Block 2

Understanding Individual
Behaviour

35
Understanding
Individual Behaviour

36
UNIT 3 EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES AND JOB Employee Attitudes
and Job Satisfaction
SATISFACTION*
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Job Satisfaction
3.2.1 Theories of Job Satisfaction

3.3 Commitment
3.4 Effect of Employees’ Attitudes
3.5 Changing Attitudes
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 Glossary
3.8 References
3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
• Acquire conceptual understanding of attitudes;
• Understand the relationship between attitudes and job satisfaction;
• List out the characteristics of a committed person;
• Understand different types of employee attitude;
• Explore the factors affecting employee attitude; and
• Discuss the barriers to change attitudes and adopt different ways to overcome
them.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Attitudes refer to feelings and beliefs of individuals or groups of individuals.
The feelings and beliefs are directed towards other people, objects or ideas.
When a person says, “I like my job,” it shows, that he has a positive attitude
towards his job. Attitudes often result in and affect the behaviour and/or action
of the people. Attitudes can lead to an intended behaviour if there are no external
interventions. Attitudes constitute a psychological phenomenon which cannot
be directly observed, but which can be observed indirectly by assessing its
consequences. For example, if a person is very regular in his job, we may infer
that he likes his job very much or is a disciplined person. Attitudes are gradually
acquired over a period of time.

37
Contributed by Prof. G. Bhuvaneswara Lakshmi, Head of the Department, Department of Education and Education
*

Technology, School of Social Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.

Understanding Social psychologists give importance to both theoretical and practical aspects
Individual Behaviour of attitudes because they have powerful effect on behaviour. It is very difficult
to assess the type of attitude which causes a particular type of behaviour in
different situations. Depending on the strength of an attitude, behaviour can
be predicted to an extent. Attitudes have importance in one’ life as they help a
person to mediate between his own inner needs (expression, defence) and the
outside world (adaptive and knowledge).
Attitude is the mental state of an individual who responds or is ready to respond
for or against objects, situations, etc. with which his/her feelings, interest,
liking, desire and so on are directly or indirectly linked or associated. During
the course of his/her development, a person acquires tendencies to respond to
objects. These learned cognitive mechanisms are called attitudes.
Meaning and definitions of Attitude
The word ‘Attitude’ is derived the Latin term ‘Aptus’ which means a subjective
or mental state of preparation for action. Otherwise, an attitude is an effective
byproduct of previous experiences and has its base in inner urges and influences
of environment by which a person is surrounded. It can also be said that an
attitude is the result of one’s desires and group stimulation. It is a part of
personality of human beings.
Herbert Spencer was one of the earlier psychologists who employed the term
‘attitude’. Later, it was defined by different scholars in diverse ways. It is a
concept of belief. An individual may or may not have any preference towards
a particular object/thing/issue etc. One may accept a path, while others may
reject it. All these beliefs and preferences are expressions of attitudes. Some
of the definitions of attitudes are given below for your understanding (cited in
Lakshmi, G.D., 2000):
“Attitudes are associated with likes and consequently have an emotional
context”--- Norman Marries (1964).
The meaning of attitude is “behaviour of conduct regarding some matters” ---
Fowler and Fowler 1968.
An Attitude, defined by Hariman in 1950, is ‘A mental set to respond to a
situation with a proper reaction; whereas sets may be temporary matters,
attitudes are more or less stable.’
In 1994, Woodworth defined an attitude as “a set of dispositions (readiness,
inclination, and tendency) to act towards on object according to its characteristics
so far as we are acquainted with them”.
Skinner (1966) defined an attitude as “a generalised disposition towards a group
of people and it is promotionally tended”.
Types and Components of Attitude
Further, attitudes are defined as “Complex of feelings, convictions, prejudices,
fears and other tendencies that have given a set or readiness to act to a person
because of varied experience” (Chave, 1928). These attitudes may be classified
into four types:
38
• Positive attitude, Employee Attitudes
and Job Satisfaction
• Negative attitude,
• Neutral attitude, and
• Sikken attitude.
Let us discuss these attitudes.
1. Positive attitude: A person with positive attitude keeps a positive mind-
set and thinks about the greater good, whatever may be his experiences or
circumstances. One has to understand how much of positiveness of attitude is
needed to keep a work progressing.
Persons with positive attitude generally do not care about the obstacles that they
face in their personal and professional life. They tend to develop their talents
and skills every day and try to overcome all the difficulties they come across
to achieve their own goals. These people put efforts to identify their earlier
mistakes rather than blaming others. And they try not to repeat them.
There are different personality traits which come under this category. Some
of them are: Self-confidence, joyfulness, hardwork, sincerity and punctuality,
decision-making, determination, satisfaction, cooperation, sharing, accepting
responsibility for failures, etc. Some of these are elaborated below:
Joyfulness: Some people are always joyful. Self-confidence adds to joy and
happiness. Happiness generates contentment and positive thinking. A happy
mind-set is an abode for all good in one’s life or organisation.
Punctuality and Sincerity: These personality traits are important to work with a
positive mind set. Punctuality is discipline in time management, while sincerity
is devotion to any task or mission.
2. Negative attitude: Some of the attitudes of an individual are harmful to
total personality. Some of these attitudes are anger, frustration, dissatisfaction,
doubting, jealousy, prejudices etc. In general, people with such negative
attitudes focus on failures and limitations and ignore the positive dimensions of
life. Negative people run away from tough situations. Negative attitudes always
create hindrances to success even to optimum utilisation of capabilities. Let us
discuss some of the personality traits that form negative attitudes.
Anger: Anger is an emotional state that adversely affects thinking and reasoning.
A person with negative attitude will always be fault finding. Sometimes
there may be no reason at all for getting angry, yet the habit of getting angry
overpowers the man. This mindset is dysfunctional for constructive work.
Doubt: A person who has no confidence in himself is always doubtful and will
have a negative mindset. This attitude will not let him progress in his work. Self
trust and trusting others are essential for a positive climate for work.
Frustration: Frustration is the result of anger and lack of confidence. A negative
person is a frustrated person. As said earlier, attitude defines the person. And
the mood of frustration will create unfavourable results. A dying spirit cannot
generate a living action.
39
Understanding 3. Neutral Attitude: This is another type of attitude that is common. People
Individual Behaviour with this attitude generally tend to ignore their problems in life, and wait for
others to take care of their problems. They are generally victims of complacency
and are often unemotional. They never feel the need to change themselves as
they can simply live with the way they are. A person with a neutral attitude will
feel disconnected quite often and that is why having neutral attitude is very bad
and should be fixed as soon as possible. A person with neutral attitude succeeds
only if he or she adopts a positive attitude. In most cases, it has been seen that
the attitude adjustment mental therapies have led persons to a road filled with
positivity.
4. Sikken Attitude: It is very difficult to deal with persons having Sikken
attitude, because they find bad in everything and can change a positive idea into
negative. Sometimes their negativity in thinking dominates others’ thinking as
well. In general, a person with positive attitude will be an inspiration for many
in the team. Therefore, companies look for people with positive attitudes. People
in general seem to stick around the positive vibration, as that will motivate
them enough to progress in life. Bad or good, attitude has the power to change
people’s thoughts and therefore, their behaviour.
Components of Attitude
The composition of three aspects forms the bases of the attitude. The acronym for
these three aspects is ABC: A- Affective (emotional), B-behavioural (conative)
C- Cognition (information).
Information/knowledge which consists of beliefs, values and ideas of a person
about the object form an attitude. This is known as cognitive/information
component. This information in reality may or may not be correct. But this is
used as key to an individual’s attitude.
Emotional (affective) component involves our individual’s feelings and likings.
Behavioural component involves the behaviour of the individual in a specific
manner towards an object. The first and second component can’t be seen by
others but surely enough, it can be inferred. To understand the third component,
the first two components are essential.
Direct experience of a person: In association with previous attitude towards
the objects, family, peer group, economic status, mass media etc, are different
sources which play a major role in the formation of one’s attitudes. All the
attitudes of an individual may not be consciously held. In some cases the
individuals may not be aware of their own positive/ negative attitudes and the
sources of attitude which they possess. Attitudes formed by direct experiences
resist change whereas attitudes formed by social learning may change easily. If
the individual experience is positive, it may lead to the formation and sustenance
of positive attitude.

3.2 JOB SATISFACTION

Job Satisfaction is a collection of positive or negative feelings towards one’s
job. It shows the amount of satisfaction towards the job. It is the result of the
reciprocal relationship between the employee’s expectations and the rewards
40 that are received from the employer. Job satisfaction is a part of life and it is
influenced by a host of factors – the nature of the job, one’s inclination and the Employee Attitudes
job environment. and Job Satisfaction

Concept of Job Satisfaction

Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as an emotional feeling developed as a
byproduct of job experience. It is a complex phenomenon which reflects and
affects the cognitive, affective and motor behaviours of an employee. Feeling,
thinking and action are involved in job satisfaction. Blum (1968) explained job
satisfaction as the summation of likes and dislikes towards the job.
Job satisfaction is a general attitude which is the result of many specific attitudes
in three areas, namely (i) specific job factors; (ii) individual characteristics; and
(iii) group relationship outside the job.
Several theories concerning the sources of job satisfaction have been proposed
in the organisational literature. These theories can be classified into one of three
categories:
1. Situational theories which hypothesise that job satisfaction results from
the nature of one’s job or other aspects of the environment.
2. Dispositional approaches assume that job satisfaction is related to one’s
own mindset.
3. Interactive theories propose that it is developed as result of nature of the
work and one’s own views about job
All these factors cannot be isolated from each other for analysis. The most
notable situational influence on job satisfaction is the nature of the work itself—
often called “intrinsic job characteristics”. Researches show that nature of work
is the most important factor for job satisfaction.

3.2.1 Theories of Job Satisfaction

Hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory was one of the first theories that examined
the importance of job satisfaction. The theory suggests that human needs form
a five-level hierarchy consisting of: physiological, safety, belongingness/love,
esteem, and self-actualisation needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs postulates
that there are essential needs that need to be met first (such as, physiological
needs and safety), before more complex (such as, belonging and esteem) needs
can be met.
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory suggests that job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction are not the two opposite ends of the same continuum, but instead
they are two separate and, at times, even unrelated concepts. ‘Motivating’
factors like pay and benefits, recognition and achievement need to be positively
addressed in order for an employee to be satisfied with work. On the other
hand, ‘hygiene’ factors (such as working conditions, company policies and
structure, job security, interaction with colleagues and quality of management)
are associated with job dissatisfaction. This theory postulates that when hygiene
41
Understanding factors are low, an employee is dissatisfied, but when these factors are high, it
Individual Behaviour means the employee is not dissatisfied (or neutral), but not necessarily satisfied.
Motivators influence the satisfaction level of an employee.
Dispositional approach
This approach suggests that job satisfaction is closely related to personality. It
postulates that an individual has a strong predisposition towards a certain level
of satisfaction, and that this remains fairly constant and stable across time.
Job satisfaction and organisational behaviour
Organisational behaviour is related to the work behaviour of persons. Most
studies in organisational behaviour include reference to job satisfaction, job
involvement and organisational commitment. When a person is fully satisfied
with his work in the work place, he will be sincerely committed to his job. A
high level of job satisfaction develops a positive attitude towards the job. The
effect of job satisfaction reflects on the performance of employees: productivity
increases, absenteeism reduces and customer service increases.
Job involvement indicates a person’s involvement in the work and the degree
to which he identifies himself with the job. A person with strong level of job
involvement takes care of the work that he undertakes. If he is involved well in
his work, the productivity rate increases, the administrative authority recognises
his worth and encourages him with incentives.
Organisational commitment is a mental state of an employee who identifies
himself with the organisation and its goals. He wants to continue his membership
with the organisation. It is clear that job involvement identifies the attitude
towards one’s specific job, whereas organisation commitment identifies the
attitude towards the employing organisation. Thus, all the three attitudes are
interlinked. Job satisfaction is required for job involvement which in turn leads
to commitment to one’s specific job.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1. Explain the types and components of Attitude.
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
2. Discuss different theories of Job Satisfaction.
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
42
 Employee Attitudes
......………………….…………………………………………………….. and Job Satisfaction

3.3 COMMITMENT
Commitment is the act of binding (intellectually or emotionally) to a course of
action. When a person takes up a job, he is supposed to be making a commitment
to do the job well, and his employer makes a commitment to compensate him for
his work. There are commitments to quality of work, sincerity and integrity.
Characteristics of committed people
Committed people share certain traits that make them committed to their
passions, whether it is football, education, career or family. Committed people
have the following characteristics:
1. Courage of Conviction: Committed people value their passions strongly
and move toward their goals with full force. Because they are so committed
to their passions, they don’t care about the disapproval of others. They are
able to move forward toward their goals without fear of what people may
think of them.
2. Loyal: Committed people have their priorities and they stick to them. They
develop a routine that allows them to slowly and steadily work toward
their goals. They are loyal to their families, their friends, their team, their
sport and themselves because they are determined to succeed in various
dimensions of life.
3. Dreamers: Committed people are committed and loyal to very specific
goals, whether it is winning the Heisman Trophy, beating a personal record
or becoming a doctor. Committed people constantly make new goals and
are always striving to push their boundaries and achieve more.
4. Tough: People who are committed have a unique endurance that allows
them to physically keep going because they are mentally wired to work
endlessly toward their dreams. In other words, their workload does not
seem overwhelming because they wholeheartedly want to perform it.
5. Happy: Above all, committed people are truly happy because they have a
higher purpose to live for. Each day is one step forward toward achieving
their goals and dreams, and they feel fulfilled knowing that they are always
moving forward.
Organisational commitment
Organisational commitment is an issue which has been gaining importance
over the years. It implies the degree to which an employee is loyal to his/her
organisation. The management is very much concerned about the organisational
commitment of its employees. Organisational commitment is found to have
significant relationship with turnover, productivity and satisfaction.
If individuals are committed towards the organisation, they definitely work
and achieve better and even outperform their co-workers and help gain for
organisation a more competitive position and more profitability.
43
Understanding
Individual Behaviour
3.4 EFFECT OF EMPLOYEES’ ATTITUDES
Employee Attitude
People enter jobs with different ideas, expectations, goals and attitudes towards
their work. They also expect some recognition from the organisation. The most
important attitude of an employee which affects organisation is job satisfaction.
Generally a worker with positive attitude shows better performance than
a person with negative attitude. So it is the responsibility of the manager to
monitor employees’ attitudes and take measures to curb laziness and negative
attitude of employees.
Employees’ attitudes and job satisfaction have close relationship. An employee
will show positive attitude towards work when he or she is fully satisfied with
job. Job satisfaction depends on pay, promotion, work, supervision etc. And
these factors lead to organisational commitment.
Types of employees’ attitudes
Based on the findings of different studies, attitudes of the employee generally
fit into one of the six categories given below.
1. Fulfillment seekers: The people with these attitudes believe that a job
should provide opportunity to show their talents. They would not bother
about payment and other benefits.
2. High achievers: High achievers have certain ambitions to achieve in their
life through their career. They show initiative in their work and attain higher
positions as engineers, doctors and lawyers.
3. Clock punchers: They feel jobs and career are different. Their approach to
job is ambivalent.
4. Risk takers: They are ready to take risks to achieve financial success.
5. Ladder climbers: They seek security in job and standing income. So once
they get a job they will not try for better jobs. They will stay in a job for
long time and with one employer. This attitude is opposite to risk-taking
attitude.
6. Paycheck cashers: They give preference to jobs which have higher wages
rather than jobs that have opportunity to show their talents. The factor of
financial status dominates their thinking.
There are a number of methods for measuring employee attitudes such as
conducting focus groups, interviewing employees or carrying out employee
surveys.
Factors affecting attitude
Factors which affect the attitude of employees are discussed below:
Psychological: Attitude of a person is determined by many factors like ideas,
values, beliefs, perception, etc. All these have a role in determining a person’s
attitude. Values are ideals or guiding principles in one’s life.
44
Family: Home is the first school for the child to learn good and bad to develop Employee Attitudes
proper attitudes. Family plays an important role in the formation of attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Society: Every person will be influenced by the society and the culture to
which he belongs.
His ideas, values and attitudes will reflect the conditions of the society
Economic: Attitudes are also affected by changes in position, compensation,
financial conditions of the work place etc.

3.5 CHANGING ATTITUDES

Attitudes may change with time , environment and with proper attention towards
them. So it is the responsibility of managers of the organisations to take care
of the employee’s attitude. Positive attitudes of employees towards their work
result in better performance. An employee who feels that he is not taken care
of by the organisation will show a poor performance because of his negative
attitude. By providing rewards, by encouraging their efforts, by attending to
their problems, administrative authorities can transforms, wholly or partially,
the negative attitude of employees. No doubt, there will be obstacles in the path
of attitude transformation, but these can be addressed rationally. Therefore, the
duty of the management is to identify these barriers and find out the ways of
overcoming them and effectively changing the attitudes.
Types of Changing Attitudes
The changes in attitude can be classified into the following two types:
1. Congruent Change: Congruent change means, though the original attitude
is not changed completely, yet the intensity of feelings of the attitude is
adjusted. For example, a person who wastes money in gambling may gamble
less through the impact of counseling. A negative attitude may persist but
its intensity can be reduced.
2. Incongruent Change: A change in attitude from a negative direction to a
positive direction is known as incongruent change. For example, a person
who has been disliking his boss, starts liking him.
Barriers to Changing Attitudes
There are a number of barriers that prevent people from changing their attitudes.
Briefly, these are as follows:
Prior commitment: Sometimes a goal-seeker who is committed to work will
not show interest to change his course of action
Strong commitment: Sometimes commitment towards work will not permit
the employee to change his attitude.
Publicly expressed attitudes: A person cannot change his attitude, once his
attitude is recognised by the public and accepted by it.
Low credibility: It is the tendency of employees not to respond to the changes
suggested by a senior because they do not have trust in him.
45
Understanding Degree of Fear: If high level warnings are not given by the employer, then
Individual Behaviour there will be a low level of fear. On the other hand, if high level warnings are
given, then they complain that their employer is threatening them. So sometimes
it is difficult to change the attitude of employees by creating fear.
Insufficient Information: Sometimes people do not show interest in changing
their attitudes until they understand that their boss is not satisfied with their
attitude and this can affect their progress.
Lack of resources: when there is a gap between the needed resources for
the fructification of programmes and the availability of resources, it becomes
difficult for the organisations to change employees’ attitude.
Improper reward system: An inadequate reward system in the organisation
also changes the attitude of employees. For example, lack of transparency
in the reward system may be a factor in hardening of attitudes towards the
organisation.
Ways of Changing Attitudes
Attitudes can be changed by different ways which are stated as follow:
• Insufficient information develops negative attitude and we can address
it by providing new information that will help to change the attitudes of
employees.
• Attitudes may change through direct experience.
• By resolving discrepancies between attitudes and behaviours.
• Through persuasion of friends and peers.
• Since a person’s attitudes are influenced by his peer or inference groups,
one way to change the attitude is to modify one or the other.
• Fear can also change attitude.
• A situational change can transform attitude.
• Well established attitudes tend to be resistant to change, but flexible attitude
may be more amenable to change.
In addition to the above techniques, communication between the employer
and the employees, fun activities which help interaction between them, and
involvement of the employees in the process of planning and development
programmes can also influence the attitudes of employees.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1. What are the characteristic features of committed people?
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
46
 ......………………….…………………………………………………….. Employee Attitudes
and Job Satisfaction
......………………….……………………………………………………..
2. Explain the different types of employee’s attitude.
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..

3.6 CONCLUSION
Attitudes are important because they can guide thought, behaviour, and feelings.
Thus, attitude change occurs when a person goes from being positive to negative,
from slightly positive to very positive, or from having no attitude to having one.
Positive changes help in the improvement of the performance. Thus, the biggest
challenge before an organisation is to convert negative attitudes towards work
and work plan into positive orientations towards profession and performance.

3.7 GLOSSARY
Attitudes : Attitudes are logically hypothetical constructs
(i.e., they are inferred but not objectively
observable), they are manifested in conscious
experience, verbal reports, overt behaviour,
and physiological indicators.
Job satisfaction : it is a feeling of contentment that an employee
derives from his/her job. Job Satisfaction is all
about an individual’s feelings about the work,
work environment, pay, organisation culture,
job security and so on
Commitment : It is an act of binding ourselves to a course
of action. An employee needs commitment to
his role and organisation.
Employee Attitude : The performance of an employee in work
reflects is determined by several factors, but
more particularly by his attitude. Persons
with positive attitude will perform in a better
manner than those who are having negative
attitude. It is the responsibility of the managers
to monitor and transform the attitudes of their
employees.

3.8 REFERENCES
Anderson, N., Sinangil, H.K. & Viswesvaran, C. (2001). Handbook of Industrial
Work and Organisational Psychology - Vol. 2: Organisational Psychology.
London: Sage Publications.
47
Understanding Attitudes and Barriers - End the Cycle. Retrieved from [Link]
Individual Behaviour info/attitudes-and-barriers.
Byrne, D. & Baron. R.A. (1997). Social Psychology (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn
& Bacon, Inc.
Changing the Attitude of Employees. Retrieved from [Link].
com/organisation/ attitude/changing-the-attitude-of.../63838
Chave, E.J (1928). A new type scale for measuring attitudes. Religious
Education. 23: 364-369.
Eagly, A.& Chaiken, S. (eds). (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. Orlando,
FL : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Kelly, G. (1995). The Psychology of Personal Constructs. New York: Norton.
Lakshmi, G.D. (2000). Attitude Towards Science. New Delhi: Discovery
Publishing House.
Locke, E.A. & Bryan, J.F. (1967). Goals and intentions as determinants of
performance level, Task choice and Attitudes. Maryland, USA: American
Institutes for research.
Locke, E.A. (1976). The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction. In Dunnette,
M.D., (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, Vol.1,
1297-1343.
Marries, N. (1964). Psychology in Industry. New York, USA: Hoghton Miffilin
Co.
McLeod, S. (2018). Attitudes and Behaviour, Simply Psychology. Retrieved
from [Link]

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Positive attitude
• Negative attitude
• Neutral attitude
• Sikken attitude
• Affective (emotional), Behavioural (conative) and
Cognition (information)
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Hierarchy of needs
• Motivator-Hygiene theory
48 • Dispositional approach.
Check Your Progress 2 Employee Attitudes
and Job Satisfaction
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Controversial
• Loyal
• Dreamers
• Tough
• Happy
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Fulfillment seekers
• High achievers
• Clock punchers
• Risk takers
• Ladder Climbers
• Paycheck Cashers

49
Understanding
Individual Behaviour
UNIT 4 LEARNING: NATURE AND THEORIES
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nature of Learning
4.2.1 Principles of Learning

4.2.2 Factors influencing Learning

4.3 Theories of Learning

4.3.1 Classical Conditioning Theory

4.3.2 Operant Conditioning Theory

4.3.3 Cognitive Learning Theory

4.3.4 Social Learning Theory

4.4 Conclusion
4.5 Glossary
4.6 References
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
• Acquire conceptual understanding of learning;
• Understand the classical conditioning and operant conditioning theories of
learning;
• Differentiate classical conditioning from operant conditioning theory of
learning;
• Acquire the knowledge about cognitive learning theory and social learning
theory;
• Observe how learning is going on at different stages of human development;
and
• Understand the theories of learning and their implications in day-to-day
life.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Generally, learning implies socialisation leading to the modification of
behaviour. However, it should not be considered that learning is concerned
with positive aspects of change only. One learns good and bad things both.
That is why one possesses virtues as well as vices. Learning changes the mode
50
Contributed by Prof. G. Bhuvaneswara Lakshmi, Head of the Department, Department of Education and Education
*

Technology, School of Social Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.

of thinking and imagination. Practice also brings change or modification of Learning: Nature and
behaviour. Therefore, practice is a means of learning. Learning occupies an Theories
important place in life. It is through learning that man brings changes in his
instincts that appear difficult to be changed. Learning therefore provides key to
the structure of our personality and behaviour.
Meaning of Learning
As young infants, we learn to hold ourselves upright, to walk, and to use our
hands. Later, we learn to run, to play cricket etc. We learn to read, to write, and
to memorise information to help us to pass an examination. Thus, we can say
that except the simple innate reflex activities like eye-blinking, salivation, knee-
jerking, sneezing, vomiting and coughing, all other activities or behaviours are
learned.
Every aspect of human development is related to learning. Various modes of
behaviour of a person are the outcomes of his learning. Every form of learning
depends on maturation which enables one to learn. Learning is the basis of our
ability and individual differences. Some people learn more than others, hence
it makes them different from others.
Definitions of Learning
Various psychologists have defined learning in different ways. Some such
definitions are given below (Lakshmi, 2000):
Skinner: “Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation”.
Crow and Crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.
It involves new ways of doing things and it operates in individuals’ attempt
to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive
changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain goal”.
Woodworth: “The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is
the process of learning”.
Gates and others: “Learning is the modification of behaviour through
experience and training”.
H.J. Klausmeir: “Learning is a process whereby a change in behaviour results
from experience, activity, training, observation and the like”.

4.2 NATURE OF LEARNING

As learning is the process of modification of behaviour, it implies cumulative
improvement which is arrived at as a result of various changes that take place
while learning is in progress. It is growth through experience and improvement in
efficiency of adjustment as a result of practice, insight, observation, imitation or
conditioning. Learning involves in making the right response and in continuing
to make it to a certain situation. It is a purposeful and goal-directed process. No
good learning can take place unless the goal is clear and definite. The activity
involved is both physical and mental and is in response to a felt need from
within.

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Understanding However, learning is not an individual matter; all learning is social. It takes
Individual Behaviour place in response to the environment in which there are individuals and group
patterns. We learn many things as a result of our association with people in
our family, in school and colleges, on the play grounds, and in our profession.
Much of our unintentional learning or incidental learning is the product of social
influences; even our attitudes are coloured by the group to which we belong.

4.2.1 Principles of Learning

There are certain principles involved in the learning process. Some of them are
mentioned below:
i. Universal: Learning is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race, culture,
time and place etc. So, it is universal in nature.
ii. Continuous process: It is a never ending process that extends from womb
to tomb. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning.
iii. Development through learning: Woodworth rightly said “all activity can
be called learning so far as it develops the individual. Development is a
never-ending process as learning”.
iv. Dynamic and flexible in relation to real life situations: Learning is not a
static process, it is a dynamic phenomenon. The way of living and acquiring
knowledge differs from context to context and person to person, hence,
there are several channels of learning based on real-life situations.
v. As a means: Learning is directed to reach goals purposively; therefore, it is
a means to achieve an end and not an end in itself.
vi. Leads to adjustment: Learning helps an individual to adjust himself
adequately to the existing as well as new situations/ environment. Most of the
time learning occurs by modifying, adapting and developing behaviour.
vii. Result of practice: Learning is the basis of drill and practice, hence, it has
been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when
they have meaningful practice and repetition.
viii. Physical and mental maturity: To learn anything, physical and mental
maturity are necessary, otherwise, real learning may not occur.
ix. Transferable: Whatever is learned by the individual can be transferred to
another person with a positive or negative impact.

4.2.2 Factors influencing learning

The success and failure of learning in terms of introducing desired modification
of behaviour of a learner depends on a host of factors some of which are listed
below:
i. Personal factors ii. Social factors
• Physical and mental health • Home environment
• Age • School environment
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• Maturation • Cultural context Learning: Nature and
Theories
• Emotional condition • Learning materials
• Needs • Relationship with teachers,
• Interest parents and peer groups etc.
• Motivation
• Abilities
• Aptitudes etc.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1. Discuss the meaning of learning.
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..
2. Explain the principles of learning.
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......………………….……………………………………………………..
......………………….……………………………………………………..

4.3 THEORIES OF LEARNING

Several psychologists have tried to explain how and why the learning process
takes place. Abundant experiments have been conducted on animals and human
beings. The researchers have come to certain conclusions that have taken the
form of theories of learning. There are many theories explaining the modes of
learning: 1. Trial and Error learning theories, 2. Classical learning theories,
3. Operant conditioning, 4. Cognitive learning theories, and 5. Social learning
theories, etc.
Conditioning Theory
The word ‘conditioning’ means the process of ‘training or getting used to’ or
‘accustoming to’ a new situation or a stimulus. It is a process of self-substituting,
the original stimulus substituted by a new one and connecting the response with
it. There are two types of conditioning: 1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant
conditioning.

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Understanding 4.3.1 Classical Conditioning Theory
Individual Behaviour
E.L Thorndike and R.S Woodworth (1929) proposed Stimulus-Response (S-R)
bond of learning. According to theory, a stimulus is connected to its response.
These bonds between S-R may be motor, perceptual, emotional, and conceptual
and can be organised into systems.
Later, the behaviouristic theory of conditioned response was put forwarded by
the Russian psychologist Pavlov and is well known as Classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s experiments with a hungry dog led to the formulation of Conditioning
Theory. Normally, a hungry dog salivates when food is presented. He started
his experiments by ringing bell every time when food is presented. He repeated
the same for a number of times. Finally, he rang the bell without presenting
food. Even then he found that the dog salivated, since the dog had become
conditioned to a response by salivating to the stimulus of the ringing bell.
Here a weaker stimulus (bell) is associated with a stronger stimulus (food).So
the dog is enabled to transfer the response connected with the stronger stimulus.
With these experiments, the terminology including conditioned stimulus (ringing
bell), unconditioned response (salivation) conditioned response (salivation in
the absence of food) has been introduced in learning. Pavlov’s research was
limited to psycho-physical nature. For example, a small child may touch a small
kitten without any fear, but if anybody shouts every time the child touches the
kitten, gradually the child will be afraid to touch it.
Educational implications: The theory of conditioning does not explain all
types of learning, yet through this theory we can understand that repetition
is of great value in learning things. Drill is necessary, but it should also be
meaningful and motivating. Importantly, distracting and opposing influences
should be eliminated during the process of learning.

4.3.2 Operant Conditioning Theory

E. L Thorndike in his S-R theory notes that the responses or behaviours are
weakened or strengthened by the consequences of behaviours. This concept
was refined by B.F Skinner and his theory is known as Operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning means strengthening desirable behaviour by reinforcing
it, and at the same time, discouraging undesirable behaviour. Skinner did a lot of
research on the principles of Operant conditioning. These principles have been
extensively used in research and in clinical and therapeutic settings. Basically,
Skinner used reinforcers for changing behaviour. He created a learning
apparatus box called the Skinner box. It is a rat box so designed in which every
time when the rat moves towards the lever, it receives a food pellet. Thus the
movement of the rat towards the lever is trained by giving reinforcement with
food pellets. This idea of shaping a rat’s behaviour was extended for shaping
human behaviour. The key components in this experiment that are integral to
achieving the modification of behaviour are timing and consistency that act as
effective reinforcers. Skinner highlighted the importance of these factors in his
experiment.
Timing: The time between the response and the reinforcer should be minimal.
If the rat does not receive food pellet immediately after it moves towards lever,
54 that behaviour will not be repeated.
Consistency: The rat moves towards lever only when it receives food pellet. Learning: Nature and
The reinforcement should be given after every response. Theories

Skinner developed the concepts of two kinds of reinforcers: 1. Primary

reinforcers which are innate and have not been learned (food, warmth, sexual
gratification); and 2. Secondary reinforcers stimuli which are provided externally.
Further, B.F Skinner used the terms ‘positive reinforcement’ (rewards) and
‘negative reinforcement’ (punishment) for shaping behaviour. Though shaping
is commonly used to train animals, it is also a useful learning tool in modifying
human behaviour.
Educational implications: According to the theory of Operant conditioning,
giving rewards to students reinforces the students’ behaviour. A desirable
behaviour can be sharpened by using positive reinforcers.

4.3.3 Cognitive Learning Theory

In the previous types of learning behaviour, learning has been explained in
terms of the association of stimuli and responses, but there are several human
learning situations which do not involve specific kinds of association between
the stimulus and response or between response and reinforcement.
In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler studied the behaviour of
apes. He designed certain simple experiments that led to the development of
one of the first cognitive theories of learning which is also called ‘insightful
learning’.
Kohler’s Experiment: Kohler placed a chimpanzee (Sulthana) inside a cage
with a desirable piece of fruit, often a banana, out of reach outside the cage.
To obtain the fruit, the animal had to use a nearby object as a tool. Usually
the chimpanzee solved the problem and proved that it had some insight. The
following description is typical: Sulthana is inside the cage and it cannot reach
the fruit, which lies outside, by means of his only available short stick. A longer
stick is deposited outside the cage, about two meters on one side of the object
and parallel with the grating. It cannot be grasped with the hand, but it can be
pulled within reach by means of the small stick. Sulthana tries to reach the
fruit with the smaller of the two sticks. Not succeeding, he tears a piece of
wire from the netting of his cage, but that too is in vain. Then he stares around.
He suddenly picks up the little stick with the help of which he pulls the long
stick. By using the long stick, he reaches the fruit. Kohler calls the cognitive
processes underlying Sulthana’s behaviour as insight, a sudden awareness of the
relationship among various elements that previously appeared to be independent
of one another.
Certain aspects of the performance of chimpanzee are unlike those of Skinner’s
rats. For one thing, struck by the chimpanzee, the solution was sudden rather
than the result of a gradual trial and error process. Also Kohlers’s chimpanzee
could readily transfer what it had learned to a novel situation. For example, in
one case, Sulthana was not put inside the cage but some bananas were placed
too high for him to reach. To solve the problem, Sulthana staked some boxes
strewn around him, climbed the platform and grabbed the bananas. It means
learning takes place or a problem is solved all-of-a-sudden rather than through
trial and error. 55
Understanding Implications
Individual Behaviour
• Learning is a purposeful and goal-oriented activity.
• Emphasis is given to the whole, generating the ‘Whole to Part’ maxims of
learning.
• It develops higher order thinking, reasoning and creativity among
learners.
• It evolves the attitude of problem solving.
4.3.4 Social Learning Theory/ Observational Theory
The Social learning theory has been propounded by Albert Bandura. According
to Social learning theory, learning occurs through the social context. This theory
suggests that a learner’s social interactions with other knowledgeable persons
affect his learning. It focuses on attention, retention, motor reproduction and
motivation as factors of learning. Bandura in his theory proposes that observation
of others’ behaviour plays a leading role in learning. For example, a child learns
to show love, anger or sympathy by observing the behaviour of elders. He also
learns speaking, reading, and writing by observing his parents and teachers.
After his studies, Bandhura determined three salient models of observational
learning:
1. Live model: It includes an actual person performing behaviour.
2. Verbal instructional model: It involves giving description of model
behaviour
3. Symbolic model: It includes a real or fictional character demonstrating
behaviour through TV, books, online media etc.
Bandura explains that the following steps are usually involved in learning:
1) Attending and perceiving: Observation of a role model catches the
attention of a child.
2) Remembering the behaviour: The child remembers the actions and
styles.
3) Converting the memory into actions: The child imitates the role model.
A behaviour observed and remembered by the learner is analysed in terms
of its acceptability to the learner. It gets transformed into action only
afterwards and thus the observed relevant and accepted aspects of the
model’s behaviour are imitated by the learner.
4) Reinforcement of the imitated behaviour: The child tries to change
himself into the role of a model. The behaviour of the model imitated by
the learner is reinforced for proper adoption and further continuance.
In this way, social learning through observations and modelling proves to be
an effective means of learning many things concerning one’s behaviour. The
impact of these observations is perceptible on his environment, expression of
love, anger, hatred, companionship, friendship or solitude which collectively
expresses his mode of observation and behaviour. All these reactions and
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responses depend upon what has been observed, remembered, imitated and Learning: Nature and
reinforced in the context of his experiences and models. Theories

Implications
• Observational learning increases the knowledge of learners, retention and
life skills.
• Various reinforcements and modelling can be used by teachers to increase
the attention of learners.
• The learners follow the teachers having positive behaviours as their role
model.
• Clear distinction between behaviours and their consequences can effectively
result in increase in the desired behaviour and decrease in the undesired
behaviour.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1. Briefly discuss the concept of Classical Conditioning in Learning?
......………………….……………………………………………………..
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2. Explain the Social Learning Theory.
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4.4 CONCLUSION
Learning can cause a lasting change in behaviour produced by experience. One
of the most universal forms of learning concerns the reflex which is inborn
and built in response to a stimulus. Through learning, a reflex response can
become attached to a stimulus that does not originally cause the response. This
process was demonstrated when Pavlov taught a dog to respond to a sound
with the salivary reflex originally caused by the presence of food in the mouth.
This type of learning is called Classical conditioning. Another type of learning
by Skinner concerns Operant behaviour—the random or exploratory activities
in which organisms engage, not in reflex response to a stimulus but as a self-
generated way of operating on the world around them. In operant conditioning,
the reinforcement is the reward. The rule is that the operant behaviour that
is reinforced by a reward tends to be repeated, while operant behaviour that 57
Understanding is not reinforced tends to take place only at random intervals or when is
Individual Behaviour abandoned. Cognitive theories emphasise the role of purpose, insight, memory,
understanding, reasoning, problem solving and other cognitive factors. The
cognitive learning involves information storage and processing without
explicately building up stimulus-response association or manipulation of the
reinforcers. Social learning theory proposed by Bandura emphasised on learning
through direct experience by observing the behaviour of elders or phenomena.

4.5 GLOSSARY
Learning : Learning is behavioural change which results
from experience. Learning is a basic and
universal fact to be found in all behaviour.
Conditioning : The basis for conditioning is using connection
between stimulus and response. In Pavlov’s
experiment, salivation of a dog is conditioned
to the ringing of the bell.
Reinforcement : The term ‘reinforcement’ means strengthening
the tendency of a response to be repeated.
When an organism responds to a stimulus and
that response is reinforced, it is probable that
the same response will be repeated the next
time when the stimulus occurs.
Operant : An item of behaviour that is not a response
to a prior stimulus but something which is
initially spontaneous, which may reinforce or
inhibit recurrence of that behaviour.
Learning by insight : It is characterised by sudden grasping of
the solution. The process of organising or
reorganising or structuring or restructuring
leads to a discovery

4.6 REFERENCES
Benjaman, B. & Freeman. W. (1979). Contemporary Theories and Systems in
Psychology. New Delhi: Surjeet Publications.
Das, J.P. (1985). Textbook of Psychology. New Delhi: Arnold Heinemann.
Kagan, J. & Havemann, E. (1980). Psychology - An Introduction (4th ed.).
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Lakshmi, G.D. (2000). Attitude Towards Science. New Delhi: Discovery
Publishing House.
Mangal, S.K. (2014). Advanced Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
PHI Learning Private Limited.
Sorenson, H. (1964). Psychology in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Turnage, D.L. & Horton, T.W. (1976). Human Learning. Upper Saddle River, Learning: Nature and
NJ: Prentice-Hall. Theories

Thorndike, E.L. (1929). Human Learning. New York, USA: The MIT Press.
Vinayagam, S. & Murthy, G.R.K. (2017). Psychology of Learning. Hyderabad:
NAARM, ICAR.

4.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Learning provides key to the structure of our personality and behaviour.
• Definitions of learning.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• Universal
• Continuous process
• Development through learning
• It is dynamic and flexible in relation to real life situation
• Learning is a means
• Leads to adjustment
• Result of practice
• Physical and mental maturity
• Transferable
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Classic conditioning is a process of self-substituting.
• There are two types of conditioning: 1. Classical conditioning [Link]
conditioning.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
• The Social learning theory is developed by Albert Bandura.
• In Social learning theory, the learning occurs in the social context.
• It suggests that learners’ social interactions with other knowledgeable
persons affect their learning.

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