via means of this kind
of RTOS.
For Example, This type of system is used in Online Transaction systems and Livestock price
quotation Systems.
3. Firm Real-Time operating system
In Firm RTOS additionally want to observe the deadlines. However, lacking a closing
date mi ght not have a massive effect, however may want to purposely undesired effects,
like a massive discount within the fine of a product.
For Example, this system is used in various forms of Multimedia applications.
Advantages:
• Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time applications under the real-time operating
system.
• The real-time working structures are extra compact, so those structures require much
less memory space.
• In a Real-time operating system, the maximum utilization of devices and systems.
• Focus on running applications and less importance to applications that are in the queue.
• Since the size of programs is small, RTOS can also be embedded systems like in
transport and others.
• These types of systems are error-free.
• Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.
Disadvantages:
• Real-time operating systems have complicated layout principles and are very costly to
develop.
• Real-time operating systems are very complex.

Process Control Block(PCB)

Process Control Block is a data structure that contains information of the process related to it.
The process control block is also known as a task control block, entry of the process table, etc.
It is very important for process management as the data structuring for processes is done in
terms of the PCB. It also defines the current state of the operating system.
Structure of the Process Control Block
The process control stores many data items that are needed for efficient process management.
Some of these data items are explained with the help of the given diagram:

Process State
This specifies the process state i.e. new, ready, running, waiting or terminated.
Process Number
This shows the number of the particular process.
Program Counter
This contains the address of the next instruction that needs to be executed in the process.
Registers
This specifies the registers that are used by the process. They may include accumulators, index
registers, stack pointers, general purpose registers etc.
List of Open Files
These are the different files that are associated with the process
CPU Scheduling Information
The process priority, pointers to scheduling queues etc. is the CPU scheduling information that
is contained in the PCB. This may also include any other scheduling parameters.
Memory Management Information
The memory management information includes the page tables or the segment tables
depending on the memory system used. It also contains the value of the base registers, limit
registers etc.
I/O Status Information
This information includes the list of I/O devices used by the process, the list of files etc.
Accounting information
The time limits, account numbers, amount of CPU used, process numbers etc. are all a part of
the PCB accounting information.
Location of the Process Control Block
The process control block is kept in a memory area that is protected from the normal user
access. This is done because it contains important process information. Some of the operating
systems place the PCB at the beginning of the kernel stack for the process as it is a safe location.
Operating System Structure
An operating system has a complex structure, so we need a well-defined structure to assist us
in applying it to our unique requirements. Just as we break down a big problem into smaller,
easier-to-solve subproblems, designing an operating system in parts is a simpler approach to
do it. And each section is an Operating System component.
The approach of interconnecting and integrating multiple operating system components into
the kernel can be described as an operating system structure. As mentioned below, various sorts
of structures are used to implement operating systems.
• Simple Structure
• Monolithic Structure
• Layered Approach Structure
• Micro-kernel Structure

Simple Structure
It is the simplest Operating System Structure and is not well defined; It can only be used for
small and limited systems. In this structure, the interfaces and levels of functionality are well
separated; hence programs can access I/O routines which can cause unauthorized access to I/O
routines.
This structure is implemented in MS-DOS operating system:
The MS-DOS operating System is made up of various layers, each with its own set of
functions.
These layers are:
• Application Program
• System Program
• MS-DOS device drivers
• ROM BIOS device drivers
Layering has an advantage in the MS-DOS operating system since all the levels can be defined
separately and can interact with each other when needed.
It is easier to design, maintain, and update the system if it is made in layers. So that's why
limited systems with less complexity can be constructed easily using Simple Structure.
If one user program fails, the entire operating system gets crashed.
The abstraction level in MS-DOS systems is low, so programs and I/O routines are visible to
the end-user, so the user can have unauthorized access.
Layering in simple structure is shown below:
Advantages of Simple Structure
• It is easy to develop because of the limited number of interfaces and layers.
• Offers good performance due to lesser layers between hardware and applications.
Disadvantages of Simple Structure
• If one user program fails, the entire operating system crashes.
• Abstraction or data hiding is not present as layers are connected and communicate with
each other.
• Layers can access the processes going in the Operating System, which can lead to data
modification and can cause Operating System to crash.

Monolithic Structure
The Monolithic operating System in which the kernel acts as a manager by managing all things
like file management, memory management, device management, and operational processes of
the Operating System.
The kernel is the heart of a computer operating system (OS). Kernel delivers basic services to
all other elements of the System. It serves as the primary interface between the Operating
System and the hardware.
In monolithic systems, kernels can directly access all the resources of the operating System
like physical hardware, exp Keyboard, Mouse etc.
The monolithic kernel is another name for the monolithic operating system. Batch
processing and time-sharing maximize the usability of a processor by multiprogramming. The
monolithic kernel functions as a virtual machine by working on top of the Operating System
and controlling all hardware components. This is an outdated operating system that was used
in banks to accomplish minor activities such as batch processing and time-sharing, which
enables many people at various terminals to access the Operating System.
A Diagram of the Monolithic structure is shown below:

Advantages of Monolithic structure:

• It is simple to design and implement because all operations are managed by kernel only,
and layering is not needed.
• As services such as memory management, file management, process scheduling,
etc., are implemented in the same address space, the execution of the
monolithic kernel is relatively fast as compared to normal systems. Using the same
address saves time for address allocation for new processes and makes it faster.
Disadvantages of Monolithic structure:
• If any service in the monolithic kernel fails, the entire System fails because, in address
space, the services are connected to each other and affect each other.
• It is not flexible, and to introduce a new service
Layered Approach
In this type of structure, OS is divided into layers or levels. The hardware is on the bottom
layer (layer 0), while the user interface is on the top layer (layer N). These layers are arranged
in a hierarchical way in which the top-level layers use the functionalities of their lower-level
levels.

In this approach, functionalities of each layer are isolated, and abstraction is also available. In
layered structure, debugging is easier as it is a hierarchical model, so all lower-level layered is
debugged, and then the upper layer is checked. So all the lower layers are already checked, and
the current layer is to be checked only.

Below is the Image illustrating the Layered structure in OS:

Advantages of Layered Structure

• Each layer has its functionalities, so work tasks are isolated, and abstraction is present
up to some level.
• Debugging is easier as lower layers are debugged, and then upper layers are checked.
Disadvantages of Layered Structure
• In Layered Structure, layering causes degradation in performance.
• It takes careful planning to construct the layers since higher layers only utilize the
functions of lower layers.
Micro-kernel
Micro-Kernel structure designs the Operating System by removing all non-essential
components of the kernel. These non-essential components of kernels are implemented as
systems and user programs. Hence these implemented systems are called as Micro-Kernels.
Each Micro-Kernel is made independently and is isolated from other Micro-Kernels. So this
makes the system more secure and reliable. If any Micro-Kernel fails, then the remaining
operating System remains untouched and works fine.

Advantages of Micro-kernel structure:

• It allows the operating system to be portable between platforms.
• As each Micro-Kernel is isolated, it is safe and trustworthy.
• Because Micro-Kernels are smaller, they can be successfully tested.
• If any component or Micro-Kernel fails, the remaining operating System is unaffected
and continues to function normally.
Disadvantages of Micro-kernel structure:
• Increased inter-module communication reduces system performance.
• System is complex to be constructed.
Computer System Architecture
A computer system is basically a machine that simplifies complicated tasks. It should
maximize performance and reduce costs as well as power [Link] different
components in the Computer System Architecture are Input Unit, Output Unit, Storage Unit,
Arithmetic Logic Unit, Control Unit etc.
A diagram that shows the flow of data between these units is as follows −

The input data travels from input unit to ALU. Similarly, the computed data travels from ALU
to output unit. The data constantly moves from storage unit to ALU and back again. This is
because stored data is computed on before being stored again. The control unit controls all the
other units as well as their data.
Details about all the computer units are −

• Input Unit
The input unit provides data to the computer system from the outside. So, basically it
links the external environment with the computer. It takes data from the input devices,
converts it into machine language and then loads it into the computer system. Keyboard,
mouse etc. are the most commonly used input devices.
• Output Unit
The output unit provides the results of computer process to the users i.e it links the
computer with the external environment. Most of the output data is the form of audio
or video. The different output devices are monitors, printers, speakers, headphones etc.
• Storage Unit
Storage unit contains many computer components that are used to store data. It is
traditionally divided into primary storage and secondary [Link] storage is also
known as the main memory and is the memory directly accessible by the CPU.
Secondary or external storage is not directly accessible by the CPU. The data from
 secondary storage needs to be brought into the primary storage before the CPU can use
it. Secondary storage contains a large amount of data permanently.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit
All the calculations related to the computer system are performed by the arithmetic
logic unit. It can perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
etc. The control unit transfers data from storage unit to arithmetic logic unit when
calculations need to be performed. The arithmetic logic unit and the control unit
together form the central processing unit.
• Control Unit
This unit controls all the other units of the computer system and so is known as its
central nervous system. It transfers data throughout the computer as required including
from storage unit to central processing unit and vice versa. The control unit also dictates
how the memory, input output devices, arithmetic logic unit etc. should behave.