Chapter Two

Communication Process

2.1. Elements of Communication

Communication can be better understood if viewed as a two-way process. Conceptualizations

of the communication process look at communication as a two-way process. A group of

people are involved to complete the cycle of communication, in which the receiver also acts

as the sender of the feedback to transmitter (sender). The two-way concept considers

communication essentially to be a reciprocal process and a mutual exchange of messages. It

makes no sharp distinction between the roles of sender (source) and receiver, because the

same person plays both roles, often simultaneously. Communication has such elements as

sender, idea, process of encoding, message, medium, channel, process of decoding, receiver,

and response or feedback. These elements of communication interact and the process of

communication starts.

The process of communication involves a number of events and issues, which include:

1. Sender . 3. Medium/ Channel 5. Feedback

2. Message 4. Receiver 6. Noise 7. Environment

The above elements or issues interact in five different activities to produce full cycle of

communication. These are:

1. The sender has an idea 3. The message is transmitted

2. The idea becomes a message 4. The receiver gets the message

5. The receiver reacts to the message and provides feedback to the sender

The above contents of communication can be shown using the basic model of communication.

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 2.2. Model /Process of Communication

The Communication model/process

1. The Sender- the sender is the source of the message. Sender is also receiver of

feedback. The Sender has an idea, to transmit however; the idea is influenced by his/her

frame of reference. Two things must take place for the sender to send a message. First, the

sender must be stimulated. Some type of stimulus triggers a thought which intern initiates

the desire to communicate. A stimulus can be either internal or external. An internal

stimulus is a stimulus which emanates from within the sender himself while external

stimulus is a stimulus that triggers senders from outside. The second condition to be fulfilled

for the sender to send a message is motivation. Because a stimulus alone may not be enough

to trigger communication, sender needs to be motivated to encode and send a message. The

sender needs to be influenced by some factor that he/she will get something if he/she sends

the message or losses something if he/she does not. Frame of reference is the background

and experience of the communicating parties. The sender and receiver can communicate

only if they have the same background.

2. Message- this is the content of the communication. Message is an idea, thought, feeling or

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 emotion that is organized or composed by the sender. The symbols that represent the

message are called codes. There are three basic communication codes.

i. Nonverbal codes- are all intentional or unintentional codes other than words or written

materials by which a person transmits a message. They include such things as facial

expressions, movements of hands, eye contact, clothing and other body gestures, which

can represent nonverbal communication.

ii. Language Codes- are either spoken or written words used to communicate ideas and

thoughts.

iii. Paralanguage Codes-are the verbal elements that go along with spoken language

including the qualities of voice as tone, pitch, rate, volume, and emphasis.

3. Ideas or Thoughts: the raw form of the feeling, the ideas that the sender wants to share

witha receiver by changing them to messages using symbols.

4. Encoding: is changing the raw idea from its mental form into symbols, that is, patterns

of Words, gestures, pictorial forms or signs (physical or of sounds) of a specific visual/aural

language. In short, it means putting ideas, facts, feelings, and opinions into symbols, which

can be words, actions, signs, pictures, and audio-visuals. The communication symbols are

used or selected by the sender, keeping in mind the receiver's ability to understand and

interpret them correctly. In general, the source of the idea or thought is the person who

feels the need for communication. He puts the thought into words or other symbols,

which can be understood by another person to whom he wants to communicate. This part of

the process is called encoding.

5. Channel – refers to the physical transmission of the message from the sender to the

[Link] commonly known communication channels are:

a. Face to face discussion

b. Letter, memo, reports, manual

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 c. Telephone, fax, telegram, telex

d. Computer, internet, e-mail

e. Radio, television, video disk

f. Newspapers, magazines

The choice of an appropriate channel depends on the following factors:

- The importance of the messages (response needed)

- The type, number and location of receiver

- Urgency of the message

- Cost of the channel

- Whether a permanent record is needed

- Whether formality or informality is desired

- Size of the message

- Whether the receiver is inside or outside the organization.

6. Receiver- refers to listener, reader, or viewer of the sender. The receiver is also called audience.

We receive message from the environment through our senses. The receiver has to decode the

message before receiving. Decoding is the process of transferring the message in the way that the

receiver understands the content of the message. The receiver is most likely to receive a message

accurately if:

➢ There is no physical interruption of the message.

➢ The receiver’s mind processes the message as the sender intends (they should have the same

frame of reference).

7. Feedback- refers to the verbal and visual responses to a message. Feedback is the only means a

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 sender can know whether or not messages sent are interpreted as intended. The success or failure of

communication is indicated with the feedback received from the receiver

i. Environment – includes the time, place, physical and social settings in which the communicators

find themselves.

ii. Noise- anything that interferes with communication and distorts or blocks a message is noise. Noise

can be external or internal.

- External Noise- includes distractions in the environment such as the speakers‟ poor grammar,

phones ringing, people talking, room temperature, poor lighting etc.

- Internal Noise- refers to conditions of the receiver himself such as a headache, daydreaming, lack

of sleep, pre occupation of mind with other problems, lack of knowledge about the topic etc.

2.3 Barriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to communication are disturbances, obstacles, and roadblocks which hinder

effective communication. Barriers to communication block the effective transmission of the

messages from the sender to the receiver. There are different barriers to communication

which include: Research shows that there are fundamental barriers to effective interpersonal

communication:

- Physical (external or Mechanical) barriers,

- Semantic barriers

- Different in Perception barriers

- Socio-psychological barriers

- Inappropriate medium barriers

2.3. Physical (also known as external or mechanical) Barriers: Physical or mechanical

barriers such as defective hearing aid, loud competing noises, or a great distance between

sender and receiver etc. may block communication between/among sender and receiver:

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Basically, there are two types of physical or external barriers:

i. Defects in the channel: refer to the barriers beyond the control of the parties engaged in

communication. For example, breakdown in the system of telephones, telegraph, e-mail,

postal, and noise of other interfering machines.

ii. Defects in the Organization and Communication System: occur especially if the

message is made to pass through many channels or chains of command as there will be loss

of information because of the editing and judgment included in between. Besides,

information overload, inappropriate time of communication, distance between sender and

receiver, an assistant's blocking access to a manager or lack of access to files and so forth

also limit the exchange of information.

2.3.1. Semantic Barriers

These are barriers which arise because of the different meanings that different words have

in different contexts. The same word may have one meaning in the mind of the sender and a

different meaning in the mind of the receiver which can block the understanding between

the two. Semantic barriers refer to communication problems caused by language problems.

Using different languages does not only cause them but it is interpretation of words, use of

technical words (jargon), slang, and dialects that usually attribute to them. A receiver may

interpret the words used by the sender differently from the way they were intended, causing

semantic by passing. Comedians rely on semantic by passing to create humor, however, in

the workplace; semantic barriers can be expensive and frustrating.

For example, poorly written contracts that are open to different interpretations could cost

organizations millions of dollars. That is one reason for why companies spend a great deal

of money on legal advice. Bypassing can also lead to unnecessary friction between a

supervisor and employees, resulting in lower productivity and morale. In relation to this

other barrier of language of different terminologies and words may not be clearly

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understood by communicators. Especially some international, professional and technical

words and expressions are difficult to understand and this creates barrier to effective

communication. E.g. computer languages, terms on machines, electronics etc. in same way

the disorganization of ideas and statements of the language, lack of appropriate

coherence, unity and development of ideas and statements in a message is barrier to

communication since the receiver may to identify the main idea of the message and finally

end up in confusion.

2.3.2. Different in Perception Barriers

People who have had different experiences or who come from different cultural, social, or

educational backgrounds tend to view things differently. Some of the reasons for such

difference in perception or understanding include:

Abstracting: is a process of focusing attention on some details and omitting others. Such

problem is caused when people consider that getting all the pieces of information may not

be sometimes important

Inference: is a statement that goes beyond fact. People infer based on their experience. An

employee who grew up in a rich family may view a small pay raise differently than the

employee who grew up in a family that had to struggle to survive. An accountant may view

a sales incentive program differently than the sales manager or the human resources

director. The accountant, because of his/her technical education, may view the incentive

program purely from the cost side of the ledger. The sales manager's perspective will reflect

his/her need to meet sales quotas. The human recourses director may focus on the morale of the

sales force.

Hasty Generalization (slanting): occurs when selecting few aspects of reality and making

them representative of the whole. It always depends on the attitude of a person.

Difference in Age: refers to the difference in perception and experience among people due

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to their difference in age. For example, it makes sense to separate older employees from

younger employees when introducing a new pension program through employee meetings.

The older group will be more interested and have questions, while the younger group may

be bored.

Faulty representation of facts: is the presentation of facts in faulty or wrong ways that

cause confusion and misunderstanding in communication.

2.3.3. Socio-psychological Barriers

Due to certain social as well as psychological reasons people may face a problem in their

attemptto communicate effectively. Some these reasons are:

Source Creditability: refers to the trust, confidence, and faith that receivers have in the

words and actions of the sender. If the source is once identified by the society as

untrustworthy, the receiver’s mind to the messages will tell him/her it is unfaithful source. -

The source of the message often determines the accuracy and reliability of the information.

Messages which originate from incredible sources often creates barrier to communication.

People often associatepersonality of communication to the credibility of their messages.

Value Judgment: is caused by assigning an overall worth or value to a message prior to

receiving the entire message due to past experience with sender and anticipated meaning of

the message.

Closed Mind/Lack of Motivation and Interest: our interest to send or to receive a

message can determine the effectiveness of communication. The more we are interested,

the more we will be motivated to communicate. Lack of interest and motivation in either

sending or receiving message is an obstacle for communication. Limited intellectual

background, limited reading and narrow interests cause a person's mind to be narrow. This

limits his/her understanding of human nature and makes him/her incapable of receiving

communication with sympathy. empathy

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State of Health: if one's health is not at its best, it is better not to be engaged in

communication tasks. The person may not have enough energy and good psychological

make-up to follow what is going on and his/her perception may be reduced.

Poor Communication Skills: lack of skill in writing and speaking obviously prevents the

sender from encoding his/her ideas properly so as to get across his/her audience. Faulty

skills of reading and listening in the case of the receiver may create some communication

problems.

Emotionality: if people are emotional, they tend to be irrational. So, we must try to

suppress our emotions. Emotional reactions like anger, love hate, fear, etc. can influence

how weunderstand other's messages, and how others perceive our own messages.

Defensiveness: is the major psychological barrier to effective communication. Individuals

become defensive when excessive questioning or criticism or the perception of either

threatens their self-image. When people become defensive, they become poor

communicators. They are more interested in protecting their self-image than listening to

what is being said. Defensiveness is most prevalent in psychological climates in which a lot

of judgmental, critical, or superior behavior is exhibited. Although employees want to learn

how to improve their performance, they recoil from being judged or criticized as people.

The comment, "That is a dumb idea," will, no doubt, evoke a defensive reaction from the

receiver. On the other hand, "could you explain your idea more fully?" will help clarify

communication.

Viii. Status Consciousness (Status Black): the title the sender has and the kind of

privilege and office he/she has could affect communication. This is a major problem in

upward communication. A superior may develop the attitude that he/she knows everything.

He/she may not be willing to listen to any ideas, how much bright, given from his/her

subordinates. At the same, subordinates may feel frightened or shy to tell their ideas

to their basses. Status: consciousness of one's status affects the two-way flow of

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communication. It gives rise to personal barriers caused by the superior-subordinate

relationship. A two-way vertical channel is present in every organization, yet few

subordinates choose to communicate with their superiors. Similarly, superiors may be

unwilling to directly listen or write to their subordinates. They would seldom accept if they

were wrong. Though, organizations are culturally changing and adopting flat structures, the

psychological distance between the superior and the subordinates persists.

Self-Image: we do not tend to accept anything that goes against our self-image or attitude

too ourselves that we have cultivated over the years. For instance, the accountant who

thinks of him/herself as an efficient worker may find it difficult to accept his/her

inefficiency when his/her superiors want to help him/her. This is a barrier which arises because of

the feeling of superiority of some people on their positions. People sometimes feel that they are so

important to “play God” because of the central position they assume. This feeling makes them

reluctant or careless in passing essential information to concerned parties. It hinders the right amount

and quality of information that the receiver needs at the right time. This is often seen in the different

levels of an organization.

Self-centered Attitudes: we tend to hear or see everything in light to our opinions. We

agree with those ideas that agree with ours while disagreeing with those that do not go with

ours. The good examples for such barriers are the regular religious arguments we get

involved into in our areas.

Filtering and serial distortion: refers to the manipulation of information so that the

receiver perceives the information as positive or negative. It is an attempt to filter out

negative information and pass the positive one or vice versa. Filtering is selecting and

identifying relevant and irrelevant information. Filtering usually depends on the nature of

the communicating parties. In the process of filtering information to get only relevant ones,

people often forget or ignore important messages which should not be ignored.

Organizational culture- the style of leadership in organizations, the type of social

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 relationship and other organizational factors highly affect the movement of information in

the organization. E.g. - An autocratic type of leadership is a strong barrier to communication

since the message often flows in one way and there is little or no free circulation of

information

Group identification: we want to identify with a group. Thus, whatever idea works against

our group may be rejected although we may understand the reason behind it. For example, a

strike may be understood as harmful to the government and country; however, the worker

will go with it so as to be identified with the group.

2.4. Inappropriate Medium or Channel Barriers

The types of media and channels used in a given communication have their advantages and

disadvantages. In a business setting, unless one selects one communication medium and

channel over the other on the basis of such factors as the availability of feedback, the need

for documentation, the cost involved, the chain of command, the number of receivers, and

the backgrounds of receivers, the communication may face a great problem.

Interpersonal Communication and Team work

It is the exchange of messages between/among two or more persons. For example, a

conversation, dialogue, or an interview in which two persons interact (others may also be

present as audience). An author communicates interpersonally with his/her reader, who is

always present as a silent audience in the author's mind while he/she writes. A letter too is an

example of interpersonal communication between the writer and the person to whom it is

written. Interpersonal Communication (IPC): person- to-person communication, verbal and

non-verbal exchange that involves sharing information and feelings between individuals or in a

small group. It is face to face, and all parties involved are senders and receivers at the same time

(two-way communication process) on a particular topic for establishing trusting relationships.

The purpose of interpersonal communication is:

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 - To help clients and service providers develop mutual respect, cooperation and trust

- To increase client satisfaction

- To increase the provider`s job satisfaction

- To inform clients about correct, effective use of medication and for continued

compliance of prescribed medications

- To help clients adopt and continue healthy behaviors

- To improve the quality of health services

Role of Interpersonal Communication in Behavior Change

Interpersonal communication is one of the key communication components influencing behavior

change. This setting is typically the critical juncture where individuals decide what behaviors they

will adopt or will not adopt. The experience of a satisfied client is a powerful influence. How

potential clients are treated during this critical point impacts greatly on the health-seeking

decisions of the clients.

2.4.1 Principles of Interpersonal Communication and Team work

When you are engaged in interpersonal communication, it is of a great importance to consider the

points below:

▪ Seek to classify your ideas before communicating;

▪ Consider the total physical and human setting before your communication;

▪ Follow-up your communication;

▪ Be sure your actions support your goal;

▪ Avoid evoking defensive behavior;

▪ Avoid criticism;

▪ Seek not only to be understood but also to understand.

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 Interpersonal Communication Skills

There are two skills in interpersonal communication skills. These are verbal and

nonv erbal skills as presented in the following way.

a. Verbal skills:

- Active listening

- Questioning skills

- Acknowledge and reflect feeling

- Paraphrasing

- Providing and asking for feedback

- Giving needed information not too much nor too little

- Encouraging client to ask questions

- Repeating key messages

- Dispelling rumors and misinformation

b. Nonverbal skills:

- Open and friendly facial expression

- Smiling and head nodding

- Lean forward towards client

- Eye contact

- Relaxed and friendly manner

- Space between the client and provider

- Friendly tone of voice

That makes the client comfortable (depends of cultural consideration includes dyadic and small-

group communications)

2.5. Dyadic Communication

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Interpersonal communication

Dyadic communication refers to the type of interpersonal communication in which only two

persons exchange ideas. It may be formal or informal and includes situations such as two

persons visiting over a cup of coffee, the job interview, the conference between subordinates

and superior, or the telephone conversation with one's friend. In each of these, the two

persons communicate directly with each other. Each is specifically aware of the other as a

person or individual; each can send messages overtly to the other.

Small-group Communication

Small-group communication refers to the type of interpersonal communication in which

three or more persons communicate. Like dyadic communication, it may be formal or

informal. The difference between small group communication and dyadic communication

lies in the number of participants. The small group communication may be three persons

talking in the backyard, a committee of five persons planning homecoming activities, or a

meeting of any problem-solving group. Due to the number of people, small-group

communication makes use of several senders and receivers. The massages of such

communication are more structured. There are two determinant factors that restrict the

maximum number of people who can take part in small groupcommunication:

The participants of the small-group communication should recognize one another as a

unique body and be aware at least of the existence of all the persons involved in the

communication.

All the participants in the communication should have equivalent chance of taking turns

of presenting their ideas it others. It will then be up to them to use their chance or share it

with others.

The essential element in both dyadic and small group kinds of interpersonal communication

is that of direct and person-to-person interaction.

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