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Insurgency and Terrorism Dr Hundu
Introduction
—Why do some individuals break with the larger society and embark on the career with insurgency and
terrorism.
—-Do insurgence and terrorist share common traits?
—-Is there a terrorist or an insurgence profile?
——Can a terrorist or an insurgent profile be developed that could help security personnel to identify
potential insurgence or terrorist.
—-Do insurgence or terrorist have a psychotic personality
—-what are the factors relating to insurgency and terrorism that are of particular interest to
psychology,political science,criminology,government officials and sociology who would like to predict
and prevent the emergence of insurgency and prevent the realization of terrorist actions.
Defining insurgency and Insurgence
***Insurgency is armed guerrilla uprising against a recognized government of a country,state or
citizens . They are not engaged in continues battle with the government of a country but rather attack
and retreat. It is a violent,armed rebellion against authority waged by a small,lightly armed bangs who
practice guerrilla warfare Primarily from rural base areas. ***Austin Long(2018), defines
insurgency as “the use of political and military means by irregular forces to change an existing political
order. These forces typically mingle with civilians in other to hide from the forces defending political
order”.
***According to Mathew Adam Kocher, Thomas Pepinsky and Stathis Kalyvas (2011), according to those
authors,a central objective in insurgency is to achieve control over civilians.
The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric nature:
1:Small irregular forces face a large, well equipped irregular military force.
2:State adversary: Due to this asymmetry,
Insurgents avoid large scale direct battles, opting instead to blend in with the civilian population(Mainly
in the country side people) where they gradually expand territorial control and military forces.
Insurgency frequently hinges on control of and collaboration with local populations.
Tactics of insurgence
Insurgency differ in their use of tactics and methods. Robert Tomes(2004), spoke of four elements that
“typically encompass an insurgency”. These include
1: Cell networks that maintains secrecy
2: Insurgence use terrorism to foster insecurity among the population and drive them to the insurgence
for protection
3: The use different kinds of methods to cultivate support in the general population often by
undermining the existing regime
4: Their attacks are mostly focused on government or government facilities.
Subversion: Rosenau (2007) he was a staff of British separate intelligence,He defined subversion as “a
generalized intention to over throw or undermine parliamentary democracy by political,industrial,or
violent means”.
Insurgencies differ in their use of tactics and methods. In a 2004 article, Robert R. Tomes spoke of four
elements that "typically encompass an insurgency":[17]
1. cell-networks that maintain secrecy
2. terrorism used to foster insecurity among the population and drive them to the
insurgents for protection
3. multifaceted attempts to cultivate support in the general population, often by
undermining the new regime
4. attacks against the government
Types of insurgency
Insurgences generally fall into one of four broad categories,these are
A: Politically organized
B: Militarily organized eg bokoharam,IPOB
C: Traditionally organized : Found within certain traditions such as the IPOB , mainly found within the
igbos.
D: Urban insurgence
Insurgency groups/types are basically classified basically on their organizational strategies.
Defining Terrorism and Terrorist
Terrorist are those who are unable to achieve their unrealistic goals by conventional means,attempt
to send an ideological or religious message by intimidating and terrorizing the general public. Through
the choice of their Targets, which are often symbolic or representative of a targeted nation or
group,Terrorist attempt to create a high profile impact of the public of their targeted enemy or enemies
with their acts of violence,despite the limited resources that are usually at their disposal. In doing
so,they hope to demonstrate various points such as that, the targeted government(s) can not protect
it(their) own citizens, or that by assassinating a specific victim they can teach the general public a lesson
about espousing (revealing) view point or policies antithetical to their own for example the assassination
of president Anwar Sadat of Egypt in (1971) a year after his historic trip to Jerusalem. The Al-jihad
Terrorist hoped to convey a message to the world and especially to Muslims that the error that he
represented.
Definitions of Terrorism varies widely and are usually inadequate. The US Department of State (1998),
defined terrorism as “premeditated,politically motivated violence perpetrated against none combatant
targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents,usually intended to influence an audience”.
Hudson(1999), defines a Terrorist action as “the calculated use of unexpected,shocking and unlawful
violence against none combatants (including,in addition to civilians,off duty military and security
personnel’s in peaceful situations) and other symbolic targets perpetrated by a clandestine member(s)
of a sub national group or a clandestine agent(s) for the psychological purpose of publicizing a political
or religious course and or intimidating or coercing a government (s) or civilian population into accepting
demands on behalf of the course.
Perception of what constitute terrorism differ from country to country,group to group and
individual to individual. To be sure,some Terrorist as so committed to their course, they freely
acknowledge being Terrorist for example on hearing that he has been sentenced to 240 years in prison,
Ramzi Yousef the master mind of the World Trade Center bombing defiantly proclaimed, “I am a
Terrorist,and I am proud of it”.
Mueller (2003),has identified six (6) ingredients of terrorism which include the following
1: An act of terrorism must have a potential perpetrator or a perpetrator. Any person,group or agency,
other than a government aggressive activities against another government.
2: Victim : an act of terrorism should have a victim or a potential victim, a victim could be a place, a
person, including innocent targeted groups.
3: Methods: Methods are chosen for maximum impacts including destruction with minimal effort. The
selection of target is important.
4:Purpose: The purpose of terrorism is generally to instill fear and terror
5:Goal:Terrorism has a goal and the goal is usually to force a change of government policy towards a
goal favored by the Terrorist.
6: Motive: The motive of terrorism is to portray an aura of invincibility (unstoppable) and capacity to
strike unimpeded any where in the world.
Terrorist intend to generate shock and fear and insecurity by deliberately targeting Innocent
defenseless population .The rationale of indiscriminating violence is to provoke a public awareness that
if no one in particular is the target, no one can feel safe thus, the terrorist act is a form of symbolic
communication designed by its Perpetrator(s) to cause fear in an audience much broader than the
victim.
20/10/2023
Causes of terrorism and insurgency
1:There are many selective incentives that encourage insurgency and violent movement against
democratic and autocratic political regimes. For example,the supply of safety as a material good can be
provided by insurgents ,which abolishes the exploitation of the government and thus forms one of the
main incentives. The revolutionary power can help manifest a socio political network that in return
provides access to political opportunities to diverse candidates. Also,Wood (2003), notes that civil wars
and insurgencies can provide employment and access to services and resources that where once taken
over by autocratic regimes.
2:Religious motivation: Hoffman (2006), observed that religion has become the key motivator for
terrorist organizations in Africa. (Marx defined religion as the opium of the masses). Among the
organizations and individuals who have been religiously inspired to adopt terrorist violence, those who
espouse a radical interpretation of Islam are predominantly singled out by him(Hoffman). However, the
relevance of extreme right (conservatives) Christian groups was also underscored.
3:Proliferation of weapons of war:The availability and the use of weapons of mass destruction and or
disruptions, namely chemical,biological,radiological and nuclear (CBRN) have continued to fuel
terrorism. Some argue that the continued desensitization of audience caused by media trends have
forced terrorist to become more violent and spectacular. Newmann (2009),
4:Corruption : the corruption ridden nature of Nigerian society is found in old sectors of the economy
(private and public). The rolling government have failed to perform their duties because officials are
busy amercing wealth to the detriment of the society. The notion that poverty is the main cause of
terrorism and insurgency may be one of the most contentious ideas in global security studies,but it plays
a crucial role.
5:Radicalization : For communication officials,sociologist,criminologist and other professionals,
radicalization has an important role in causing insurgency, for example in Nigeria,Iran,Philippine. It can
come in different forms.
APPROACHES TO TERRORISM ANALYSIS
1:Multi-causal Approach(several causes): This approach holds that terrorism usually results from
multiple-causal factors not only psychological but also economic,political,religious and sociological
factors among others. Because terrorism is a multi-causal phenomenon,it would be simplistic and
erroneous to explain an act of terrorism by a single factor such as the psychological needs of the
terrorist to perpetrate an act of violence. For Paul Wilkimson (1977), The causes of revolution and
political violence are also the causes of terrorism. These includes, ethnic conflicts, religious and
ideological conflict,poverty,modernization stresses ,political iniquities,lack of peaceful communication
Chanel,traditions of violence,the existence of a revolutionary group, governmental weakness and
ineptness,erosion of confidence in a regime,and a deep division within governing elites and leadership
groups.
2:Political approach: The alternative to the hypothesis that a terrorist is born with personality traits that
destined him or her to become a terrorist is that the root causes of terrorism can be found in influences
emanating from environmental factors. Environments conducive to the rise of terrorism includes
international and national environments as well as sub national ones such as universities,where many
terrorist first become familiar with Marxist-Leninist ideology or other revolutionary ideas and get
involved with radical growth. Rusell and Miler identify universities as the major recruiting ground for
terrorist. Other factors under these approach includes permissive and attractive factors such as
availability of political dissident and direct situational factors which motivates terrorist. Permissive
causes includes, urbanization,transportation system, communication media,availability of weapons and
the absence of security measures. An example of a situational factor to the Palestinians would be the
lost of their home land of Palestine.
3:The organizational approach: some analysts take an organizational approach to terrorism and see
terrorism as a rational strategic course of action decided on by a group. In the view of these analyst,
Terrorism is not committed by an individual but by a group eg isis,hamaz,bokoharam,iswap,alkaida . The
organizational approach contends that acts of terrorism are committed by groups who reach collective
decisions based on commonly held beliefs, although the level of individual commitment to the group
and its beliefs varies.
Bonafide terrorist groups,like cult,are often totally dominated by a single individual leader,be it Sakau
or Osama Bin laden etc . These leaders provide directions and instructions for the groups for what to be
done but leave the details to the lieutenants.
4:The physiological approach: The suggest that the role of the media in promoting the spread of
terrorism can not be ignored in any discussion of causes of terrorism. Thanks to media coverage,the
method(s),demands and the goals of terrorist are quickly made known to potential terrorist,who may be
inspired to imitate them upon becoming stimulated by media accounts of terrorist acts.
According to physiological approach,there are three substances produced in the body under stress,
these substances are
1:Norephinephrine which is produced by the adrenal gland and associated with flight for flight
2:Acetacholine is produced by the parasympathetic which develops in the brain
3:The combinations Of the above two forms endorphin which is 100 times stronger than morphine.
Adherence of the physiological approach are convinced that an individual moves from being a potential
terrorist to being an actual terrorist through a process that is both psychological,physiological and
political etc.
5:The psychological approach: Psychologist who studies terrorism are primarily concerned or interested
in the micro level of the individual terrorist or terrorist groups. The psychological approach is concerned
with the study of terrorist per-se, their recruitment and induction into terrorist groups,Their personality
and beliefs, their attitudes ,mass destruction and terror, their motivations and careers as terrorist.
General Hypotheses of terrorism
Statement of assumption regarding terrorism
Olson Hypothesis
This hypothesis suggest that participants in revolutionary violence predicate their behavior on cost
benefit calculus and the conclusion that violence is the best available curse of action giving the social
conditions. However, the notion that a group rationally chooses a terrorism strategy is questionable.
Indeed,a group’s decision to resort to terrorism is often divisive,sometimes resulting in fractionalization
of the group *(the sun if hamaz).
The Frustration-aggression hypothesis
of violence is prominent in the literature. This hypothesis is based mostly on the relative deprivation
hypothesis as proposed by Ted Robert (1970). The hypothesis looks at gaps between rising expectations
and need satisfaction. Joseph Margolin (1977), argues that “much Terrorist behavior is a response to the
frustration of various political,economic,and personal needs or objectives”.
Negative identity hypothesis
These hypothesis suggest that the political terrorist consciously assumes a negative identity. Knutson
(1981), sited an example of a Croatian who as a member of an oppressed ethnic minority, was
disappointed by the failure of his aspiration to attain a university education, and as a result assumed a
negative identity by becoming a terrorist. Negative identity involves a vindictive rejection of the role
regarded as desirable and proper by an individual’s family and community.
Narcissistic rage hypothesis
Taking the terrorist as mentally I’ll approach, these hypothesis concerns the early development of the
terrorist. It believes that if primary narcissism in the form of “Grandiose self” is not neutralized by reality
testing, the grandiose self produces individuals who are sociopathy,arrogant,and lacking in regard to
others. Individuals with narcissistic and border line disturbances,narcissistic injury during childhood,and
with a damaged self concept fail to integrate the good and bad parts of the self,which are instead split
into the “me” and “not me”. These individuals need an outside enemy to blend with their own
inadequacies and weaknesses
The psychology of the terrorist
Terrorist motivation
Who becomes terrorist? And what kind of individuals join terrorist groups and commit public acts of
shocking violence.
There has been numerous attempts to explain terrorism from a psychiatric or psychological perspective.
But there appears to be a general agreement that there is no one terrorist mindset (there are a variety
of factors).
Attempts to explain terrorism in purely psychological terms ignore the very real political,economic,and
social factors that have always motivated radical activist as well as the possibility that biological or
physiological variables may play a role in bringing an individual to the point of perpetrating terrorism.
The basic premise of terrorist whom Knutson evaluated in depth was “that their violent acts,stain from
of rage and hopelessnes that society permits no other access to information dissemination and policy
formulation processes”.
The process of joining a terrorist group
Individuals who become terrorist often are unemployed, socially alienated individuals who have broke
out of society. Those with little education,such as youths in Nigeria and Algerian ghettos to the Gaza
strip join or may try to join terrorist groups out of boredom and a desire to have an action part
adventure in pursuit of a cause the regard as just. Some individuals may be motivated by a desire to use
their special skills, such as bomb making. The more educated youths may be motivated more by genuine
economic,political or religious convictions. The person who becomes a terrorist in western countries is
generally both intellectual and idealistic. Usually, these disenchanted youths, both educated and
uneducated engage in occasional protest and dissidents. Potential terrorist group members often start
out as sympathizers of the group. Recruits often come from support organizations,such as prisoners
support groups or student activist groups. From sympathizers , one moves to passive supporter. Often,
violent encounters with police or other security forces motivate an already socially alienated individual
to Join the terrorist group. Although the circumstances vary,the end result of these gradual process is
that the individual,often with the help of a family member or friend with terrorist contacts,turns to
terrorism . Member in the terrorist group,however,is highly selective and highly secretive. Over a period
as long as a year or more , the recruit moves in a slow,gradual fashion towards full membership in a
terrorist group.
They would be terrorist will need to have the opportunity to join the terrorist group. And like most job
seekers, he or she would have to be acceptable to the terrorist group, which is a highly exclusive group.
Thus recruits would not only need to have a personality that will allow them to fit into the group, but
ideally a certain skill is needed by the group,such as weapons or communication skills.
Eric Shaw (1986), a psychologist provides a strong case for what he calls “Personal pathway model” by
which terrorist enters there new profession. The components of these pathway includes early
socialization processes,narcissistic injuries,escalating events particularly with confrontation with the
police and Personal connections to terrorist group members.
The personal pathway model suggest that terrorist come from a selected,at risk population(mostly the
poor),who have suffered from early damage with their self esteem. Their subsequent political activities
may be consistent with the liberal social philosophies of their families,but go beyond their perception of
the contradictions in their family’s belief and lack of social action. The underline need to belong to a
terrorist group is symptomatic of an incomplete or fragmented psycho social identity. Deborah Galvin
(1983) notes that, a common route of entry into Terrorism for female Terrorist is through political
involvement and beliefs in a political curse. The