UNIT-3

Special Machines for EV and HEVs

Contents:

Characteristics of traction drive

Requirement of electric motors for EV/HEVs.

Induction Motor drives - their control and applications in EV/HEVs.

Permanent magnet Synchronous motor: configuration - control and applications in

EV/HEVs.

Brushless DC Motors: Advantages - control of application in EV/HEVs.

Switch reluctance motors: Merits limitations.

Converter configuration- control of SRM for EV/HEVs.

Characteristics of traction drive

An electric motor which is used to provide the primary rotational torque to a machine
such as electric locomotives, elevators, conveyors, trolley buses and other electric vehicles etc. is
described as a traction motor.

The general features of the electric motors used for traction purpose are classified into two
classes as −

Mechanical Features

Electrical Features
Mechanical Features of Traction Motors

The mechanical features of electric motors used for traction applications are listed below

Robustness - A traction motor must be mechanically strong and robust so that it can be
capable of withstanding severe mechanical vibrations.

Small Size - The overall dimensions of the traction motor must be minimum, especially the
traction motor must have small diameter so that it can be arranged easily beneath the motor
coach.

Completely Enclosed - The traction motor should be completely enclosed type so when it is
placed beneath the locomotive, the enclosure protects it against dirt, dust, mud, etc.

Minimum Weight - The traction motor must have minimum weight so the weight of the
locomotive will decrease. Consequently, the load carrying capability of the motor will
increase, also it results in low energy consumption.

High Efficiency - The traction motor should have high mechanical and electrical efficiency,
i.e., it has low losses like Windage losses, frictional losses, copper losses, iron losses, etc.
Electrical Features of Traction Motors

The electrical features of the electric motors used for traction purposes are given as follows

High Starting Torque - An electric motor which is being used as the traction motor must
have high starting torque. It is required to start the motor on load during the starting
conditions in urban and sub-suburban railway services.

Easy Speed Control - The speed control of the traction motor must be simple and easy. This
is required for the frequent starting and stopping of the motor in traction application.

Can Withstand High Temperature - As the traction motor is highly subjected to the
transient conditions due to frequent starting and stopping which results in temperature rise of
the motor. Therefore, the traction motor should have the capability of withstanding high
temperature without failure.

High Overload Capacity - Since, the electric trains may have an overload condition at any
time. Therefore, the traction motor should have the capability of handling excessive overload.
Able to Operate in Parallel - In traction applications, a number of electric motors need to run
in parallel to carry more load. Therefore, the speed-torque characteristics and current-torque
characteristics of traction motors are such that the motors may share the total load almost
equally.

Electric Braking Ability - The traction motor should be able to provide easy and simple
dynamic and regenerative braking so that the energy efficiency can be improved.

Ability to Withstand Voltage Fluctuations - As the starting current of the motor is high.
Therefore, the traction motor must have the capability of withstanding the fluctuations in
supply voltage.

Good Commutation - The traction motor should have the feature of good commutation so
that the sparking at the brushes and commutator segments can be avoided.
Characteristics of Separately –excited dc motor
Torque-speed characteristics of Induction motor
Requirements of electric motors for EV/HEVs

1. Sudden start/stop capacity without damage

2. High torque generating capacity

3. High Acceleration

4. High power density

5. High torque when operating at low speeds with high efficiency

6. High efficiency with respect to regenerating capacity

Induction Motor drives - their control and applications in EV/HEVs

Induction motors are widely used in electric vehicles due to their robustness and reliability.
They operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction, where an alternating current (AC) in the
stator creates a rotating magnetic field. This field induces a current in the rotor, which generates
torque and drives the motor's shaft.
Squirrel cage induction motors are the most common type used in EVs, known for their simplicity and
durability.
These motors are cost-effective and can handle high power levels, making them suitable for various
electric vehicle applications
Construction of Induction Motors

Stator:
The stator is the stationary part of the motor, containing windings connected to the
power supply. These windings are arranged to produce a rotating magnetic field when AC flows
through them .
Rotor:
The rotor is the rotating part of the motor, situated within the stator. It is also composed
of laminated steel and can be of two types: squirrel cage rotor and wound rotor. The squirrel cage
rotor consists of aluminum or copper bars short-circuited by end rings, forming a cage-like
structure. This design is known for its simplicity and durability. The wound rotor, on the other hand,
includes windings similar to those in the stator and is connected to external resistances through slip
rings. It is used in applications requiring high starting torque and precise speed control .
Working of Induction Motors

When a three-phase AC voltage is applied to the stator windings, it generates a rotating

magnetic field in the air gap between the stator and rotor.

This rotating magnetic field induces EMFs in the rotor conductors, causing currents to flow and
generating torque. The rotor rotates in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field, but at a
slightly lower speed known as slip.

The difference between the synchronous speed of the magnetic field and the actual rotor speed
is known as slip and is essential for torque production

Where Ns is the synchronous speed, f is the frequency of the supply voltage

and P is the number of poles of the machine.
The torque produced by the motor is a function of the rotor's current and the slip.
As the load on the motor increases, the slip increases, providing additional torque to manage the
load.
This relationship between torque and speed is depicted in the motor's torque-speed curve as shown
in Fig.1, which is crucial for understanding the motor's performance under different operating
conditions
Operating Modes of Induction Motors

Induction motors can operate in different modes depending on the rotor speed
relative to the synchronous speed. The three primary modes are motoring mode, regenerative
braking, and plugging mode

[Link] Mode
In the motoring mode, the rotor rotates in the same direction as the stator's rotating magnetic
field, though at a slightly lower speed. This speed difference, known as slip, is crucial for
generating torque.
The motoring mode is widely used in various applications due to its simplicity, reliability, and
robustness. Induction motors operating in this mode are known for their durability and minimal
maintenance needs.
Regenerative Braking Mode

Regenerative braking occurs when the rotor's speed exceeds the synchronous speed,
resulting in negative slip.

In this mode, the motor operates as a generator, converting mechanical energy back
into electrical energy, which is fed back into the power source.

Regenerative braking is valuable in applications like electric vehicles, where it

enhances overall energy efficiency by recapturing energy that would otherwise be
lost as heat during braking
Plugging Mode

In the plugging mode, the rotor rotates in the opposite direction to the stator's magnetic
field, resulting in a slip greater than one.

This mode generates a strong braking force, rapidly decelerating the motor.

However, the significant heat generated in this mode requires careful management to avoid
damaging motor components. Plugging is particularly useful for quickly braking the motor
in applications requiring immediate stops for safety or operational reasons.
Speed Control of Induction Motors
Controlling the speed of induction motors is crucial for optimizing their
performance in various applications. The speed of an induction motor can be adjusted by
changing the number of poles, slip, or frequency of the supply voltage .

i. Changing the Number of Poles

The stator winding can be designed to alter the number of poles, changing the motor's speed.
However, this method is becoming less common due to the complexity of the winding
configuration and lower efficiency.
ii. Changing Slip
Slip control involves adjusting the rotor resistance or the voltage applied to the stator. This
method allows for fine-tuning the motor's speed but can lead to increased energy losses.
iii. Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
The most common method for controlling the speed of induction motors is using Variable
Frequency Drives (VFDs). VFDs adjust the frequency of the supply voltage, allowing for precise
speed control. This method is highly efficient and widely used in modern electric vehicles and
industrial applications.
Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
 A variable frequency drive works by changing the frequency and voltage of the power
supply to an AC motor according to its load and speed requirements.

The AC input is fed to a rectifier that converts it to DC. The DC output is filtered by a
capacitor that forms a DC link. The DC link supplies power to an inverter that switches it on and
off at high frequency to produce an AC output with variable frequency and voltage. The AC
output is connected to an AC motor that rotates at a speed proportional to the frequency.
Advantages and Applications of IM in HEVs:

Induction motors offer several advantages for EV applications, including:

Ruggedness and Reliability:

Induction motors are known for their robust construction and ability to withstand harsh operating
conditions, making them highly reliable and durable in EV applications.

High Torque at Low Speed:

Asynchronous motors can provide high torque at low speeds, which is crucial for EVs during startup
and hill climbing. This torque capability is made possible by the rotor and stator design and the use
of power electronics to control the motor’s performance.

Cost-effectiveness:
Induction motors do not require permanent magnets, making them more cost-effective compared to
other motor types, such as permanent magnet motors.

Low Drag When Rolling:

In the case of induction motors, the rotor does not have any permanent magnets, and the
drag from the motor is typically lower compared to permanent magnet motors. This is because
induction motors rely on electromagnetic induction to generate the rotating magnetic field in the
rotor, which induces current and creates magnetic forces that oppose the rotor’s motion.
Limitations

Induction motors also have some limitations in the context of EVs, including:

Lower Efficiency at High Speeds:

Induction motors may have lower efficiency compared to some other motor types, such as permanent
magnet motors, at high speeds, which can affect overall vehicle efficiency.

More Complex Control:

Induction motors require complex control algorithms to achieve optimal performance, including
control of motor speed, torque, and power factor, which can require sophisticated power electronics
and control systems.

Higher Weight and Size:

Induction motors may be larger and heavier compared to some other motor types, impacting vehicle
weight and packaging considerations.
Permanent magnet Synchronous motor(PMSM)

Permanent magnets (PMs) do not consume electrical energy for field excitation, eliminating
excitation losses and significantly boosting efficiency.
Using PMs allows for higher torque and/or power output per unit volume compared to
electromagnetic excitation.
PM motors offer superior dynamic performance, with increased magnetic flux density in
the air gap compared to motors with electromagnetic excitation.
The construction and maintenance of PM-based machines are simpler.
Costs can be reduced for certain types of machines by using PMs.
The materials used for constructing permanent magnets in PMSMs should possess the
following key properties i.e High flux density.
Rare earth magnetic materials are ideal for meeting these criteria
Structural Design of PMSM
Stator
• The stator is connected to the supply
• The stator is made up of Laminated iron core with windings.
• It typically uses a three-phase winding to produce a rotating
magnetic field.
• The stator windings are placed in slots on the inner surface of
the stator.
Rotor
•The rotor is the rotating part of the motor and is placed inside
the stator.
•It contains permanent magnets made from materials like
neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) or samarium-cobalt (SmCo).
•These magnets are either embedded within the rotor or surface-
mounted.
•The design of the rotor ensures it provides a strong and
consistent magnetic field.
•The use of permanent magnets eliminates the need for electrical
energy to create a magnetic field, resulting in higher efficiency
and improved performance
Operating Mechanism of PMSM

In a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM), the rotor is

equipped with permanent magnets that generate a constant
magnetic field

Unlike traditional synchronous generators, where an

electromagnet is used, the permanent magnets in the rotor of a
PMSM eliminate the need for a separate field winding excitation,
making the design more efficient and compact

This constant magnetic field in the rotor interacts with the

magnetic field produced by the stator

The stator contains a 3-phase winding that is supplied with an AC

current. This current generates a rotating magnetic field in the
stator

The key to efficient operation in a PMSM is to keep the angle

between the magnetic fields of the stator and rotor close to 90
degrees, which maximizes the torque output.
As the stator's magnetic field rotates, it pulls the rotor into synchronous speed, meaning the
rotor rotates at the same speed as the stator's magnetic field.
This synchronization is maintained because the frequency of the AC supply to the stator is
adjusted to match the rotor's speed.
The rotor position sensor plays a crucial role in this process by monitoring the rotor's speed and
position, ensuring that synchronization is maintained even when there are changes in load torque
or frequency.
One of the key advantages of PMSM over induction motors is the elimination of slip, as the
rotor’s magnetic field is constant and does not rely on induced currents.
This leads to precise synchronization between the rotor and stator fields, ensuring high
efficiency and consistent operation.
Torque-Speed Profile of PMSM
The torque-speed curve of a PMSM shows that for a constant kE , within the limits of maximum
voltage and current, the torque output remains stable from low frequencies up to a certain
frequency fO.

At both f=fO and f=fmax , the motor generates no torque. The region to the left of this point
indicates the permissible area of operation in the torque-speed curve.

As the speed increases past point 'D', the back EMF (Electromotive Force) rises while the terminal
voltage stays constant, leading to a risk of over current.

Under these conditions, the current primarily becomes reactive, flowing from the motor back to the
power supply. Only a small amount of q-axis current is present, which corresponds to a minimal
torque primarily due to losses within the motor and the converter.

This specific operating mode is feasible only if the motor exceeds the converter's speed, often
because it's being driven by an external load or prime mover.
Advantages &Applications of PMSM in HEVs

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) are increasingly popular in

electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high efficiency and performance characteristics.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles: In hybrid configurations, PMSMs can work alongside internal
combustion engines, providing additional power and improving overall system efficiency.

Compact Electric Vehicles: Due to their smaller size and lighter weight compared to traditional
motors, PMSMs are ideal for compact and lightweight electric vehicles, contributing to better range
and efficiency.

High-Performance EVs: PMSMs are often found in performance-oriented electric vehicles due to
their ability to deliver high torque at low speeds and maintain efficiency at high speeds.

Electric Buses and Trucks: Many commercial electric vehicles, including buses and trucks, utilize
PMSMs for their robustness and ability to handle heavy loads while providing smooth and reliable
performance.

Integrated Motor-Controller Systems: Advances in technology allow PMSMs to be integrated with

their control systems, improving responsiveness and simplifying the overall design.

Motorcycles and Scooters: PMSMs are increasingly being used in electric two-wheelers for their
high efficiency and compact size, making them suitable for urban commuting.
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) Motors

DC motors have traditionally been favored for applications requiring precise speed or position control
due to their simple control mechanisms, making them a popular choice in various control applications.

However, DC motors' design includes brushes and commutators that require regular maintenance,
which has led to a decline in their usage in motor drive applications where continuous operation and
high system reliability are critical.

To address these issues, Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors were introduced, which retain the
beneficial electrical properties of conventional DC motors while significantly enhancing reliability by
replacing mechanical commutation with electronic commutation.
Construction of Brushless Direct Current Motors

BLDC motors are categorized based on the number of stator windings: single-phase, two-phase,
three-phase, and multi-phase types.

Single-phase BLDC motors are commonly used in household appliances and small machinery
due to their simple design, cost-effectiveness, and easy-to-implement driving circuits.

Multi-phase BLDC motors, typically used in aerospace and military applications, offer higher
power density and fault tolerance.
The most commonly used type of BLDC motor is the three-phase motor. These motors are further
classified based on the direction of magnetic flux into radial-flux and axial-flux motors.

Radial-flux motors, which are more widely used, come in two designs: inner rotor and outer rotor.

Inner rotor designs offer greater heat dissipation capacity, a high torque-to-inertia ratio, and lower
rotor inertia, making them ideal for applications requiring rapid dynamic response.

Outer rotor motors, on the other hand, have higher rotor inertia and are better suited for constant
speed operations, such as those found in computer disk drives and cooling fans.
Working Principle of BLDC Motors
The operating principle of a BLDC motor involves sequentially energizing the phase windings based
on the rotor's permanent magnet position to generate continuous torque.

This requires accurate rotor position information, typically provided by Hall effect sensors
strategically placed around the stator.

In a two-pole, three-phase, Y-connected BLDC motor, three Hall effect sensors are positioned 120
electrical degrees apart to detect the magnetic field from the rotor magnets.

These sensors generate output signals that help identify the rotor's position, which is divided into six
distinct sections.

During operation, only two of the three-phase windings are energized at any given time, with the third
winding remaining unexcited.

The rotor position feedback signals determine which two windings should be energized to produce
continuous torque. A three-phase inverter serves as the driving circuit, directing current into the
required two-phase windings.
Torque-Speed Characteristics of BLDC Motor

Low Speed:

At low speeds, BLDC motors can deliver high torque, directly proportional to the current
supplied to the windings. Speed is controlled by adjusting the applied voltage or current.

High Speed:

As motor speed increases, the available torque typically decreases due to the increasing
back-EMF, which opposes the applied voltage and reduces the current, thus limiting the torque.
Advantages of BLDC Motors

Low Inertia Rotor:

With a lighter rotor design, BLDC motors provide rapid speed response, allowing for
quick acceleration and deceleration.

Efficient Heat Dissipation:

The windings are located on the stator side, enabling better heat dissipation. This leads
to a higher attainable peak torque capability, as BLDC motors can handle more current without the
risk of demagnetizing the magnets.

Higher Speed Operation:

The absence of mechanical commutation devices allows BLDC motors to operate at

higher speeds compared to their DC counterparts.
Disadvantages of BLDC motors

Higher Cost:

BLDC motors are more expensive due to the use of rare-earth magnets and complex
electronic controllers.

Complex Control:

They require sophisticated electronic controllers for commutation, adding complexity

and potential reliability issues.

Electronic Noise:

High-speed switching in the controller can generate electromagnetic interference (EMI)

and noise.
Switched Reluctance Motor

A Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) is a type of electric motor that operates based on
the principle of variable reluctance, which involves the rotor aligning itself with the path of least
magnetic resistance. SRMs convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by leveraging the
interaction between the rotor and the magnetic field generated by the stator windings.

The motor's operation is driven by a rotating magnetic field, created through a power
electronics switching circuit that sequentially energizes the stator windings. As the magnetic field
rotates, the rotor continuously adjusts its position to stay aligned with the path of lowest reluctance,
resulting in rotational motion as shown in Fig
Construction of SRM

The Switched Reluctance Motor is characterized by its unique construction, which includes
a stator, a rotor, and phase windings. Unlike other types of motors, the SRM's rotor is simple windings
or permanent magnets, making it robust and easy to manufacture.

The stator is the stationary part of the motor and contains the phase windings. These
windings are arranged in such a way that they create magnetic poles when energized. The number of
poles on the stator is typically greater than that on the rotor, allowing for better control of the magnetic
flux and torque production.

The rotor in an SRM is a laminated iron core with distinct poles. The rotor moves by
aligning its poles with the magnetic field generated by the stator. The absence of windings on the rotor
reduces losses due to resistance, contributing to the motor’s overall efficiency
There are two main constructions in SRMs:

Singly Salient Construction:

A singly salient construction of a SRM consists of a non-salient stator and a salient rotor. In
this design, the rotor does not have any windings, while the stator is equipped with windings.

Doubly Salient Construction:

In a doubly salient construction of a SRM, both the stator and rotor have salient poles. This
means that both components have distinct projections or poles that enhance magnetic interaction. As
shown in fig the SRM consists of 4 salient poles on the stator and 2 salient poles on the rotor.
 For the same frame size, a doubly-salient SRM generates more torque as compared to
singly-salient motor.

The phase windings on the stator are excited in a specific sequence to generate a
rotating magnetic field. The number of phases in the SRM can vary, but three-phase and four-
phase configurations are common.

The magnetic circuit in an SRM is designed to minimize reluctance, which is the

resistance to the flow of magnetic flux. When a stator pole is energized, it attracts the nearest rotor
pole, aligning it with the magnetic field and minimizing the magnetic reluctance. This alignment
process generates torque, causing the rotor to rotate.

The materials used in the construction of SRMs are critical to their performance. The
stator and rotor cores are typically made of soft magnetic materials like silicon steel, which have
high permeability and low hysteresis loss. These materials help in achieving efficient magnetic
flux flow, reducing energy losses and improving overall motor performance.
Working of SRM

The working principle of the Switched Reluctance Motor is based on the phenomenon of
reluctance torque. When the stator windings are energized, they create a magnetic field that interacts
with the rotor. The rotor, which is made of ferromagnetic material, tends to align with the stator’s
magnetic field, thereby minimizing magnetic reluctance. This alignment process generates torque,
which drives the rotor and, consequently, the motor shaft.

As shown in Fig.(a), phase winding A is excited and rotor are oriented are as shown and the
flux linkages are maximized with phase A.

When phase winding A is de-energized and the phase winding B is excited, the rotor moves
counterclockwise (CCW) so as to maximize the flux linkages with phase B, Fig. (b).
 To achieve further counterclockwise (CCW) rotation, phase winding B is de-energized, and
phase winding C is energized. The rotor rotates in the CCW direction following the clockwise
excitation sequence, i.e. ABC.

The phase currents in the stator phases are switched on and off in synchronization with the
rotor's position, ensuring continuous rotor rotation and the development of steady average torque.
Proper synchronization of the switching of phase windings with the rotor position is crucial for
maintaining this continuous rotation.

To achieve this, a Hall-effect type shaft-mounted sensor is essential, as it determines the

rotor position and controls the turning on and off of the appropriate phase windings

The control of an SRM is achieved through precise switching of the stator windings. This
switching is managed by a controller that synchronizes the excitation of the windings with the rotor
position, ensuring that the torque production is smooth and continuous. Advanced control algorithms,
such as pulse width modulation (PWM) and current control techniques, are employed to optimize the
motor's performance across different operating conditions.
 In an SRM, the production of torque is directly related to the magnetic flux in the motor.
The magnitude of the torque is proportional to the square of the current flowing through the stator
windings and the rate of change of inductance with respect to the rotor position.
 As can be seen, the AC supply is first converted into DC via a rectifier, and then the
power converter controls the SRM through its switching actions.

The controller, which is the brain of the entire system, sends control signals (such as
gate signals for the switches in the power converter) to manage the timing, sequence, and
duration of current pulses to the motor, based on feedback from the motor and the desired
operating conditions.

A rotor position sensor is used to detect the position of the rotor relative to the stator,
which is crucial for determining when to switch the stator windings on or off.
Torque-speed characteristics

the reluctance torque generated in the SRM is expressed as

As the rotor moves, the inductance L changes because the magnetic reluctance of the
path varies. The torque is produced due to the change in the magnetic field as the rotor seeks a
position of minimum reluctance.
 The torque-speed characteristic of a Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) shows that it
produces high torque at low speeds due to the high reluctance torque when the rotor aligns with
the stator poles.
As speed increases, the torque typically decreases because the rate of change in
inductance diminishes. At high speeds, torque output may level off or drop further due to current
limitations and increased core losses.
SRMs are known for strong low-speed performance but can face efficiency challenges
at higher speeds.
Advantage of SRM

Natural Cooling: SRMs do not require an external ventilation system due to the projected slots in
the stator and rotor, allowing for natural airflow between the slots, which helps in cooling.

No Rotor Windings: The rotor is devoid of windings, eliminating the need for carbon brushes and
slip ring assemblies, which enhances reliability and reduces maintenance.

Cost-Effective: The absence of permanent magnets reduces the cost of the motor, making SRMs
more affordable compared to other motor types.

Simple Control Requirements: A simple three or two-phase pulse generator is sufficient to drive
the motor, simplifying the control system.

Self-Starting: SRMs are self-starting and do not require additional external arrangements, making
them convenient for various applications.
Disadvantage of SRM

Higher torque ripple and hence higher vibration and acoustic noise.

The design of SRMs must account for magnetic saturation, which can limit the maximum

torque and speed capabilities.

The switching action in SRMs can produce higher levels of electromagnetic interference,

which may require additional measures to mitigate in sensitive applications.

External rotor position sensor is required.