Pre-Calculus Study Guide

By: Max Ranis

For the use of American Heritage Math Competition

1 Basic Trigonometry
• Domain of sin x: ( 1, 1) • Range of sin x: [ 1, 1]
• Domain of cos x: ( 1, 1) • Range of cos x: [ 1, 1]
(2k+1)⇡
• Domain of tan x: x 6= 2 , where k 2 Z • Range of tan x: ( 1, 1)

• Domain of csc x: x 6= k⇡, where k 2 Z • Range of csc x: ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1)

(2k+1)⇡
• Domain of sec x: x 6= 2 , where k 2 Z • Range of sec x: ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1)
• Domain of cot x: x 6= k⇡, where k 2 Z • Range of cot x: ( 1, 1)

• Domain of arcsin x: [ 1, 1] • Range of arcsin x: [ ⇡ ⇡

2, 2]

• Domain of arccos x: [ 1, 1] • Range of arccos x: [0, ⇡]

• Domain of arctan x: ( 1, 1) • Range of arctan x: ( ⇡ ⇡
2, 2)

• Domain of arccsc x: ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1) • Range of arccsc x: [ ⇡

2 , 0) [ (0, ⇡2 ]

• Domain of arcsec x: ( 1, 1] [ [1, 1) • Range of arcsec x: [0, ⇡2 ) [ ( ⇡2 , ⇡]

• Domain of arccot x: ( 1, 1) • Range of arccot x: (0, ⇡)

• sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x • sin(a ± b) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b

• cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x
• cos(a ± b) = cos a cos b ⌥ sin a sin b
• cos2 x sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 1=1 2 sin2 x
2 tan x tan a ± tan b
• tan 2x = • tan(a ± b) =
1 tan2 x 1 ⌥ tan a tan b

2 More Advanced Trigonometry Identities

• sin 3✓ = 4 sin3 ✓ + 3 sin ✓ • sin a + sin b = 2 sin a+b
2 cos a b
2

• cos 3✓ = 4 cos3 ✓ 3 cos ✓ a b a+b

• sin a sin b = 2 sin 2 cos 2
3
3 tan ✓ tan ✓
• tan 3✓ = a+b a b
1 3 tan2 ✓ • cos a + cos b = 2 cos 2 cos 2
x 1 cos x sin x a+b a b
• tan = = • cos a cos b = 2 sin 2 sin 2
2 sin x 1 + cos x
r
x 1 cos x • sin a sin b = 12 [cos(a b) cos(a + b)]
• sin = ±
2 2
r • cos a cos b = 12 [cos(a b) + cos(a + b)]
x 1 + cos x
• cos = ± • sin a cos b = 12 [sin(a b) + sin(a + b)]
2 2

For the half angle identity, you would use the quadrant in the coordinate plane in which x
2 lies to see
whether to use the positive or negative.

1
 3 Polar Graphs
Limacon

• r = a ± b cos ✓ or r = a ± b sin ✓
• Inner loop if a < b.
• Cardioid if a = b. The area of a cardioid is 32 ⇡a2 .
• Dimpled if b < a < 2b.

• Convex if a 2b.

Rose
• r = a cos n✓ or r = a sin n✓
⇡a2
• If n is odd, there are n petals and the entire area is .
4
⇡a2
• If n is even, there are 2n petals and the entire area is .
2
Lemniscate
• r2 = a2 sin 2✓ or r2 = a2 cos 2✓

• Area is a2 .

4 Coordinate Systems
Polar Coordinates
p
1 y
• (x, y) ! (r, ✓) = ( x2 + y 2 , tan ( x ))
• x = r cos ✓ and y = r sin ✓

Note that there are an infinite number of ways to express a Cartesian coordinate as a polar co-
ordinate due to the repetition of all angle values after a revolution of the unit circle (2⇡). In addition,
the radius can be made negative by finding the ✓ directly opposite the one used.
• For example, in polar, (3, ⇡2 ) = (3, 5⇡ 3⇡
2 ) = ( 3, 2 )

Cylindrical Coordinates
p
• (x, y, z) ! (r, ✓, z) = ( x2 + y 2 , tan 1 xy , z) where ✓ does not have to be within the traditional range
of y = tan 1 (x) like before. However, that is the most common way.

Spherical Coordinates
p ⇣y⌘ ⇣z ⌘
1 1
• (x, y, z) ! (r, ✓, ) = ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 , tan , cos )
x r
• x = r cos ✓ sin , y = r sin ✓ sin , and z = r cos .

2
 5 Vectors
!
(~a · ~b)
• Projection of ~b onto ~a is ~a = v~1 . The resistance vector is ~b ~v1 = ~v2
|~a|2

• If ~v · w
~ = 0, then ~v and w
~ are orthogonal (perpendicular).
• A vector ~v can be represented as |~v |(cos ✓ ı̂ + sin ✓ |ˆ)
a·b a⇥b
• If ✓ is the angle between two vectors a and b, then cos ✓ = and sin ✓ = .
|a||b| |a||b|
a b c
• Say ~v = aî+bĵ +ck̂, then cos ↵ = , cos = , and cos = . Note that cos2 ↵+cos2 +cos2 = 1.
|~v | |~v | |~v |
• u ⇥ v is orthogonal to both u and v.
• If u ⇥ v = 0, then u and v are parallel.
• Area of a parallelogram bound by two vectors is |a ⇥ b|. Thus the area of a triangle is 12 (|a ⇥ b|).
• Volume of a parallelepiped is |(a ⇥ b) · c|.
• Volume of a tetrahedron (pyramid) is 16 |(a ⇥ b) · c|.

6 Conics
• Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
• If B 2 4AC = 0, the conic is a parabola.
• If B 2 4AC > 0, the conic is a hyperbola.
• B2 4AC < 0, the conic is an ellipse.

One would find the equation of the conic using a rotation of axes.
• cot 2✓ = A C
B or tan 2✓ = A C.
B

• x = x0 cos ✓ y 0 sin ✓ and y = x0 sin ✓ + y 0 cos ✓. (These two are the important ones)
• If we ever have to do the process in reverse, x0 = x cos ✓ + y sin ✓ and y 0 = x sin ✓ + y cos ✓.
ep ep
• Conics can also be expressed as r = or r = , where e is the eccentricity and p is
1 ± e cos ✓ 1 ± e sin ✓
the distance from the pole.
• No matter what angle of rotation, B 2 4AC, A + C, and F are constant for any one conic.
A B/2 D/2
• If B/2 C E/2 = 0, then the conic is degenerate. (You should check each time you are given a
D/2 E/2 F
conic equation).
• In an ellipse (in standard Algebra II form), the larger of a and b correspond to the major axis of length
of either 2a or 2b.
• In a hyperbola (in standard Algebra II form), the positive term contributes to the major axis (transverse
axis).
2⇡i
• If an ellipse is in the form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 = 1, then the area of the ellipse is p .
B 2 4AC

3
 7 More Vectors and Matrices
• If you are given three points, shift all three points so that one is at the origin. Take the cross product
of the two nonzero points as if they represented vectors to find the plane defined by those three points.
ux uy uz
• u · (v ⇥ w) = vx vy vz
wx wy wz
• Switching two rows of a matrix results in the new determinant equaling the negative of the pervious
determinant.

• When a matrix row is multiplied by k, the determinant is multiplied by k.

• Adding two rows of a matrix yields the same determinant.
• det(AT ) = det(A), where A is a matrix and AT is the transpose of A.

• det(A · B) = det(A) · det(B) where A and B are matrices.

• det(A) · det(A 1
) = 1 where A is a matrix and A 1
is the inverse of A.
• Eigenvalues ( ) are values that satisfy |M I| = 0 where M is the matrix given and I is the identity
matrix.

• The sum of the eigenvalues is the trace of the matrix which is the sum of the entries of the main
diagonal.
• The product of the eigenvalues is the determinant of the matrix.
• Eigenvectors (E) are vectors that satisfy (M I)(E) = 0. Note that there can be many eigenvectors
for one matrix.

8 Miscellaneous Information
p ⇣ ⌘
• A sin Cx + B cos Cx = A2 + B 2 sin(Cx + cos 1 p A
A2 +B 2
). Thus, A sin Cx + B cos Cx has amplitude
p
A2 + B 2 .
r nt
• Compound interest A = P 1 + n . Compounded continuously implies n ! 1 in which A = P ert .
⇣ a ⌘bx
• lim 1+ = eab
n!1 x
• AM GM HM if all the terms are positive.
• An inconsistent system has no solutions, a dependent system has infinite solutions, and an independent
system has one solution.
n+k 1
• (x + y + z + ...)k , where there are n terms inside the parentheses has n 1 terms when fully expanded.

eix + e ix
eix e ix
• cos x = and sin x =
2 2i
ex + e x ex e x
• cosh x = and sinh x = . This means that cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1.
2 2

cos ✓ sin ✓
• Multiplying by rotates a point by ✓ counterclockwise. The determinant of the rotation
sin ✓ cos ✓
matrix is 1.

4
 p p p
5 1
• sin 18 = 4 • sin 36 = 10 2 5
4
p p p
10+2 5 5+1
• cos 18 = 4 • cos 36 = 4

• xlogb y = y logb x

9 Sequences and Series

1
X n
X
xk
• = ex • (2k) = n(n + 1)
k!
k=0 k=1

1
X 1
X
( 1)k 1 1
• = • diverges.
k! e k
k=0 k=1

1
X 1
X
1 ( 1)k+1
• =e • = ln 2
k! k
k=0 k=1

1
X 1
X
k 1 ⇡2
• = 1. • 2
=
(k + 1)! k 6
k=1 k=1

n
X 1
X
2 r
• (2k)2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1) • krk = , where |r| < 1.
3 (1 r)2
k=1 k=1

n
X 1
X
1 r2 + r
• (2k 1)2 = n(4n2 1) • k2 rk = , where |r| < 1.
3 (1 r)3
k=1 k=1

n
X 1
X r3 + 4r2 + r
• (2k 1) = n2 • k3 rk = , where |r| < 1.
(1 r)4
k=1 k=1

10 More Information
1
X ( 1)k x2k+1 x3 x5
• sin x = =x + ...
(2k + 1)! 3! 5!
k=0

1
X ( 1)k x2k x2 x4
• cos x = =1 + ...
(2k)! 2! 4!
k=0

n
• The nth p-gonal (polygon with p sides) number is (p 2) · 2 + n.
✓ ◆
a+b sin a + sin b cos a cos b
• tan = =
2 cos a + cos b sin a sin b
1
• cos 20 cos 40 cos 80 = k ! sin 20 cos 20 cos 40 cos 80 = k sin 20 ! 2 sin 40 cos 40 cos 80 =
k sin 20 ! 14 sin 80 cos 80 = k sin 20 ! 18 sin 160 = k sin 20 ! k = 18
p
8 .
3
• sin 20 sin 40 sin 80 =

• tan 50 tan 60 tan 70 = tan 80

• tan 40 tan 30 tan 20 = tan 10

5
• cos 24 + cos 48 + cos 96 + cos 168 = 12
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
⇡ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
• = 4 tan tan = 5 tan + 2 tan
4 5 239 7 79

• crd✓ = 2 sin ✓2
p p
ac ± b a2 + b2 c2 bc ± a a2 + b2 c2
• If a sin ✓ + b cos ✓ = c, then sin ✓ = and cos ✓ =
a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
n
Y1 ✓ ◆
k⇡ n
• sin = n 1
n 2
k=1

1
Y ✓ ◆
✓ sin ✓
• cos =
2k ✓
k=1