UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

SUMMER TRAINING REPORT-2017

ON
Computational and Experimental
Analysis in Industrial Applications in
Mechanical Engineering

A REPORT SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE SUMMER INTERSHIP

SUBMITTED BY- Abhishek Yadav

th
(14/591) [Link], 7 Semester,
Aeronautical Engineering
CERTIFICATE

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. Amar Patnaik sir, who has been
a source of guidance, supervisor and educator to us. He had taken many
lectures from that we had come to the platform to work on Summer Internship
Program project without any difficulty.

I would like to thank Prof. Udaykumar Yaragatti Director MNIT Jaipur who
has provided the abundant facilities for completing this summer internship
program.
I also acknowledge Prof. G. S. Dhangayach, HOD Mechanical, MNIT Jaipur.

I also thank Mr. Ankush Sharma (Junior Research Fellow), Mr. Vinayak
Rajashekhara Kiragi (Research Associate), Mr. Bhagiratha Sahu (Junior Research
Fellow) and the entire technical assistant who had provided valuable guide so
we can complete this internship easily.

Further, I am delighted to compliment and express a sense of gratitude to

my mentors Anshul Khandelwal sir & Anshul Bansal sir of University
College of engineering, Kota who guided me for the summer training
program.

Lastly, I would like to thank the almighty lord without whose mercy this
training could have been completed.

Abhishek Yadav
(14/591)
th
[Link] 7 semester
Aeronautical Engineering
University College of Engineering Kota

II
 ABSTRACT
Abrasive wear is a major industrial problem. Therefore, a full understanding of
the effects of all system variables on the abrasive wear rates is necessary in
order to undertake appropriate steps in the design of the machinery and the
choice of materials to reduce/control wear. Need for the use of newer
materials to combat wear situations has resulted in the emergence of polymer-
based system. Polymers and their composites form a very important class of
Tribo-engineering materials and are mostly used in mechanical components
where wear performance in non-lubricated condition is a key parameter for the
material.
Advantages of these materials are light weight, excellent strength to weight
ratios, resistance to corrosion, non-toxicity, easy to fabricate, design flexibility,
self-lubricating properties, better coefficient of friction, and wear resistance.
Present research work is undertaken to study the mechanical and three body
abrasive wear behavior of jute fibre reinforced composite. Three different
forms of jute fibre reinforced composite consist of three types of filler content
that are considered for the present research work. Attempts have been made
to explore the possible use of jute fibers as reinforcement for polymer
composites.
The design of experiments approach using Taguchi methodology is employed
for the parametric analysis of abrasive wear process. Study reveals that abrasive
wear performance of jute fibre reinforced composite increases with increase in
filler content.
Keyword: Abrasive wear, Jute fibre reinforced composite, Taguchi methodology.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Contents

1. CERTIFICATE I

2 ACKNOWLEDEMENT II

3. ABSTRACT III

4. TABLE OF CONTENT IV

5. LIST OF FIGURE VIII

6. LIST OF TABLES IX

IV
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1

Filler Material 2

1.1 CONCEPT OF COMPOSITES 2

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES 4

1.2.1 Organic Matrix Composites 4

[Link] Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix 4

Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

[Link] Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) 7

[Link] Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM) 7

1.3 EXAMPLES FOR COMPOSITE MATERIALS 8

1.4 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITE 9

MATERIALS

1.4.1 Advantages of Composites 9

1.4.2 Limitations of Composites 10

1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT 10

1.6 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY 10

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 11

1.8 CONCLUSION 11

V
 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2. INTRODUCTION 12

2.1 BODY OF THE LITERATURE 12

2.1.1 Based upon abrasion and erosion wear test. 12

2.1.2 Based upon jute 13

2.2 CONCLUSION 14

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3. INTRODUCTION 15

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 15

3.2 TAGUCHI DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT 15

3.2.1 Background 15

3.3 VARIABLE AND MEASUREMENT 17

3.4 CONCLUSION 19

VI
 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS

INTRODUCTION

4. MATERIALS 20

4.1 4.1.1 Jute Fiber 20

4.1.2 Epoxy (L12) (Bis-phenol A) 20

4.1.3 Hardener (K6) 20

4.1.4 White marble dust 21

FABRICATION OF COMPOSITE 21

4.2 4.2.1 Hand lay-up technique 22

SLURRY ABRASION TESTER 22

CHAPTER 5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

INTRODUCTION 26

5.1 THREE-BODY ABRASIVE TEST 26

5.2 For 10% filler content (white marble dust)

5.3 For 20% filler content (white marble dust)
DISCUSSION 29

CONCLUSION 30
SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 31
REFERENCES 32

VII
 LIST OF FIGURES

Sr. No. Contents Page No.

Figure 1.1(a) Light weight composite military helmet 1

Figure 1.1(b) Interior parts of Mercedes A-200 1

Figure 1.2 Classification of matrix materials 3

Figure 1.3 Thermoplastics 5

Figure 1.4 Thermoset materials 6

Figure 3.1 Procedure for Taguchi Analysis 16

Figure 4.1(a) Schematic diagram of hand lay-up process 23

Figure 4.1(b) Orientation of fibre layers 23

Figure 4.2(a) Bi-directional jute fibre 23

Figure 4.2(b) Jute fibre reinforced epoxy composite 23

Figure 4.3(a) Slurry Abrasion Tester 25

Figure 4.3(b) Interior view of slurry abrasion tester 25

VIII
 LIST OF TABLE

Sr. No. Contents Page

No.

Table 3.1 Process parameters and levels 17

Table 3.2 Taguchi L9 Orthogonal Array Design-L9(3*4) 18

Table 3.3 Experimental design using L9 (3*4) 19

Table 4.1 Designation of Composites 24

Table 4.2 Test parameter specification 25

IX
Computational and Experimental Analysis in Industrial Applications in Mech. Engg.

Chapter-1 Introduction
1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
A Composite material (or composition material or a composite) is made by combining
two or more materials with different physical or chemical properties, when combined it
produces a material with different characteristics from the individual component
.Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a
true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions
during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their
electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the
structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two
decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved
materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost reduction during manufacturing and
operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to
protect man against fire and impact (Figure 1.1 (a)) and a tendency to an environmental
friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibers in the composite technology,
see Figure 1.1 (b). Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by
volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied
manufacturing techniques.

Fig. 1.1(a) Fig. 1.1(b)

Figure 1.1 (a): Light weight composite military helmet; (b): Interior parts of
Mercedes A-200

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Filler Material
Marble is a metamorphic rock produced from limestone by pressure and heat in the earth’s
crust due to geological processes. It is widely used cement, construction and sculpture
industries. Marbles are, chemically, crystalline rocks constituting mainly calcite and
dolomite. In the last 2 decades, the marble industry has gained industrial importance.
Countries like USA, France, Belgium and other European countries have considerable
marble reserves. During marble processing, 30% of the stone goes to scrap because of
being smaller in size and/or being irregularly shaped. Millions of tons of marble powder
are processed every year during extraction, around the world. As a result, significant
environmental damage occurs from the large quantities of marble dust produced in these
industries. Marble dust may also lead to skin allergies. However, apart from these
disadvantages, marble powder is also among the most useful substances in the planet and
has found uses in several applications, in a number of different forms. It is mainly used as
a filler or additive in several industrial applications. Many researches previously
investigated marble waste as a potential constructional material. However, it can now also
be used to make a new class of polymer-MWP composites. Epoxy resins (ER) are very
useful substances as polymeric matrix system for developing such new composite
materials. With growing engineering applications, epoxy based composites have been a
subject of extensive research in the last few years.

1.1 CONCEPT OF COMPOSITES

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of
modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural.
Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the
specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform.
Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions
combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand
maximum load and serve the desirable properties.
Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear
determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to
the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic.

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In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz.,
binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses
among the constituent reinforcement materials under an applied force.
The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be
conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer
weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become
applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen.
Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds
for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials,
polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of
structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till
failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and
compression.
Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion
characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the
matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there
is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and
its ad-joint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar
constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix
properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime
considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents
should be chemically inert non-reactive. Figure is classification of matrices.

Figure 1.2: Classification of matrix materials

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1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:
1. The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix
constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites
(OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include
two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and
carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites.
2. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre
reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites.
Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibers embedded in matrix
material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre
composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the
length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further
increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered
continuous fibre reinforced. Fibers are small in diameter and when pushed axially,
they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibers
must be supported to keep individual fibers from bending and buckling.
Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by
matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category.
Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in
a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and
wood particle boards are examples of this category.

1.2.1 Organic Matrix Composites

[Link] Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or
Carbon-Carbon Composites
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight,
and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins
are extensively used in aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have
qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing.
They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic

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Composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and
determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition
too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are
most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites.
Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form
particularly when a premixed or molding compound with fibers of specific quality and
aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic
polyamide resins.
Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at
an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is
that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its
properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress
techniques to mould the compounds.
Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of
composites. The theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties
of the resins and extract the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues,
including attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline
thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to a considerable extent,
prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation. Whenever crystalline or
amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over an extensive
range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is
constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as
well as creep resistance. Figure 1.3 shows kinds of thermoplastics.

Figure 1.3: Thermoplastics

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A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form
are also to be accounted for. However, reinforcements can change this condition too.
The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no
chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat.
Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the
structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber
reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the
reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding
processes, they can be aligned directionally.
There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of
fillers raises the heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend lose their
strength at elevated temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity,
toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important
composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic
products encasement etc.
Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of
thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they
only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has
facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more
cumbersome moulding compounds.
Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which,
research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated.
Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this
type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards
and similar areas. Figure 1.4 shows some kinds of thermosets.

Figure 1.4: Thermoset materials

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[Link] Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research
fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength,
fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by
their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive
environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as
matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range
of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the choice
depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for
temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned
reasons are characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their
low density proving an advantage. Titanium, aluminum and magnesium are the
popular matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft
applications. If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high
modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be
higher than most alloys.
The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various
temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics
and compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of
reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of
matrix materials.

[Link] Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM)

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding
in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion
resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render
ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a structural
material that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic
matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics possess, have
combined to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength
improvement. This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is

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Insufficient elongation of the matrix, which keeps composite from transferring an

effective quantum of load to the reinforcement, and the composite may fail unless the
percentage of fiber volume is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the
higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an increase in load bearing capacity of
the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been
successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be weaker.

1.3 EXAMPLES FOR COMPOSITE MATERIALS

• Fibre reinforced plastics:
Classified by type of fiber:
Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)
Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)
Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally,
"Fiberglass")
Classified by matrix:
Thermoplastic Composites
Short fiber thermoplastics
Long fiber thermoplastics
Glass mat thermoplastics
Continuous fiber reinforced
thermoplastics Thermoset Composites
• Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)
• Metal matrix composites (MMCs):
White cast iron
Hard metal (carbide in metal matrix)
Metal-intermetallic laminate
• Ceramic matrix composites:
Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)
Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete

• Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate

composites Asphalt concrete
Dental composite

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1.4 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITES

MATERIALS
1.4.1 Advantages of Composites
1. High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation.
2. High ‘strength or stiffness to weight’ ratio.
3. Due to greater reliability, there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.
4. Directional tailoring capabilities to meet the design requirements. The fibre
pattern can be laid in a manner that will tailor the structure to efficiently sustain
the applied loads.
5. Fibre to fibre redundant load path.
6. Improved dent resistance is normally achieved. Composite panels do not sustain
damage as easily as thin gage sheet metals.
7. It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction. Complex
double-curvature parts with a smooth surface finish can be made in one
manufacturing operation.
8. Composites offer improved torsional stiffness. This implies high whirling speeds,
reduced number of intermediate bearings and supporting structural elements. The
overall part count and manufacturing & assembly costs are thus reduced.
9. High resistance to impact damage.
10. Composites are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity and
low coefficient of thermal expansion.
11. The improved weather ability of composites in a marine environment as well as
their corrosion resistance and durability reduce the down time for maintenance.
12. Material is reduced because composite parts and structures are frequently built to
shape rather than machined to the required configuration, as is common with metals.
13. Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-Carbon, combined
with their lightweight have extended their use for aircraft brakes.
14. Improved friction and wear properties.
15. Safety-Fibre-reinforced composites are low in electrical conductivity and are
efficient fire retardants, which makes them a good choice for covering electrical
parts.

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1.4.2 Limitations of Composites

1. High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
2. Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.
3. Transverse properties may be weak.
4. Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
5. Reuse and disposal may be difficult.
6. Difficult to attach.

1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Wear is not only responsible for material removal but also leads to the premature
failure of engineering components. Wear causes huge monetary loss in industries as it
includes cost in replacement and downtime cost. In industrial applications, abrasive
wear is the most common mode of failure near which constitutes about 50% of the
total failure. In most cases wear is detrimental which leads to increase in clearances
between the moving components, often vibration which increases mechanical loading
and yet more rapid wear and sometimes fatigue failure. Wear by slurry abrasion
mainly occurs in slurry pumps, extruders and pipes carrying slurry of minerals and
ores in mineral processing industries.
Abrasion is the process of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing
away. It can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an abrasive.
Abrasion can be an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to the
elements. Slurry abrasion wear is a potential problem in engineering components
subjected to particulate flow. Generally slurry abrasion behavior is easily observed in
the wear of the material used in the base of ship, wear in the sole of the shoe, etc.

1.6 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Using Jute fibre as the raw material for the development of product might decrease
the wear rate of the material or improve the product life. The natural jute fiber can be
the effective material to reinforce polymer strength which will not only explore a way
to improve the properties of composite, it will also explore the use of jute and restrict
the utilization of polymer which is environmentally detrimental.
The objective of present work is to study slurry abrasion behavior of Jute Fibre
Reinforced Composites. The result of present work shall useful in development of
composites for slurry abrasion applications such as in ships, sole of the shoes, etc.

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The developed composite shall be much stronger to hold a good product life for the slurry
abrasion condition; it shall be used in the areas where slurry abrasion takes place.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will be a significant endeavor in promoting the students and new
researchers for the development of the composite material rather we are using pure
metal everywhere as it has numerous advantages over pure metal. This study will
provide concepts for the development of the composites materials.

1.8 CONCLUSION
The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as well as
strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and reinforcement material,
a new material can be made that exactly meets the requirements of a particular
application. Composites also provide design flexibility because many of them can be
moulded into complex shapes. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive. Slurry Abrasion Test Rig gives wear properties of
the specimen.

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Chapter-2 Literature Review

2 INTRODUCTION
This chapter includes a survey of the past research already available involving the
issues of interest. Literature review of some previous papers are given below:

2.1 BODY OF THE LITERATURE

2.1.1 Based upon abrasion and erosion wear test.
1. Suzuki et al. studied the abrasion depth, wear depth, knop hardness number
and surface morphology on filter supreme XT, grandio (GRA), tetric evo
ceram and venus diamond and observed that for each product wear increased
linearly with the number of cycles. The Nano fill product Filter Supreme XT
with moderate abrasion and increase in roughness has apparently a good
potential as a universal clinically successful resin composite.
2. Sapate et al. studied the slurry abrasion wear test on low alloy steel and
observed that the volume loss of hard faced alloy steel shows linear
relationship with sliding distance and volume loss increases with increase in
particle size of silica sand. The magnitude of increase in slurry abrasion
volume loss was strongly dependent on test conditions.
3. Raghavendra et al. studied the erosion wear test on jute fibre, E-glass fibre
with epoxy resin, hardener HY-951 and observed that the TGA curve for the
jute fiber is less when compared with the neat epoxy matrix, indicating the
lesser thermal stabilities of the jute fibre. Mechanical and tribological
properties of jute and glass epoxy composoites were compared.
4. Blau and Dehoff studied the wet abrasion test on various alloys of iron,
chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, boron, carbon, silicon, manganese and
nickel and observed that the ranking of four steel in two body abrasive wear
was independent of grit size and quantity of wear decreases with abradant
reuse. Thermal treatments of individual alloys that slightly increased their
hardness (HRC) actually reduced their wear resistance. However, when
comparing one alloy class to another, the harder of the two alloy classes
experienced less wet abrasive wear.

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5. Patnaik et al. studied the slurry abrasive wear test on E-glass fiber reinforced
composite materials using marble dust and Tio2 as a filler and observed that by
incorporating of these particulate fillers into the glass-fiber reinforced vinyl
ester, synergistic effects, as expected were achieved in the form of modified
mechanical properties and improved slurry abrasion wear resistance.

2.1.2 Based upon jute fibre

1. Gopal et al. studied tensile and flexural properties of jute mat fiber with epoxy
composites and observed that the tensile test and flexural test were conducted
and the results are compared. The composite plate without powder is less
tensile and less flexural whereas proper mixing of coconut shell powder will
give good tensile strength and flexural strength and further the laminate
improve the tension and the delamination properties
2. Sodhi et al studied mechanical characterization of low cost natural hybrid
date/jute fibre reinforced epoxy composite and observed that the mechanical
properties such as tensile strength and flexural strength of epoxy resin
improves by a great extent due to the presence of reinforcement. On increasing
the weight fraction of reinforcement the mechanical properties of the FRP
composites increases.
3. Gopinath et al studied mechanical properties of jute fiber reinforced
composites with polyester and epoxy resin matrices and observed that the 5%
NaOH treated jute fiber reinforced composites seemed to show much better
results than the 10 % NaOH treated jute composites .Jute-epoxy exhibited
better tensile and flexural properties.
4. Girisha et al studied mechanical properties of jute and hemp fiber reinforced
epoxy and observed that the composites with polyester resin as matrix give
more tensile, flexural and impact strength than epoxy based hybrid composites.
Diagonal inclinations of the reinforcing fibres give poor mechanical properties
as observed in 30degee, 45 degree oriented composites.
5. Ranjt et al studied treated sunnhemp and treated jute fibre reinforced epoxy
composites and observed that the treated sunnhemp fibre reinforced

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epoxy composite have more tensile, flexural and impact strength property as
compared to treated jute fibre reinforced epoxy composites.
6. Gujjala et al studied jute fiber reinforced epoxy composites and compared
with the glass and neat epoxy composites and observed that the jute fibre
composite exibits brittle nature and lowest erosion rate as compared to other
composite,due to their chemical structure and bonding with epoxy which may
arrest the crack propagation and control deformation.
7. Satapathy et al studied processing and characterization of jute-epoxy
composites reinforced with SiC derived from rice husk and observed that
incorporation of filler modifies Tensile, Flexural, and Inter-laminar Shear
Strength of jute fibre.
8. Sanjay and Yogesha studied mechanical properties of jute/E-glass fibre
reinforced epoxy hybrid composites and observed that the incorporation of
glass fiber in jute fiber composites enhances the mechanical properties and it
leads to the increase of the utilization of natural fibers in various applications.
9. Gon et al studied how to substitute wood by jute composites and observed that
the usage of natural fibre based products in post-disaster management of
rehabilitation & rebuilding would become cost competitive compared to other
building materials.
10. Singh studied jute/glass epoxy based hybrid composites and tells the reader
about the use of all the composite materials that are very essential like natural
fibre, hybrid fibre and synthetic fibre materials.

2.2 CONCLUSION
In the recent years there is a vast growth in natural fibre based polymer composites
due to its various attractive features likes biodegradability, no abrasiveness, flexibility,
availability, low cost, light weight etc. Different researchers have performed various
experiments to enhance the mechanical properties of natural fibre based polymer
composites.

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Chapter-3 Methodology
3. INTRODUCTION
This chapter details out the research methodology for the present study. It explains the
research objectives and a suitable methodology to achieve those objectives.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.” In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.

3.2 TAGUCHI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The Taguchi method involves reducing the variation in a process through robust
design of experiments. The overall objective of the method is to produce high quality
product at low cost to the manufacturer. The Taguchi method was developed by
Genichi Taguchi. He developed a method for designing experiments to investigate
how different parameters affect the mean and variance of a process performance
characteristic that defines how well the process is functioning. The experimental
design proposed by Taguchi involves using orthogonal arrays to organize the
parameters affecting the process and the levels at which they should be varied. Instead
of having to test all possible combinations like the factorial design, the Taguchi
method tests pairs of combinations. This allows for the collection of the necessary data
to determine which factors most affect the product quality with a minimum amount of
experimentation, thus saving time and resources. The Taguchi method is best used
when there is an intermediate number of variables (3 to 50), few interactions between
variables, and when only a few variables contribute significantly.

3.2.1Background
The Englishman, Sir [Link], first proposed the technique of laying out the
conditions of experiments involving multiple factors. The method is popularly known
as the factorial design of experiments. A full factorial design will identify all possible
combinations for a given set of factors. Since most industrial experiments

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Usually involve a significant number of factors, a full factorial design results in a large
number of experiments. To reduce the number of experiments to a practical level, only
a small set from all the possibilities is selected. The method of selecting a limited
number of experiments, which produces the most information, is known as a partial
fraction experiment. Although this method is well known, there are no general
guidelines for its application or the analysis of the results obtained by performing the
experiments. Taguchi constructed a special set of general design guidelines for
factorial experiments that cover many applications.
The procedure for Taguchi analysis was shown in figure 3.1

Set performance
Characteristics (Dome Height,
Thinning Factor)

Select control factors and their

Levels

Parameters
Choose array

Conduct experiments as per

Orthogonal array and observe the
Change in critical properties

Data Analysis - S/N Ratio

process parameters variance

Confirmation experiment to
check whether there is
No
improvement
Yes
END

Figure3.1: Procedure for Taguchi Analysis

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3.3 VARIABLE AND MEASUREMENT

A large number of experiments have to be carried out when the number of process
parameters increase. To solve this problem, the Taguchi method uses a special design
of orthogonal arrays to study the entire parameter space with only a small number of
experiments.
Four superplastic-forming parameters are considered as controlling factors. They are-
Load, RPM, Revolution and Filler Content. Each parameter has three levels – namely
low, medium and high, denoted by 1, 2 and 3 respectively. According to the Taguchi
method, if four parameters and 3 levels for each parameters L9 orthogonal array should
be employed for the experimentation. Table 3.1 shows the superplastic forming
parameters and their levels considered for the experimentation.

Levels
Process parameters
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

LOAD – A 2 3 4

RPM – B 800 1000 1200

REVOLUTION- C 140 180 220

FILLER CONTENT -D 0% 5% 10%

Table 3.1 Process parameters and levels

Orthogonal arrays are special standard experimental design that requires only a small
number of experimental trials to find the main factors effects on output. Before
selecting an orthogonal array, the minimum number of experiments to be conducted is
to be fixed based on the formula below

N Taguchi = 1+ NV (L – 1)

N Taguchi = Number of experiments to be conducted

NV = Number of parameters

L = Number of levels

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In this work
NV = 3 and L = 3, Hence
N Taguchi = 1+ 4 (3-1) = 9
Hence at least 9 experiments are to be conducted. Based on this orthogonal array
(OA) is to be selected which has at least 9 rows i.e., 9 experimental runs.
The following standard orthogonal arrays are commonly used to design experiments:
2-Level Arrays: L4, L8, L12, L16, L32
3-Level Arrays: L9, L18, L27
4-Level Arrays: L16, L32
In this work L9 is sufficient. It would require a total of 27 experiments to optimize the
parameters. Taguchi experimental design of experiments suggests L9 orthogonal
array, where 9 experiments are sufficient to optimize the parameters. Based on main
factor, the variables are assigned at columns, as stipulated by orthogonal array. Once
the orthogonal array is selected, the experiments are selected as per the level
combinations. It is important that all experiments are conducted.

Experiment Variables
No.
A B C D

1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 2
3 1 3 3 3
4 2 1 2 3
5 2 2 3 1
6 2 3 1 2
7 3 1 3 2
8 3 2 1 3
9 3 3 2 1

Table 3.2: Taguchi Orthogonal Array Design - L9 (3*4)

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According to the experiment the modified Taguchi orthogonal array is:

Variables

Experiment No. Load (kg) RPM Revolution Filler content (%)

1 2 140 800 0

2 2 180 1000 10

3 2 220 1200 20

4 3 140 1000 20

5 3 180 1200 0

6 3 220 800 10

7 4 140 1200 10

8 4 180 800 20

9 4 220 1000 0

Table 3.3: Experimental design using L9 (3*4)

3.4 CONCLUSION
The need of optimization is to obtain the best result. By altering the input parameters, the
optimization process seeks for improved output so that the performance of a system can be
enhanced. Taguchi‘s method is considered as global optimization method.

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Chapter-4 Materials and Methods

4. INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the materials used in the fabrication of the composites. It also
describes the fabrication technique used for the preparation of the composites.
Materials and methods used are the important parts of any fabrication process.

4.1 MATERIALS
The following materials were used in the preparation of jute-epoxy-marble powder
composite:
4.1.1 Jute Fibre: Jute fibre has some unique physical properties like high tenacity,
bulkiness, sound & heat insulation property, low thermal conductivity, antistatic
property etc. Due to these qualities, jute fibre is more suited for the manufacture of
technical textiles in certain specific areas. Moreover, the image of jute as a hard and
unattractive fibre does not affect its usage in technical textiles. Jute is 100% bio-
degradable and thus environment- friendly. It is available in India at competitive
prices. Now it is not just a major textile fibre, but also a raw material for non- textile
products, which helps to protect environment, which is an integral part of any
development planning.
Jute fibers are always known as strong, coarse, environment friendly, and organic. The
use of jute was primarily confined to marginal and small manufacturers and growers,
but now it is used as important raw materials for several industries. It is unfortunate
that jute still lags behind other fibers like silk, wool, and cotton. However at present
time, jute is termed as a favorite fabric for packaging materials and furnishings and as
golden fibers for national and international fashion world. Jute fibers are used for
making mats, gunny cloth, cordage, hangings, paper, and decorative articles. Prevalent
uses of jute in handicraft stuff, in order to give an aesthetic appeal, have made it
popular across the globe.

4.1.2 Epoxy (L12) (Bis-phenol A): A translucent dense fluid with high viscosity served
as the matrix in the composite. It is a thermosetting resin with high molecular weight.
Currently, there are a wide variety of matrix resins available for use in reinforced
polymeric composite materials. The most commonly used thermosetting resins are epoxy,
unsaturated polyester, and vinyl ester. These resins can satisfy a variety of

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Requirement characteristics, such as sustained high temperature performance, easy

processing, toughness, etc. Basically, the matrix component of a composite serves to
transfer stresses between fibers, provides a barrier to contain or exclude an
environment, and protects the surface of the fibers from mechanical abrasion. The
matrix allows an applied load to be distributed over a much larger area compared to
other methods of joining; these results in a reduction of the unit stress on the elements
that are bonded. The matrix is the minor component of the composite in terms of
strength contribution. However, flaws or damage in matrix may lead to failure of the
composite. The properties of the matrix usually determine the limits of temperature
and chemical environment that the composite can withstand. Epoxy resins are used
extensively in composite materials for a variety of demanding structural applications.
They are the most versatile of the commercially available matrices. Unsaturated
polyesters, for example, may cost less and polyimides may perform better at elevated
temperatures, but, overall, epoxy resins have a broad range of physical properties,
mechanical capabilities, and a wide range of processing conditions besides, they shrink
slightly during curing. This is a significant advantage, as is the fact that they induce
low internal stresses in the resin material during the curing process. Epoxy resins are
very tolerant of alkalinity and can be used at elevated temperatures. Epoxies also
possess excellent processing characteristics: hot melt prepregability, tacky, drapable
prepregs, good shelf life, curing without volatile evolution.

4.1.3 Hardener (K6): Epoxy curing agent K-6 is a low viscosity room temperature
curing liquid hardener. Being rather reactive it gives a short pot life and rapid cure at
normal ambient temperatures. It has a shelf life of least two years if stored in its
original container away from humidity and heat. The supplier fixes the mixing ratio of
mixing of epoxy and hardener as 10:1.

4.1.4 White marble dust: A white fine powder with density more than that of the
epoxy matrix and served as the particulate reinforcement (filler material). Marble
powder is produced from the marble processing plants during the cutting, shaping and
polishing. During this process, about 20-25% of the process marble is turn into the
powder form. It is mixed with the epoxy in the weight percentage proportion.

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4.2 FABRICATION OF COMPOSITE

The fabrications of composite slab are carried out by conventional hand layup
technique.

4.2.1 Hand lay-up technique

Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The
infrastructural requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are
quite simple. This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting polymer based
composites. Capital and infrastructural reuirement is less as compared to other
methods. Production rate is less and high volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult
to achieve in the processed composites. Hand lay-up method finds application in many
areas like aircraft components, automotive parts, boat hulls, diase board, deck etc. It
consist of following steps:

Step 1: First of all, a release gel is sprayed on the release sheet to avoid the sticking of
polymer to the surface. Thin release sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mold
plate to get good surface finish of the product.
Step 2: Reinforcement in the form of woven mats are cut as per the mold size and
placed at the surface of mold after perspex (release) sheet.
Step 3: Then thermosetting polymer (epoxy resin) in liquid form is mixed thoroughly
in suitable proportion with a prescribed hardener (curing agent) and poured onto the
surface of mat already placed in the mold.
Step 4: The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush. Second layer of mat is
then placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure on the mat-
polymer layer to remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present.
Step 5: The process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required
layers are stacked. After placing the release sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner
surface of the top mold plate which is then kept on the stacked layers and the pressure
(weight) is applied. After curing at room temperature, mold is opened and the
developed composite part is taken out and further processed.

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The schematic of hand lay-up is shown in figure 4.1.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1: a) Schematic diagram of hand lay-up process. b) Orientation of fiber layers
Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft components,
automotive parts, boat hulls, diase board, deck etc.
Composites of different compositions is with three different filler content (marble dust)
(0wt%, 10wt% and 20wt %). Figure 4.2 (a) shows bidirectional jute fibre. Similarly,
Figure 4.2 (b) shows jute fibre reinforced epoxy composite. The detailed composition and
designation of the composites are presented in Table 4.1 Finally the specimens of suitable
dimension are cut with the help of hack saw for characterization and testing.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.2: (a) Bi-directional jute fiber, (b) Jute fibre reinforced epoxy composite

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Composites Composition

C1 Epoxy (120 gm.) + Jute (50 gm.) + Marble Dust (0%)

C2 Epoxy (106 gm.) + Jute (50 gm.) + Marble Dust (10%)

C3 Epoxy (92 gm.) + Jute (50 gm.) + Marble Dust (20%)

Table 4.1: Designation of Composites

4.3 SLURRY ABRASION TESTER

The Slurry Abrasion Tester is designed such that a flat test sample is pressed radially
against a wheel with a known force. The test area is submerged in wet abrasive media
(slurry). The arrangement is such that the wheel carries the abrasive media between
the sample and the wheel creating a scenario of three body wear using the slurry in the
chamber. This tester allows users to test under a variety of loads, flow rates and types
of abrasive media. Loss of weight of test samples indicates wear resistance. Its area
comprises of a test wheel, a sample holder and a nozzle to feed abrasive slurry media
into the test contact. The sample holder is connected to an external loading arm used to
apply the desired load during the test. The slurry abrasion test area comprises of a
similar arrangement including a rotating test wheel and a radial sample loading
arrangement. External; loading arms allow control and adjustment of load while
testing is in progress. The rotational speed and test duration is controlled using a
control system on the abrasion tester. After the test, samples are evaluated by loss of
mass for wear assessment, wear volume is calculated and qualitative assessment of the
wear scar is made.

Slurry abrasion test specimen size:

150mm x 25mm x 3mm

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(a) (b)
Figure 4.3: a) Slurry abrasion tester, (b) Interior view of slurry abrasion tester

Maker: Magnum engineers, Bangalore

Test Parameter Details

Specimen Standards ASTM B611 and ASTM G105

Material A1 6061; Bs C36000; Steel 52100;

Stainless Steel 304

Load 100N to 300N

Wheel Wheel Diameter 178mm * 12.7mm

Wheel RPM 100 to 250

Wheel Hardness 60 HRC

Abrasive Slurry Mixture of 212 micron dry sand (2.5 Kg) and water ( 1 litre)

Table 4.2: Test parameter specification

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Chapter-5 Result and Discussion

5. INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the mechanical and three-body slurry abrasive wear behavior of
the jute fiber reinforced epoxy composites. The effect of filler content on composites
is also discussed. The effects normal load, RPM, and number of revolution on the
three-body slurry abrasive wear response of the composites are also presented.

5.1 THREE-BODY SLURRY ABRASIVE TEST

The result of the three-body slurry abrasive test is as follows:
Table 5.1 shows the initial and final thickness of the specimen.

0% Filler Content 10% Filler Content 20% Filler Content

Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final

Thickness Thickness Thickness Thickness Thickness Thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
9.94 8.92 10.10 8.68 9.91 8.44

9.40 8.18 9.90 8.65 9.85 8.41

9.69 8.36 9.75 8.16 9.83 8.42

Table 5.1: Initial and final thickness of the specimen

Table 5.2 shows the initial and final mass of the specimen.

0% Filler Content 10% Filler Content 20% Filler Content

Initial Mass Final Mass Initial Mass Final Mass Initial Mass Final Mass
(gm.) (gm.) (gm.) (gm.) (gm.) (gm.)
90 89.185 80 79.304 90 89.774

85 84.079 94 93.673 83 82.667

96 95.633 82 81.527 83 82.409

Table 5.2: Initial and final mass of the specimen

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.1: Specimen after slurry abrasion test (a) 0% filler content (b) 10%
filler content (c) 20% filler content
Actual height of wear and mass loss in the specimen according to the experiment
performed as per the Taguchi L9 orthogonal array is given below.

Variables Height Mass

of loss
Experiment Load RPM Revolution Filler wear (gm.)
No. (mm)
(Kg) content
(%)

1 2 140 800 0 1.02 0.815

2 2 180 1000 10 1.42 0.696

3 2 220 1200 20 1.47 0.226

4 3 140 1000 20 1.44 0.333

5 3 180 1200 0 1.22 0.921

6 3 220 800 10 1.25 0.327

7 4 140 1200 10 1.59 0.473

8 4 180 800 20 1.41 0.591

9 4 220 1000 0 1.33 0.367

Table 5.3: Height of wear and mass loss in the specimen according to the experiment
Performed

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From the Minitab, the following data is received:

Exp. C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
No. Load RPM Revolution Filler Height of Mass SNRA1 SNRA2
Content wear loss(g/kg)
1 2 140 800 0 1.02 9.05 -19.1330 -
0.17200
2 2 180 1000 10 1.42 8.70 -18.7904 -
3.04577
3 2 220 1200 20 1.47 2.51 -7.9935 -
3.34635
4 3 140 1000 20 1.44 4.01 -12.0629 -
3.16725
5 3 180 1200 0 1.22 10.83 -20.6926 -
1.72720
6 3 220 800 10 1.25 3.47 -10.8066 -
1.93820
7 4 140 1200 10 1.57 5.76 -15.2084 -
3.91799
8 4 180 800 20 1.41 7.12 -17.0496 -
2.98438
9 4 220 1000 0 1.33 3.82 -11.6413 -
2.47703

Table 5.4: Data from Minitab

Figure 5.2: Effect of control factors on mass loss rate

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5.4 DISCUSSION
5.4. Three-body slurry abrasive test
The relation between percentage of filler content and height of wear and mass loss can be
seen from the following graph:

Relation between filler content, height of

Wear and mass loss
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
% of filler content

Height of wear (mm) Mass loss (gm.)

Figure 5.3: Relation between filler content, height of wear and mass loss

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Conclusion
The study on the three-body abrasive wear and mechanical behavior of jute fiber
reinforced polymer composites led to the following conclusions:

Fabrication ofbi-directional jute fibre reinforced epoxy composite has completed
 successfully.

The study on mechanical properties of jute fiber reinforced epoxy composite

revealed that these properties is affected by filler content, applied load, RPM and
 number of revolution.

Three-body abrasive wear study depicted that with increase in filler content the rate
of mass loss increases but height of wear first  increase from 0% filler content to
 10% filler content and after that it decreases.

Abrasive wear characteristics of the composites using Taguchi methodology was
been analyzed. The optimal parameter setting had obtained for jute fiber reinforced
epoxy composites. From Taguchi design of experiment method the S/N curve
depicted that which combination of parameter is best for less wear rate and less

mass loss.

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Scope for Future Research

The present study on jute fibre reinforced epoxy composite leaves a wide scope for
future researchers to find many other aspects of these composite. Few
recommendations for the future investigation comprises:

The present study had been carried out using simple hand lay-up technique.
However, the research work can extend further by considering other methods
of composite fabrication and the effect of manufacturing
 techniques on the
 performance of composites can similarly be analyzed.

Besides many advantages of natural fibers, the main disadvantages of natural
fibers in composites are the poor compatibility between fiber and matrix and the
relative high moisture absorption due to their hydrophilic nature. The limited
compatibility between the constituents of a composite usually results in a
decrease in the mechanical and wear properties. Therefore, the study can be
extended further by considering the chemical treatments in modifying the fiber
surface properties to improve the adhesion between fiber and matrix materials

 and the study can be analyzed similarly.

The present study can extend further by the development of hybrid composites
using hardparticulate fillers along with jute fiber and the study can similarly be
analyzed.

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