CHAPTER 12

Solar cells: basic principles, electrode

materials, and applications
12.1 Introduction
Under the condition of decreasing fossil fuels, facing the huge demand for energy and the
increasingly serious environmental pollution problem, solar energy is an inexhaustible
energy treasure house endowed by nature to human beings. A solar cell (or photovoltaic
cell) is a device that directly converts light energy into electricity through a photoelectric
or photochemical effect [1]. In order to develop high-efficiency and low-cost solar cells
and promote the utilization of solar energy, the photovoltaic technology is constantly
updated and developed, and the types of solar cell materials are also increasing. According
to its material structure, solar cell materials can be divided into the following three cat-
egories: (1) silicon-based photovoltaic cells: monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline sili-
con photovoltaic cells, etc; (2) thin-film photovoltaic cell: gallium arsenide, cadmium
telluride, copper indium gallium selenium thin-film photovoltaic cell, etc; (3) new
photovoltaic cells: new concept cells with high theoretical conversion efficiency and
low-cost advantages, mainly dye-sensitized photovoltaic cells, perovskite photovoltaic
cells, organic solar cells, and quantum dot solar cells [2]. The analysis and summary of
the basic principle, the latest electrode materials, and the current application prospect
of solar cells are of great significance to deepen readers’ understanding and promote
the application of solar energy conversion and utilization.

12.2 Basic principles

The basic principle of solar cells is to convert light energy directly into electricity through
photoelectric or photochemical effects. Crystalline silicon solar cells based on photovol-
taic effect are the mainstream, while thin-film cells based on photochemical effect are still
in their infancy. Photovoltaic solar cell chips are semiconductor materials (made of
P-type and N-type semiconductors) with photoelectric effect. Semiconductors tend
not to conduct electricity, but if different impurities are added to them, P-type and
N-type semiconductors can be made [3]. When the sunlight shines, the light energy ex-
cites the electrons in the silicon atom, and the convection of electrons (e
) and holes (hþ)
is generated, which will be attracted by N-type and P-type semiconductors, respectively,
and gather at both ends affected under the built-in potential. At this time, if the external
electrodes are connected, a loop is formed to generate current, which is the principle of

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264 Nanostructured Materials

solar cells to generate electricity (see Fig. 12.1A for details) [4]. It shows the layout of the
Schottky barrier a-Si solar cell in a classic model of metal electrode and transparent
conductive oxide (TCO) layer. The illustration of a Schottky barrier amorphous silicon
(a-Si) solar cell demonstrates a highly doped p-type region adjacent to the Schottky

Figure 12.1 (A) The layout of the Schottky barrier a-Si solar cell [4], (B) corrugated flexible wafer-scale
monocrystalline Si solar cell [5], (C) dye-sensitized solar cells and perovskite solar cells [6], (D) charge
carrier dynamics of perovskite solar cells [7], (E) band gap width and position of perovskite solar cells
[8], (F) oxysalts passivation effect of perovskite solar cells [9], (G) 2 and 4T perovskite/crystalline silicon
stacked cells [10], (H) flexible perovskite solar cells [11], (IeK) flexible perovskite solar cells [12].
 Solar cells: basic principles, electrode materials, and applications 265

barrier high work function metal. The Schottky barrier a-Si solar cell is constructed with
a metal-to-N junction rather than a PeN semiconductor junction.
In addition to the traditional electrode (metal electrode þ TCO layer), the interdig-
itated back contact (IBC) is an efficient electrode model for solar cells. The biggest feature
of IBC electrode is that the PeN junction and metal contact are on the back side of solar
cells, and the front side is free from the influence of metal electrode occlusion, which has
higher solar conversion efficiency. Hussain and coworkers proposed an IBC solar cell
(corrugated and flexible wafer-scale crystalline-Si solar cell) with an area of
127  127 mm2 (see Fig. 12.1B for details) [5]. In order to achieve extreme flexibility,
corrugation architecture was utilized on the IBC wafers with an alternating region of
thinned and rigid Si discontinuities. Each Si wafer comprises an interdigitated P and N
regions on a bulk silicon wafer with z 260 mm thickness. The optical image in
Fig. 12.1B (right) of the corrugated crystalline-Si solar cell demonstrates extreme me-
chanical bending flexibility.
In addition to crystalline Si solar cells, dye-sensitized solar cells and perovskite solar
cells (PSCs) are two hot research directions at present (see Fig. 12.1C for details) [6].
In 1991, O’Regan and Gr€atzel reported in Nature a dye-sensitized solar cell with a simple
design, relatively low cost, and conversion efficiency of 7%. For more than 30 years, sci-
entists have continued to develop low-cost solar cells with higher efficiency. Especially in
the past 10 years, the continuous development of PSCs has achieved the conversion ef-
ficiency of more than 22%. A conventional consists of a film of titanium dioxide (TiO2)
nanoparticles, on which dye molecules are deposited. When sunlight hits the dye, a nega-
tively charged electron (e
) and a positively charged hole (hþ) are produced. The elec-
tron diffuses through the TiO2 film to an electrode and is subsequently transferred to a
counter-electrode. Finally, the electron enters a liquid electrolyte before recombining
with the hole and being reabsorbed by the dye (see Fig. 12.1C left for details) [6]. In
a modern solid-state PSCs, the liquid electrolyte is replaced with a hole-transporting ma-
terial, and chemical compounds called perovskites act as the light harvesters. In PSCs,
gold is commonly used as the counter-electrode material to further enhance the effi-
ciency (see Fig. 12.1C right for details) [6]. The charge carrier dynamics play an impor-
tant role in photoelectric conversion of PSCs. In view of this, the charge carrier dynamics
of PSCs in the time range from ultra-fast sub-picosecond to ultra-slow second are sum-
marized by Shi and Meng, and the physical model and mechanism are discussed in detail
(see Fig. 12.1D for details) [7].

12.3 Electrode materials

After more than half a century of development, solar cells have experienced the first gen-
eration of crystal silicon solar cells, the second generation of thin film solar cells, the third
generation of efficient solar cells. At present, the market is a large number of
266 Nanostructured Materials

monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon solar cells. With the increasing maturity
of industrial production technology, the high-efficiency cell of the laboratory is also grad-
ually used in industrial production. In recent years, perovskite thin film solar cells have
made great progress in the photoelectric conversion performance, and their photoelectric
conversion efficiency exceeds that of already commercial polycrystalline silicon, cad-
mium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenium cells. The rapid development of
perovskite cells is mainly due to their excellent semiconductor photoelectric properties,
controllable crystal growth, and adjustable electronic structure (width and position of the
band gap) (see Fig. 12.1E for details) [8]. SCs use organic-inorganic crystalline materials
(organometallic trihalides such as CH3NH3PbX3, usually abbreviated as MAPbX3,
X ¼ I, Br, Cl) as optical absorption materials, have suitable band structures and band
gap widths (corresponding to the absorption cut-off wavelength and showing good op-
tical absorption performance).
The design of composite materials, such as oxysalt-perovskite [9] and perovskite/sil-
icon [10] composites, can effectively improve cell performance. Yang et al. designed a
strategy to passivate the interface defects of perovskite (CsPbI₂Br). Through theoretical
calculation and experimental characterization, the interaction between a series of oxysalts
(NO₃⁻, SO₄ 2 ⁻, CO₃ 2 ⁻, PO₄3 ⁻ and SiO₃2⁻) and the surface of perovskite was investigated.
The mechanism of the passivation effect of different oxysalts on the surface of perovskite
is revealed: the adsorption follows the principle of bond order conservation, that is, when
the inner central ion of oxysalts has a weak interaction with oxygen ion, the interaction
strength between oxygen ion and metal site on the surface of perovskite can be promoted
(see Fig. 12.1F for details) [9]. Cheng and He reviewed and summarized the research
progress of perovskite/crystalline silicon stacked solar cells. This paper describes the
working principle and development history of perovskite/crystalline silicon stacked solar
cells and summarizes the design of the middle connecting layer of the stacked solar cells,
the device structure regulation of perovskite top cells, the optimization of perovskite
film, and the way to reduce optical loss (see Fig. 12.1G for details) [10]. After several years
of development, the certification efficiency of 2 and 4T perovskite/crystalline silicon
stacked cells has reached 29.5% and 28.2%, respectively, which is higher than that of
perovskite and crystalline silicon single junction solar cells.
Flexible energy storage and conversion devices are ideal for meeting the growing de-
mand for wearable electronics. Flexible PSCs have attracted much attention due to their
broad commercial prospects. Huang et al. found that by precisely controlling the thick-
ness and morphology of tin dioxide (SnO2) in the electron transport layer (ETL), flexible
PSCs achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of up to 19.51%, and also showed
good bending resistance (about 95% of the initial PCE was retained after 6000 bends) (see
Fig. 12.1H for details) [11]. Li et al. also reported an optically rechargeable lithium-ion
capacitor (LIC) powered by a flexible PSC that mixes energy harvesting and storage
for self-powered wearable strain sensors, thus enabling synergy of energy harvesting,
 Solar cells: basic principles, electrode materials, and applications 267

storage, and utilization within a smart system, that is expected to provide significant ben-
efits for practical self-powered wearable electronics (see Fig. 12.1IeK for details) [12].
These flexible solar cells can simultaneously achieve higher PCE, excellent mechanical
properties, and robust stability, providing a wide range of opportunities for wearable,
implantable electronic devices.

12.4 Applications
Solar energy is the best energy choice known to be available, clean and safe, and able to
meet the future needs of mankind. In the field of batteries, solar cells also have a broad
market space (for spacecraft, artificial satellites, lighthouse power supply, and civil power
supply). As a potential renewable energy, solar cells have been gradually promoted on the
ground, and photovoltaic power generation is an ideal way to solve the problem of elec-
tricity consumption for dispersed peasants and citizens (solar street lamp, yard lighting,
water heater), with huge market potential. At present, the most widely used solar cells
in the world are monocrystalline silicon solar cells, polycrystalline silicon solar cells,
and amorphous silicon solar cells, which each account for about 1/3 of the market. Flex-
ible solar cell is a kind of thin film solar cell, mainly including amorphous silicon flexible
cell, copper indium gallium selenium thin film cell, organic solar cell, dye-sensitized solar
cell, and so on. In recent years, with the progress and application of solar cell technology,
the solar energy industry has developed rapidly. Renewables are expected to account for
more than 50% of the world’s total energy mix by 2040. As the main source of renewable
energy, solar photovoltaic generation accounts for 20% of the world’s total electricity
supply. It can be seen that photovoltaic power generation will occupy an important stra-
tegic position in the future energy field, and solar cells are worthy of the name of “energy
star of tomorrow” [13].

12.5 Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed the general features, energy storage mechanisms, and
electrode materials of solar cells (photovoltaic cells). The solar cell is a device that converts
light energy into electricity by photovoltaic effect or photochemical effect. Solar photo-
voltaic power generation is considered as an important way to solve the space energy sup-
ply and civil energy supply due to its advantages such as convenient utilization,
environmental friendliness, simple maintenance, and long life. There are three genera-
tions of solar cell materials in the world: the first generation is crystalline silicon solar
cell materials, the second generation is inorganic thin film solar cell materials, and the
third generation is organic thin film solar cell materials. Solar cells on the market are
generally still silicon cells, divided into monocrystalline silicon solar cells, polycrystalline
silicon solar cells, and amorphous silicon solar cells. Compared with traditional silicon
268 Nanostructured Materials

solar cells, film shape flexible solar cells have the advantages of light weight, softness, and
low cost, which can be widely used in wearable electronic devices and integrated photo-
voltaic power generation. However, wearable flexible solar cells are still at the laboratory
stage and are not ready for large-scale commercial use.

Acknowledgments
This book was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (22078071, 22272034), Natural
Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2021A1515010125, 2020A1515010344), Maoming Science
and Technology Project (mmkj2020032), Guangdong Province Universities and Colleges Pearl River
Scholar Funded Scheme (2019), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation
(2019A1515011249, 2021A1515010305), Key Research Project of Natural Science of Guangdong Provin-
cial Department of Education (2019KZDXM010), Environment and Energy Green Catalysis Innovation
Team of Colleges and Universities of Guangdong Province(2022KCXTD019), the program for Innovative
Research Team of Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology.

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