Formal Guidelines
Confucianism provides the inspiration for the second formal guidelines principle.
Confucianism is the Chinese philosopher Confucius' ethical system (551-479 BC).
Confucius' ethical system can be summarized as follows:
“What you do not want others to do to you, do not do to them”
- This encourages empathy, urging people to treat others as they wish to be
treated. It serves as a guide for ethical decision-making, promoting fairness and
social harmony.
This is known as the Golden Rule in ethics. After identifying the activities that
stakeholders have taken or are considering, the ten universal common themes and the
Golden Rule should be used to decide if the outcomes are ethical or unethical. If a
stakeholder's specific course of action violates any of the standards outlined in this
section, the activity might be classified as unethical.
Example:
Imagine a company is considering collecting personal data from customers without their
consent. Applying the Golden Rule, the decision-makers would ask themselves, "Would
we want our own personal data collected without our knowledge or consent?" Since
most people wouldn't want that, the action would likely be considered unethical under
this rule. As a result, the company should respect privacy and obtain proper consent.
Ethical Theory
1. Deontology
Actions are inherently right or wrong in a deontological framework, regardless of the
results they create. An ethical action can be derived from a responsibility (pluralism) or a
fundamental human right (contractarianism), but it is never contingent on the expected
consequence.
Duty-based Ethics (Pluralism), as proposed by W.D. Ross, focuses on the idea that
individuals have a set of core moral duties or responsibilities that are not dependent on
the consequences of their actions. These duties are considered self-evident principles
that guide ethical decision-making. Ross identified seven primary moral
responsibilities:
1. Fidelity (Keeping promises): Moral agents are obligated to keep their
commitments and honor their promises.
2. Reparation (Making amends): One should make efforts to correct or
compensate for any harm or wrong they have caused to others.
3. Justice (Fair distribution): Individuals have a duty to ensure that goods, services,
and opportunities are distributed in a fair and just manner.
4. Beneficence (Promoting good): One has a responsibility to help improve the
welfare, happiness, and ethical state of others, contributing positively to their
well-being.
5. Self-improvement (Developing virtues): Each person has an obligation to
improve themselves, whether it be in terms of knowledge, intelligence, or moral
virtue.
6. Gratitude (Expressing thankfulness): When appropriate, individuals should
express gratitude and appreciation for kindness or help received from others.
7. Non-injury (Preventing harm): It is important to avoid causing harm to others,
whether through direct action or negligence.
Rights-based Ethics (Contractarianism) focuses on moral principles and the idea of
rights as fundamental entitlements, rather than evaluating the outcomes of actions. In
this framework, actions are ethical if they respect and uphold the rights of individuals.
According to contractarianism, moral and ethical obligations are based on social
contracts, which are agreements between individuals in a society that outline their rights
and duties. These rights can be legal or moral, and individuals are obligated to respect
them regardless of the consequences.
Ernest Kallman identified three key rights specifically relevant to the field of information
technology:
1. The right to be informed: Individuals have a right to access accurate and
sufficient information to make informed decisions, especially when it pertains to
technology, products, or services they use.
2. The right to confidentiality: People have a right to privacy, particularly
regarding their personal information. In the context of information technology, this
means protecting sensitive data from unauthorized access or breaches.
3. The right to own a home: Though this is not specific to technology, it reflects the
broader contractarian idea that individuals have certain fundamental rights,
including property rights, which should be respected.
2. Teleology (Consequentialism)
Teleological theories prioritize the consequences of actions when determining what is
right or wrong. The moral value of an action is judged by its outcomes.
Egoism: This theory focuses on self-interest. An action is considered ethical if it
benefits the individual making the decision. The central question is, "Does this
action help me?"
Utilitarianism: This theory values the greater good over individual interests. An
action is right if it maximizes benefits and minimizes costs for everyone
involved, not just the person making the decision.
Altruism: The opposite of egoism, altruism emphasizes helping others, even at
one's own expense. An action is ethical if it benefits others while minimizing harm
to others. Principles such as nonmaleficence (avoiding harm), autonomy
(respecting individual choice), and informed consent are important.