1.
Research Design: Laboratory experiment examining the effects of interviewer bias on
interviewees.
Focal Question: How do the perceived biases of interviewers affect the performance of
interviewees?
Experimental Condition*: Participants were assigned to one of two conditions based on
the interviewer's race (Black or White). Interviewers were instructed to behave in a way
that varied the level of bias they exhibited (high vs. low warmth).
Measures: Interviewee performance was assessed through evaluation of their responses
and behaviors during the interview.
Primary Findings: Interviewees who were perceived to be interviewed by a biased
interviewer performed worse, suggesting that self-fulfilling prophecies can affect
performance based on the expectations set by the interviewer.
2. Research Design: Laboratory experiment assessing the impact of socioeconomic status
cues on judgments about children's future success.
Focal Question: How do expectations based on a child's perceived socioeconomic
background influence observers' assessments of the child's abilities?
Experimental Conditions: Participants viewed a video of a child (Hannah) playing and
then rated her potential based on cues that suggested she came from a high or low SES
background.
Measures: Ratings of the child’s academic potential and intelligence were measured
after participants viewed the video.
Primary Findings: Participants who saw the child depicted as coming from a low SES
background rated her lower in ability than those who saw her portrayed as coming from
a high SES background, indicating a self-fulfilling prophecy based on initial expectations.
3. Research Design: Experimental study exploring the relationship between implicit bias
and behavioral responses in interracial interactions.
Focal Question: How do implicit biases influence nonverbal behavior during interracial
interactions?
Experimental Conditions: Participants were assigned to interact with Black or White
confederates, with implicit bias measured through priming techniques and self-report
surveys.
Measures: Behavioral measures included body language and response latency, while
implicit bias was assessed through the Implicit Association Test and explicit bias scales.
Primary Findings: Results indicated that participants with higher implicit biases exhibited
more negative nonverbal behaviors toward Black interaction partners, which influenced
the quality of the interaction.
4. Research Design: Field experiment investigating hiring discrimination based on racial
cues in resumes.
Focal Question: Do racial names on resumes affect the likelihood of receiving callbacks
for job interviews?
Experimental Conditions: Resumes were sent out with names that were distinctly
associated with either Black or White applicants.
Measures: The number of callbacks for interviews was recorded as the primary measure
of discrimination.
Primary Findings: Resumes with White-sounding names received significantly more
callbacks than those with Black-sounding names, demonstrating clear evidence of racial
discrimination in the hiring process.
5. Lab Experiment: Conducted in a controlled environment where variables can be tightly
managed. Strengths include greater control over extraneous variables and the ability to
replicate conditions. Weaknesses include a potential lack of ecological validity, as
behavior in artificial settings may differ from real-world scenarios.
Field Experiment: Conducted in a natural environment where participants are unaware of
the study. Strengths include higher ecological validity and the ability to observe natural
behaviors. Weaknesses include less control over extraneous variables and potential
ethical issues related to consent.
6. There is evidence suggesting that implicit biases can predict behaviors differently than
explicit biases. Implicit biases, often measured through tools like the IAT, may influence
automatic or unconscious responses, such as nonverbal behaviors or snap judgments in
social interactions. In contrast, explicit biases are self-reported beliefs that may not
always align with actual behavior. Studies have shown that implicit biases can affect
decision-making and interpersonal interactions, sometimes more so than explicit biases.
7. Broad challenges include:
Control over Variables: Difficulties in controlling extraneous variables can confound
results.
Measurement of Discrimination: Accurately measuring discriminatory effects can be
challenging without clear indicators or defined outcomes.
Ethical Concerns: Field studies might raise ethical issues regarding consent, especially
in sensitive contexts involving discrimination.
Context Variability: Real-world settings are complex and variable, making it hard to
generalize findings.
8. Word, Zanna, and Cooper identified a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby interviewers’
biased expectations led to poor performance from interviewees. This is similar to the
effect identified by Darley and Gross, where observers' expectations based on
socioeconomic cues influenced their evaluations of a child's potential. In both cases,
initial biases or expectations directly influenced the behavior and performance of the
targets, reinforcing the original biases.