CHAPTER: ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL
BONDING
Maharishi kanada coined that matter is composed of discrete units
which can’t be further divided and named it paramanu. In modern
period the they are called atoms coined by Democritus in 450 BC from
greek word atomos.
DALTON ATOMIC THEORY (1808)
THE MAIN POSTULATES ARE:
1. Each form of atom is composed of very small and individual particle.
2. An atom can neither be created nor be destroyed.
3. Atoms of the same elements are identical to each other.
4. Atoms of the different elements are different.
5. Atoms can not be further divided.
6. Atoms ay combine in a whole no ratio to form compound atoms
called molecules.
ATOM AND ITS SUBATOMIC PARTICLES.
ELEMENT: It is a pure substance which constitutes of same type of
atoms. It can’t be further divided by ordinary physical or chemical
methods.
ATOM: It is the smallest particle of an element which exhibits its all
properties and may or may not exist independently. It takes part in a
chemical reaction.
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON: (STUDY OF CATHODE RAYS)
William crookes (1879) studied conduction of electric current through
gases at pressure. He made a tube 60 cm long sealed at ends,
fitted to 2 metallic electrodes and stopcock attaché to a vacuum pump.
It is known as discharge tube.
1. Pressure of gas 1atm, no current flows btw electrodes.
2. Pressure of gas 10-2atm, the current starts flowing. A coloured glow is
observed (it depends upon nature of gas)
3. Pressure of gas 10-4atm, the glow btw electrodes disappears.
If a hole is made in the anode & the tube behind the anode is coated
with ZnS, a bright spot is developed on coating. This clearly shows some
invisible rays are emanating from the cathode. These rays were called
cathode rays .
PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS:
1. Cathode rays emerge from cathode and move towards anode.
2. If an object is put in the path of cathode ray it cast its shadow
thus it concludes that cathode rays move in a straight line.
3. Cathode rays are made of material particles.
4. Affected by the electric field (move toward +ve field and deflect
away from -ve).
5. X-rays are produced if are made to fall upon hard metallic targets
like tungsten.
6. They pierce through matter.
7. Can cause ionisation of gas.
ELECTRON BASIC CONSTITUENT OF EVERY ATOM:
Electrons are regardless of what gas is in discharge tube and material of
the electrode. Thus found that electron is a universal fragment found in
all atoms. Therefore, electrons are basic constituent of all atoms.
DISCOVERY OF PROTONS: (ANODE RAYS)
Goldstein, 1886 performed discharge tube experiment with a
perforated cathode. On passing a high electric discharge through the
gas at low pressure some rays were coming from the side of the anode
these rays passed through perforated cathode producing green
fluorescence, they were called canal rays as they pass through holes in
Cathode later they were found to carry a positive charge so were called
cathode rays.
PROPERTIES OF ANODE RAYS
1. Anode rays always travel in a straight line.
2. They consist of very small material particles and hence produce
mechanical effects.
3. They are made of particles which have positive charge.
4 these rays are Deflected by electrical and magnetic field but in
direction opposite to cathode rays.
5. Produce fluorescence effect on zinc sulphide screen.
6 charge to mass ratio varies from gas to gas it is found to be much less
than that of electron and it is maximum when hydrogen gas is taken.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE: ATOMIC MODELS
The structure of the atom is the arrangement of the subatomic particles
of the atom in the atom.
THOMSOM MODEL OF ATOM
1. JJ Thomson in 1904 proposed his model of atom in which he said that
an atom is a sphere of Uniform positive electricity in which electrons
are embedded.
2. As the atom is electrically neutral. Thus, according to Thomson the
distribution of mass and charge is uniform throughout the whole atom.
3. His atomic model is also termed as plum pudding model or
watermelon model.
4. Townsend model of Atom was unable to explain the overall
neutrality in an atom and also failed to show the results of Rutherford X
Ray experiment thus rejected.
DISCOVERY OF NUCLEUS: RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA-RAY
EXPERIMENT
Ernest Rutherford in 1911, taken an evacuated chamber and directed a
beam of alpha particle on an extremely thin gold foil. These alpha
particles were detected by a circular fluorescent ZnS. A green flash of
light is seen where these alpha particles strikes.
Observation
1. Most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil without any
deflection.
2. Some of the alpha particles were deflected at a wider angle.
3. Very few alpha particles what deflected at a large angle and some
were transverse to their original path.
Conclusion
1Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
2. At term contains some heavy positively charged body.
3. Heavy and positively charged body must be very small in volume.
Rutherford atomic model
1. Atom has a large empty space.
2. Majority of the mass of the atom is contained at the nucleus
which is a positively charged mass.
3. The side of nucleus is very small as compared to the whole atom.
4. Electron at a large distance spins around the nucleus in circular
orbit.
5. An atom is whole electrically neutral as number of Protons is
equal to number of Electrons.
6. The force of attraction between Protons and Electrons is counter
balanced by the centrifugal force acquired by revolving electrons.
7. According to him electrons revolve just like plants so by his atomic
model we We see that that electrons radiates energy and ends up
colliding with the nucleus which will and which will lead to the
total collapse of the atom making it highly unstable but we know
that the structure of the atom is stable.
Boris atomic model:
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits.
2. The electron is allowed to move only in a certain discrete orbit.
3. While moving in an orbit the electron has a definite amount of
energy. Thus orbits are also called energy levels or shells.
4. The energy of an electron is constant while revolving in an orbit.
5. Absorb of energy from lower to higher. Emit of energy from
higher to lower.