Language

Componential analysis (feature analysis or contrast analysis) is the analysis of words through
structured sets of semantic features, which are given as "present", "absent" or "indifferent with
reference to feature". The method thus departs from the principle of compositionality.
Componential analysis is a method typical of structural semantics which analyzes the
components of a word's meaning. Thus, it reveals the culturally important features by which
speakers of the language distinguish different words in a semantic field or domain (Ottenheimer,
2006

Examples
man = [+ MALE], [+ MATURE] or woman = [– MALE], [+ MATURE] or boy = [+ MALE], [– MATURE]
or girl = [– MALE] [– MATURE] or child = [+/– MALE] [– MATURE]. In other words, the
word girl can have three basic factors (or semantic properties): human, young, and female.
Another example, being edible is an important factor by which plants may be distinguished from
one another (Ottenheimer, 2006, p. 20). To summarize, one word can have basic underlying
meanings that are well established depending on the cultural context. It is crucial to understand
these underlying meanings in order to fully understand any language and culture

Structural semantics and the componential analysis were patterned on the phonological
methods of the Prague School, which described sounds by determining the absence and presence
of features. On one hand, componential analysis gave birth to various models in generative
semantics, lexical field theory and transformational grammar. On the other hand, its
shortcoming was also visible:

The discovery procedures for semantic features are not clearly objectifiable.

Only part of the vocabulary can be described through structured sets of features.

Metalinguistic features are expressed through language again.

Features used may not have clear definitions.

Limited in focus and mechanical in style.

As a consequence, entirely different ways to describe meaning were developed, such

as prototype
Hyponymy and hypernymy

In linguistics, hyponymy (from Greek ὑπό, hypó, "under", and ὄνυμα, ónyma, "name") is
a semantic relation between a hyponym denoting a subtype and
a hypernym or hyperonym (sometimes called umbrella term or blanket term.[1][2][3][4])
denoting a supertype. In other words, the semantic field of the hyponym is included within that
of the hypernym.[5]


An example of the relationship between hyponyms and hypernym.

In simpler terms, a hyponym is in a type-of relationship with its hypernym. For

example: pigeon, crow, eagle, and seagull are all hyponyms of a bird, their hypernym; which
itself is a hyponym of animal, its hypernym.
Hyponymy shows the relationship between a generic term (hypernym) and a specific instance of
it (hyponym). A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is more specific than its
hypernym. The semantic field of a hypernym, also known as a superordinate, is broader than that
of a hyponym. An approach to the relationship between hyponyms and hypernyms is to view a
hypernym as consisting of hyponyms. This, however, becomes more difficult with abstract words
such as imagine, understand and knowledge. While hyponyms are typically used to refer to
nouns, it can also be used on other parts of speech. Like nouns, hypernyms in verbs are words
that refer to a broad category of actions. For example, verbs such
as stare, gaze, view and peer can also be considered hyponyms of the verb look, which is their
hypernym.

Hypernyms and hyponyms are asymmetric. Hyponymy can be tested by substituting X and Y in
the sentence "X is a kind of Y" and determining if it makes sense.[7] For example, "A screwdriver
is a kind of tool" makes sense, but not "A tool is a kind of screwdriver".

Strictly speaking, the meaning relation between hyponyms and hypernyms applies to lexical
items of the same word class (or parts of speech), and holds between senses rather than words.
For instance, the word screwdriver used in the previous example refers to the screwdriver tool,
and not to the screwdriver drink.

Hyponymy is a transitive relation: if X is a hyponym of Y, and Y is a hyponym of Z, then X is a

hyponym of Z.[8] For example, violet is a hyponym of purple and purple is a hyponym of color;
therefore violet is a hyponym of color. A word can be both a hypernym and a hyponym: for
example purple is a hyponym of color but itself is a hypernym of the broad spectrum of shades
of purple between the range of crimson and violet.

The hierarchical structure of semantic fields can be mostly seen in hyponymy. They could be
observed from top to bottom, where the higher level is more general and the lower level is more
specific. For example, living things will be the highest level followed by plants and animals, and
the lowest level may comprise dog, cat and wolf.[9]

Under the relations of hyponymy and incompatibility, taxonomic hierarchical structures too can
be formed. It consists of two relations; the first one being exemplified in "An X is a Y" (simple
hyponymy) while the second relation is "An X is a kind/type of Y". The second relation is said to
be more discriminating and can be classified more specifically under the concept of
taxonomy.[10]

Co-hyponyms

If the hypernym Z consists of hyponyms X and Y, X and Y are identified as co-hyponyms. Co-
hyponyms are labelled as such when separate hyponyms share the same hypernym but are not
hyponyms of one another, unless they happen to be synonymous.[7] For
example, screwdriver, scissors, knife, and hammer are all co-hyponyms of one another and
hyponyms of tool, but not hyponyms of one another: *"A hammer is a type of knife" is false.

Co-hyponyms are often but not always related to one another by the relation of incompatibility.
For example, apple, peach and plum are co-hyponyms of fruit. However, an apple is not a peach,
which is also not a plum. Thus, they are incompatible. Nevertheless, co-hyponyms are not
necessarily incompatible in all senses. A queen and mother are both hyponyms of woman but
there is nothing preventing the queen from being a mother.[11] This shows that compatibility
may be relevant.

Autohyponyms
Three varieties of autohyponym.

A word is an autohyponym if it is used for both a hypernym and its hyponym. For example, the
word dog describes both the species Canis familiaris and male individuals of Canis familiaris, so
it is possible to say "That dog isn't a dog, it's a bitch" ("That hypernym Z isn't a hyponym Z, it's a
hyponym Y"). The term "autohyponym" was coined by linguist Laurence R. Horn in a 1984
paper, Ambiguity, negation, and the London School of Parsimony. Linguist Ruth Kempson had
already observed that if there are hyponyms for one part of a set but not another, the hypernym
can complement the existing hyponym by being used for the remaining part. For example, fingers
describe all digits on a hand, but the existence of the word thumb for the first finger means that
fingers can also be used for "non-thumb digits on a hand".[13] Autohyponymy is also called
"vertical polysemy".[a][14]
Horn called this "licensed polysemy", but found that autohyponyms also formed even when there
is no other hyponym. Yankee is autohyponymous because it is a hyponym (native of New
England) and its hypernym (native of the United States), even though there is no other hyponym
of Yankee (as native of the United States) that means "not a native of New
England".[b][13] Similarly, the verb to drink (a beverage) is a hypernym for to drink (an alcoholic
beverage).[13]

In some cases, autohyponyms duplicate existing, distinct hyponyms. The hypernym "smell" (to
emit any smell) has a hyponym "stink" (to emit a bad smell), but is autohyponymous because
"smell" can also mean "to emit a bad smell", even though there is no "to emit a smell that isn't
bad" hyponym.

This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2014

A synonym is a word, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word,
morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the
words begin, start, commence, and initiate are all synonyms of one another: they
are synonymous. The standard test for synonymy is substitution: one form can be replaced by
another in a sentence without changing its meaning. Words are considered synonymous in only
one particular sense: for example, long and extended in the context long time or extended
time are synonymous, but long cannot be used in the phrase extended family. Synonyms with
exactly the same meaning share a seme or denotational sememe, whereas those with inexactly
similar meanings share a broader denotational or connotational sememe and thus overlap within
a semantic field. The former are sometimes called cognitive synonyms and the latter, near-
synonyms,[2] plesionyms[3] or poecilonyms.

In lexical semantics, opposites are words lying in an inherently incompatible binary relationship.
For example, something that is long entails that it is not short. It is referred to as a 'binary'
relationship because there are two members in a set of opposites. The relationship between
opposites is known as opposition. A member of a pair of opposites can generally be determined
by the question What is the opposite of X ?

The term antonym (and the related antonymy) is commonly taken to be synonymous with
opposite, but antonym also has other more restricted meanings. Graded (or gradable) antonyms
are word pairs whose meanings are opposite and which lie on a continuous spectrum (hot, cold).
Complementary antonyms are word pairs whose meanings are opposite but whose meanings do
not lie on a continuous spectrum (push, pull). Relational antonyms are word pairs where
opposite makes sense only in the context of the relationship between the two meanings
(teacher, pupil). These more restricted meanings may not apply in all scholarly contexts, with
Lyons (1968, 1977) defining antonym to mean gradable antonyms, and Crystal (2003) warning
that antonymy and antonym should be regarded with care.

Denotation and Connotation

The use of Denotation and connotation are very common in daily life as well as in literature.
Denotation is the primary the actual, literal and dictionary meaning of a word, phrase or
sentence; whereas Connotation is the secondary, implied and abstract meaning or idea that a
word, phrase or sentence invokes. It is very commonly used in literature in the form of irony,
paradox, symbol, hyperbole, understatement, metaphor and simile.

Without understanding it, it is very difficult to understand any literary piece. Here are some
common example .

She is a fox.

The literal and denotative meaning of the sentence is a real fox having four legs and all the other
requirements...

But the connotative meaning of the sentence is that, the girl is clever like a fox.

He is blue. Here the literal meaning of the word is that the guy referred here is either wearing a
blue color dressed or have painted himself with blue color, but the connotative meaning of the
sentence is that the boy is sad.