LOGIC

WHAT IS LOGIC?
§ Logic is the study of how to critically think about
propositions or statements that are either true or false
§ Symbolic logic is a branch of logic which uses exacting
formal methods to achieve precision and objectivity in
explaining what to be logical in argument and reasoning
§ Symbolic logic is very useful in Mathematics to prove
theorems and in Computer Science to develop programs and
prove that those programs do what they are expected.
 Let’s Explore

Determine whether the given statement is a

Proposition or Not a Proposition

1. It is not raining. Proposition - declarative

2. Come to our wedding. Not a Proposition - imperative
3. Leave me alone! Not a Proposition - exclamatory
4. My friend is really a good writerProposition - declarative
5. What time is it? Not a Proposition - interrogative
6. Get up and do your [Link] a Proposition - imperative
7. If Erwin is absent, then someone will be missing him. Proposition
8. One plus one equals [Link] - declarative
Classification of sentence according to the
purpose of the speaker or writer
1. Declarative sentence is used to make statement of fact,
wish, intent, or feeling or expresses an opinion
Example: I wish I could visit my grandparents this summer.
2. Imperative sentence is used to state a command, request,
or direction.
Example: Please do not answer in chorus.
3. Interrogative sentence is used to ask a question.
Example: Did you prepare for the final examination?
4. Exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feelings.
Example: The teacher shouted, "Keep quiet!"

STATEMENT (PROPOSITION)
§ Proposition is a declarative sentence which is true (T) or
false (F), but not both simultaneously.
§ Simple (atomic) statement is one that does not contain any
other statement as a component part. Simple proposition
conveys one thought with no connecting words.
o December 7, 1953 was a Monday.

§ Compound (molecular) statement is one that does contain

another statement as a component part. Compound
proposition contains two or more simple propositions that
are put together using connective words.
o Lemuel is intelligent and he studies every night.
 CONNECTIVES AND
TRUTH TABLES

NEGATION
+The Negation of a statement ! is a statement obtained by
prefixing the phrase “it is not true that” to !
+In symbols, we write the negation ! as ~!
+Words such as “it is not the case that”, “no”, “none”, and “it is
false that” can also be used.

Example:
!: Hazel is playful.
~": It is not true that Hazel is playful.
~": Hazel is not playful.
NEGATION
§ Rule: The negation of " (~") is true if " is false.
§ We use the truth table (containing all the possible
combinations of T and F, values for the statement ") to
completely summarize the whole situation.

" ~"
T F
F T

The truth table tells us that when ! is true, its negation ~! is false. On the
other hand, when ! is false, the negation ~! is true

NEGATION
§ Rule: The negation of " (~") is true if " is false.

" ~"
T F
F T

The truth table tells us that when ! is true, its negation ~! is false. On the
other hand, when ! is false, the negation ~! is true
CONJUNCTION
§ A Conjunction is a statement resulting from combining two
statements by a word “and”.
§ In symbols, we write “" and $“ by " ∧ $
+Other words being used are but, still, while, yet, despite,
although, furthermore, however, moreover, and in spite of.

Example:
": A rectangle is a parallelogram.
$: A rhombus is a parallelogram.

" ∧ $: A rectangle is a parallelogram, and a rhombus is a parallelogram.

" ∧ $: A rectangle and a rhombus is a parallelogram.

CONJUNCTION

§ Rule: A conjunction " ∧ $ is TRUE if " and $ are both true.

" $ "∧$
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
CONJUNCTION

§ Rule: A conjunction " ∧ $ is TRUE if " and $ are both true.

" $ "∧$
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

DISJUNCTION

§ Statements ! and " can be combined by the connective “or”

symbolized by ∨ and the statement formed is called disjunction.

§ In INCLUSIVE OR, ! ∨ " means either ! or " or both ! and "

§ In EXCLUSIVE OR, the statement “ ! or " but not both” is

symbolized as “! ∨ " “ but it has the same meaning as “(! ∨ ") ∧ ~
(! ∧ ")”

§ Other words being used are or else, either, and unless.

DISJUNCTION (INCLUSIVE OR)
§ Rule: The disjunction " ∨ $ is FALSE if " is false and $ is false.

" $ "∨$
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

The truth table above tells us that the disjunction ! ∨ $ is FALSE only
when both disjuncts ! and $ are false.

DISJUNCTION (INCLUSIVE OR)

§ Rule: The disjunction " ∨ $ is FALSE if " is false and $ is false.

" $ "∨$
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 DISJUNCTION (EXCLUSIVE OR)

§ In EXCLUSIVE OR, the statement “ ! or " but not both” is

symbolized as “! ∨ " “ but it has the same meaning as “(! ∨ ") ∧ ~
(! ∧ ")”

" $ "∨$ !∧" ~ (! ∧ ") ! ∨ "

T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F

IMPLICATION / CONDITIONAL
§ An implication is a statement obtained by combining two statements by
using the words “if … then”, or it is a statement which has the same
meaning as two statements joined by “if … then”
§ In symbols, we write “if !, then $” by ! → $
§ Statement ! is called the antecedent of the conditional or hypothesis
and the statement $ is called the consequent or conclusion.
§ Other terms for implication are “! entails $”, “! implies $”, “! only if $”,
“$, given !”, “$ provided that !”, “$ is necessary for !”, and “$ if !”
Example:
!: Today is Wednesday.
$: Logic class meets today.

! → $: If today is Wednesday, then logic class meets today.

 IMPLICATION / CONDITIONAL
§ Rule: An implication “" → $” is FALSE if " is true and $ is false.
Example:
!: Today is Wednesday.
$: Logic class meets today.
! → $: If today is Wednesday, then logic class meets today

" $ "→$
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

IMPLICATION / CONDITIONAL
§ Rule: An implication “! → $” is FALSE if ! is true and $ is false.
Example:
!: Today is Wednesday. ! → $: If today is Wednesday, then logic class meets today
$: Logic class meets today.
! $ !→$ Reasoning
If both ! and " are true, then today is Wednesday and logic class meets
T T T
today. Here we are certain the ! → " is TRUE
Suppose ! is true and " is false. This case means that today is Wednesday,
T F F
but logic class did not meet today. Hence the implication ! → " is FALSE
This case means that today is not Wednesday, but logic class meets today.
This does not show that the implication is wrong. The implication ! → "
F T T merely stated what will happen if today is Wednesday but it does not say
anything about what will happen if today is not Wednesday. Thus, ! → " is
TRUE if ! is false and " is true
If today is not Wednesday and Logic class does not meet today, then these
F F T
did not violate the implication. Thus, if ! and " are both false, ! → " is TRUE
BI-IMPLICATION / BI-CONDITIONAL
§ A bi-implication is a statement made up of two implications expressed
using the words “if and only if.
§ In symbols, we write “! ⟺ $” or (! → $) ∧ ($ → !)
§ Other phrases used are equivalent to, sufficient and necessary for, when
and only when, just in case, and only granted that.
Example:
A bi-implication is illustrated in the following example.
! ⟺ $: The opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent if and only if the
figure is a parallelogram.
This single statement contains two implications
! → $: If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the
figure is a parallelogram.
and $ → !: If the figure is a parallelogram, then the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
congruent

IMPLICATION / CONDITIONAL

§ Rule: A bi-implication “" ⟺ $” is TRUE if both are true, or

both are false.

" $ "⟺$
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
BI-IMPLICATION / CONDITIONAL
§ Rule: A bi-implication “" ⟺ $” is TRUE if both are true, or
both are false.

" $ "→$ $→" (" → $) ∧ ($ → ") or " ⟺ $

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

PROPOSITIONAL
EQUIVALENCES
TAUTOLOGIES, CONTRADICTION, AND
CONTINGENCIES
§ A statement is called

i. A tautology (or valid) if it takes truth

value T under each possible assignment
of truth values to the statements which
occur in it
ii. A contradiction (or an absurdity) if it
takes truth value F under each possible
assignment of truth values to the
statements which occur in it

iii. A contingency (or satisfiable) if it is

neither a tautology nor a contradiction

TAUTOLOGIES,
CONTRADICTION,
AND
CONTINGENCIES
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

§ The propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if p

↔ q is a tautology. The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q
are logically equivalent.

§ One way to determine whether two propositions are

equivalent is to use a truth table. In particular, the
propositions p and q are equivalent if and only if the
columns giving their truth values agree.

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
§ If the truth tables for two statements are identical, then the
two statements are said to be logically equivalent, and we
denote this by ↔ or ≡
Example:
1. Show that ~ (! ∧ $) is equivalent to (~ ! ∨ ~$) .

" $ " ∧ $ ~(" ∧ $) ! " ~! ~" ~ " ∨ ~$

T T T F T T F F F
T F F T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F F T F F T T T
 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
2. Prove the propositions " → $ ≡ $ → ~".

Solutions:

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
§ A conditional statement has three other conditionals associated with it. They
are called the converse, inverse, and the contrapositive of the conditional
statement.
Let ! and " be statement variables. Then we have the following definitions:
1. The converse of p → q is q→ p. To get the converse of p → q, interchange the
hypothesis and the conclusion.
2. The inverse of p → q is ~p → ~q. To get the inverse of p → q, negate the hypothesis
and the conclusion.
3. The contrapositive of p → q is ~q → ~p. To get the contrapositive of p → q, negate
and interchange the hypothesis and the conclusion.
v Note that if a conditional statement is true, then its contrapositive is also
true and conversely. In symbols,
p → q therefore ~q → ~p
and
~q → ~p therefore p → q.

CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE

§ Example
Let p → q: If you understand Math, then you will do well in Science.
This statement is true. Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of p → q
and determine the truth value of each.
1. Converse
" → !: If you do well in Science, then you will understand Math.
The converse statement is false.
2. Inverse
~! → ~": If you do not understand Math, then you will not do well in Science.
The inverse statement is false.
3. Contrapositive
~" → ~!: If you will not do well in Science, then you will not understand Math.
The contrapositive statement is true.
 CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE
§ What can you conclude from the truth values of the converse, inverse and
contrapositive of p → q?
Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive
p q p→q q→p ~p ~q ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
v Note that the truth tables of p → q and its contrapositive are the same. Also, the truth tables of the
converse and the inverse of a statement are the same. So the converse and the inverse of a
conditional statement are equivalent while the conditional statement is equivalent to its
contrapositive.

Two propositions p and q that have the same truth values are said to be logically equivalent
and denoted by p ≡ q or p ⇔ q.

END OF
PRESENTATION
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