A.

SOME PRINCIPLES OF NORMAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Development is sequential. Children develop skills and abilities in a predictable order, with later
skills building on earlier ones.
Development is influenced by many factors. A child's development is affected by their biological
maturation, their experiences, and the culture they grow up in.
Development occurs at different rates. Children develop at their own pace, and different areas
of development may progress at different rates.
Development is influenced by early experiences. Early experiences can have both immediate
and delayed effects on a child's development.
Development is influenced by social and cultural contexts. The culture a child grows up in can
impact their development, including the values and beliefs of that culture.
Development is influenced by maturation. Maturation is the unfolding of a child's genetically
programmed potential.
Development is influenced by experience. A child's experience includes their interactions with
people, objects, and the environment.
Development is influenced by the direction of growth. The direction of growth is described by
the cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles. The cephalocaudal principle states that
development proceeds from the head down, while the proximodistal principle states that
development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
Children are active learners. Children construct their own understanding of the world around
them through their experiences and culturally transmitted knowledge.
Children develop implicit theories. Children develop implicit theories that help them organize
their knowledge and predict, explain, and reason about the world around them.
B. DEFINITION OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
Learning disability (LD) is a general term that describes specific kinds of learning problems.
A learning disability can cause a person to have trouble learning and using certain skills. The skills
most often affected are reading, writing, listening, speaking, reasoning, and doing math. Learning
disabilities vary from person to person. One person with LD may not have the same kind of
learning problems as another person with LD. One person may have trouble with reading and
writing. Another person with LD may have problems understanding math. Still another person
may have trouble in each of these areas, as well as with understanding what people are saying
(National Dissemination Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities [NICHCY], 2004).
 LD is a group of disorders that affects people’s ability to either interpret what they see
and hear or to link information from different parts of the brain. These limitations can show up
in many ways: as specific difficulties with spoken and written language, coordination, self-control,
or attention. Such difficulties extend to schoolwork and can impede learning to read, write, or do
math.
A learning disability is a neurological disorder that affects the brain’s ability to receive,
process, store, and respond to information. The term learning disability is used to describe the
seemingly unexplained difficulty a person of at least average intelligence has in acquiring basic
academic skills. These skills are essential for success at school and work, and for coping with life
in general. “LD” does not stand for a single disorder. It is a term that refers to a group of disorders.
Interestingly, there is no clear and widely accepted definition of learning disabilities.
Because of the multidisciplinary nature of the field, there is ongoing debate on the issue of
definition, and currently at least twelve definitions appear in the professional literature. There
are several technical definitions offered by various health and education sources. Overall, most
experts agree on the following descriptions:
- Individuals with LD have difficulties with academic achievement and progress.
- Discrepancies exist between a person’s potential for learning and what that person
actually learns.
- Individuals with LD show an uneven pattern of development (language development,
physical development, academic development, and/or perceptual development).
- Learning problems are not due to environmental disadvantage.
- Learning problems are not due to mental retardation or emotional disturbance.
- Learning disabilities can affect one’s ability to read, write, speak, spell, compute math,
and reason. They also can affect a person’s attention, memory, coordination, social skills,
and emotional maturity.
- Individuals with LD have normal intelligence, or are sometimes even intellectually gifted.
- Individuals with LD have differing capabilities, with difficulties in certain academic areas
but not in others.
- Learning disabilities have an effect on either input (the brain’s ability to process incoming
information) or output (the person’s ability to use information in practical skills, such as
reading, math, spelling, etc.).
Research suggests that learning disabilities are caused by differences in how a person’s
brain works and how it processes information. Children with LD are not stupid or lazy. In fact,
they usually have average or above average intelligence, but their brains process information
differently. \ A learning disability affects the way kids of average to above average intelligence
receive, process, or express information. Even if the person learns to compensate and, in effect,
overcomes the disorder, the difference in brain processing lasts throughout life.
Important Point to Note
Knowing that a child has a learning disability tells you only that the child is experiencing
some difficulty processing information. You must learn much more about the child before you
can determine how much difficulty, the type of difficulties, and/or the impact the disability has
on specific academic subjects or tasks.
Myth vs. Reality about Learning Disabilities
Myth 1. People with LD are not very smart.
Reality. Kids with learning disabilities are just as smart as other kids. Intelligence has nothing to
do with LD. In fact, people with LD have average to above average intelligence. Many have
intellectual, artistic, or other abilities that permit them to be defined as gifted. Studies indicate
that as many as 33% of students with LD are gifted.
Myth 2. LD is just an excuse for irresponsible, unmotivated, or lazy people.
Reality. LD is caused by neurological impairments, not character flaws. For some people with LD,
the effort required to get through a day can be exhausting in and of itself. The motivation
required to do what others take for granted is enormous. Learning disabilities are problems in
processing words or information, causing otherwise bright and capable children to have difficulty
learning. The disabilities involve language—reading, writing, speaking, and/or listening.
Myth 3. LD only affects children. Adults grow out of the disorders.
Reality. It is now known that the effects of LD continue throughout the individual’s lifespan and
“may even intensify in adulthood as tasks and environmental demands change” (Michaels, 1994).
Sadly, many adults, especially older adults, have never been formally diagnosed with LD. Learning
disabilities cannot be outgrown, but they can be identified reliably in kindergarten or first-grade
children, or even earlier. Research clearly demonstrates that the earlier a child is given
appropriate help for a learning disability, the more successful the outcome.
Myth 4. The terms dyslexia and learning disability are the same thing.
Reality. Dyslexia is a type of learning disability. It is not another term for learning disability. It is
a specific language-based disorder affecting a person’s ability to read, write, and verbally express
him or herself. Unfortunately, careless use of the term dyslexia has expanded so that it has
become, for some people, an equivalent for LD. Four out of five children identified with a learning
disability are diagnosed with a reading disability (or dyslexia). They have trouble learning how
spoken language translates into written text. Since every subject—including math—requires
reading and writing, a reading disability affects all of a person’s school-based learning.
Myth 5. Learning disabilities are only academic in nature. They do not affect other areas of a
person’s life.
Reality. Some people with learning disabilities have isolated difficulties in reading, writing, or
mathematics. However, most people with learning disabilities have more than one area of
difficulty. Dr. Larry Silver asserts that “learning disabilities are life disabilities.” He writes, “the
same disabilities that interfere with reading, writing, and arithmetic also will interfere with sports
and other activities, family life, and getting along with friends.” (Silver, 1998) Some children have
good verbal (language) skills but weaknesses in visual and spatial perception, motor skills and,
most significantly, social skills—affecting their ability to grasp the main idea, “see the whole
picture,” or understand cause-and-effect relationships.
Many children with LD struggle with organization, attention, and memory. One-third of
them may also have an attention deficit disorder—difficulty in regulating attention effectively,
paying attention as needed, and shifting attention to another task, when required. Children with
LD are creative and resourceful, and can frequently be characterized as gifted and as alternative
thinkers. They are often very smart, and typically have strengths and talents that differ from the
skills emphasized in school. With recognition of their difficulties, appropriate help, and the
development of their interests and talents, children with LD can learn to succeed both in school
and beyond.
Myth 6. Adults with LD cannot succeed in higher education.
Reality. More and more adults with LD are going to college or university and succeeding. With
the proper accommodations and support, adults with learning disabilities can be successful at
higher education.
Myth 7. Children with LD are identified in kindergarten and first grade.
Reality. Learning disabilities often go unrecognized for years; most are not identified until third
grade. Bright children can “mask” their difficulties, and some kinds of learning problems may not
surface until middle school, high school, or even college.
Myth 8. More boys than girls have learning disabilities.
Reality. Although three times more boys than girls are identified by schools as having learning
disabilities, research studies show that, in fact, equal numbers of boys and girls have the most
common form of learning problem—difficulty with reading. Many girls’ learning difficulties are
neither identified nor treated.
IN GENERAL: The term “specific learning disability” means a disorder in 1 or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which
disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or
do mathematical calculations.

DISORDERS INCLUDED. Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED. Such term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the
result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance,
or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
Warning Signs of a Learning Disability
There is no single sign that shows a person has a learning disability. Experts look for a
noticeable difference between how well a child does in school and how well he or she could do,
given his or her intelligence or ability. There are also certain clues that may mean a child has a
learning disability. We’ve listed a few below. Most relate to elementary school tasks, because
learning disabilities tend to be identified in elementary school. A child probably won’t show all of
these signs, or even most of them. However, if a child shows a number of these problems, then
parents and the teacher should consider the possibility that the child has a learning disability.
When a child has a learning disability, he or she may exhibit the following characteristics:
- Have trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, or matching letters to their sounds
- Make many mistakes when reading aloud, and repeat and pause often
- Not understand what he or she reads
- Have real trouble with spelling
- Have very messy handwriting or hold a pencil awkwardly
- Struggle to express ideas in writing
- Learn language late and have a limited vocabulary
- Have trouble remembering the sounds that letters make, or in hearing slight differences
between words
- Have trouble understanding jokes, comic strips, and sarcasm
- Have trouble following directions
- Mispronounce words or use a wrong word that sounds similar
- Have trouble organizing what he or she wants to say or not be able to think of the word
needed for writing or conversation
- Not follow the social rules of conversation, such as taking turns, and may stand too close
to the listener
- Confuse math symbols and misread numbers
- Not be able to retell a story in order (what happened first, second, third)
- Not know where to begin a task or how to go on from there

C. TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

It’s important to be cognizant of how others learn. Awareness of learning differences,
especially learning disabilities, is critical. While this is most true in an educational environment,
there are applications for all settings. Understanding the learning skill sets of others allows you
to communicate and teach more effectively.
1. Dyslexia. Underneath the learning disability umbrella, many disabilities are categorized as one
of three types: dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia.1 Dyslexia is a language processing disorder
that impacts reading, writing, and comprehension. Dyslexics may exhibit difficulty decoding
words or with phonemic awareness, identifying individual sounds within words. Dyslexia often
goes diagnosed for many years and often results in trouble with reading, grammar, reading
comprehension, and other language skills.
2. Dysgraphia. Those with dysgraphia have trouble converting their thoughts into writing or
drawing. Poor handwriting is a hallmark of dysgraphia but is far from the only symptom. Sufferers
struggle to translate their thoughts into writing, whether in spelling, grammar, vocabulary, critical
thinking, or memory.1 Individuals with dysgraphia may exhibit difficulty with letter spacing, poor
motor planning and spatial awareness, and trouble thinking and writing simultaneously.
3. Dyscalculia. Dyscalculia encompasses learning disabilities related to mathematical
calculations. Individuals with dyscalculia struggle with math concepts, numbers, and reasoning.1
Sometimes referred to as having “math dyslexia,” individuals might have difficulty reading clocks
to tell time, counting money, identifying patterns, remembering math facts, and solving mental
math.
4. Auditory processing disorder. In auditory processing disorder (APD), patients have difficulty
processing sounds. Individuals with APD may confuse the order of sounds or be unable to filter
different sounds, like a teacher’s voice versus background noise. In APD, the brain misinterprets
the information received and processed from the ear.
5. Language processing disorder. A subset of auditory processing disorder, language processing
disorder arises when an individual has specific challenges in processing spoken language,
impacting both receptive and expressive language. According to the Learning Disabilities
Association of America, in language processing disorder, “there is difficulty attaching meaning to
sound groups that form words, sentences, and stories.”
6. Nonverbal learning disabilities. While it may sound like nonverbal learning disabilities (NVLD)
relate to an individual’s inability to speak, it actually refers to difficulties in decoding nonverbal
behaviors or social cues. NVLD sufferers struggle with understanding body language, facial
expressions and tone of voice, or the nonverbal aspects of communication.
7. Visual perceptual/visual motor deficit. Individuals with visual perceptual/visual motor deficit
exhibit poor hand-eye coordination, often lose their places when reading, and have difficulty with
pencils, crayons, glue, scissors, and other fine motor activities. They may also confuse similar
looking letters, have trouble navigating their surroundings, or demonstrate unusual eye activity
when reading or completing assignments.
D. UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNERS WITH ADHD
Almost all children have times when their behavior veers out of control. They may speed
about in constant motion, make noise nonstop, refuse to wait their turn, and crash into
everything around them. At other times they may drift as if in a daydream, unable to pay
attention or finish what they start.
However, for some children, these kinds of behaviors are more than an occasional
problem. Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have behavior problems
that are so frequent and severe that they interfere with their ability to live normal lives.
ADHD is a chronic condition of the brain that makes it difficult for children to control their
behavior.
The condition affects behavior in specific ways. For example, children with ADHD often
have trouble getting along with siblings and other children at school, at home, and in other
settings. Those who have trouble paying attention usually have trouble learning. An impulsive
nature may put them in actual physical danger. Because children with ADHD have difficulty
controlling this behavior, they may be labeled "bad kids" or "space cadets."
Effective treatment is available. If your child has ADHD, your pedia-trician can offer a long-
term treatment plan to help your child lead a happy and healthy life. As a parent, you have a very
important role in this treatment.
Left untreated, ADHD in some children will continue to cause -serious, lifelong -problems,
such as poor grades in school, run-ins with the law, failed relationships, and the inability to keep
a job.
ADHD includes 3 groups of behavior symptoms: inattention, hyperactivity, and
impulsivity.

Symptoms of ADHD
Behavior symptom: How a child with this symptom may behave:

Inattention • Often has a hard time paying attention, daydreams

• Often does not seem to listen
• Is easily distracted from work or play
• Often does not seem to care about details, makes careless
mistakes
• Frequently does not follow through on instructions or finish
tasks
• Is disorganized
• Frequently loses a lot of important things
• Often forgets things
 • Frequently avoids doing things that require ongoing mental
effort

Hyperactivity • Is in constant motion, as if "driven by a motor"

• Cannot stay seated
• Frequently squirms and fidgets
• Talks too much
• Often runs, jumps, and climbs when this is not permitted
• Cannot play quietly

Impulsivity • Frequently acts and speaks without thinking

• May run into the street without looking for traffic first
• Frequently has trouble taking turns
• Cannot wait for things
• Often calls out answers before the question is complete
• Frequently interrupts others

Not all children with ADHD have all the symptoms.

Children with ADHD may have one or more of the symptom groups listed in the table
above.
The symptoms are usually classified by the following types of ADHD:
Inattentive only (formerly known as attention-deficit disorder [ADD)—Children with this
form of ADHD are not overly active. Because they do not disrupt the classroom or other activities,
their symptoms may not be noticed. Among girls with ADHD, this form is more common.
Hyperactive/impulsive—Children with this type of ADHD show both hyperactive and
impulsive behavior, but they can pay attention. They are the least common group and are
frequently younger.
Combined inattentive/hyperactive/impulsive—Children with this type of ADHD show a
number of symptoms in all 3 dimensions. It is the type that most people think of when they think
of ADHD.