STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER TWO
STRESS AND STRAIN-AXIAL LOADING

Prepared by : Eng. Ahmad Bani Yaseen 1

 2.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO STRESS AND STRAIN
2.1A NORMAL STRAIN UNDER AXIAL LOADING
❑ Normal strain under axial loading is the deformation per
unit length. 
=
L
❑ In case of non uniform cross-sections, the normal stress
will vary along the member. Thus, we consider elements
of small length
❑ After deformation, element x will increase by . Thus

 d
= .....for infinite elements,  =
x dx

2
 2.1B STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM Universal Test Machine (UTM)
❖ Tensile Test.

Strain Gauge

3
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS OF DUCTILE MATERIALS.

❑ Ductile material is a material needs

large strain to reach the break point.
Mild steel, aluminum, brass and other
metals are classified as ductile
materials.

❑ We can divide the stress – strain

diagrams into four regions:

➢ Elastic region.
➢ Yielding region.
➢ Strain hardening region.
➢ Necking region.

𝐏 𝐿 − 𝐿0
𝜎= 𝜀=
𝐴0 𝐿0

4
Elastic region

➢ The relation between the stress and the strain is linear.

➢ If the material is unloaded, the material go back to its initial condition (i.e. zero strain).
➢ This region starts from the origin (0,0) to elastic limit.
➢ There is other value of stress is in our interest: the proportional limit. The proportional limit is
the value of stress where the linear proportional region end.
➢ This dose not mean that the elastic region end at this value, but it will continue until the elastic
limit but not in linear function.
➢ In many cases, its difficult to find the elastic limit so the yield strength (which is the beginning
of the next region) is taken instead.

5
Yielding region

➢ This region starts from the yield stress (σy ).

➢ From this region the material enters the plastic region which means if the load is gone the
material will not return to its original condition and there will be residual strain (i.e. permanent
deformation) in the material.
➢ As its illustrated from stress – strain diagram, in this region no additional stress is needed to
continuo the strain (i.e. constant stress, incensing strain ).
➢ In the previous stress – diagram, this region was enlarged to explain its significant rule in our
analysis

6
 Strain Hardening region

➢ In this region, the material resists strain.

➢ The relation between the stress and the strain is none liner proportional relation.
➢ The material fight the loading until it reach its maximum strength (σu) which is called the ultimate
strength or the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).

Necking region

➢ When the material exceeds its maximum strength, the bonding between the material crystal starts
to break and a necking (reduction in the area) starts to appear in it.
➢ This is the start of the end of the material and the necking continues until there is not enough area
to handle the stress and the fracture occurs.

7
 Fractured specimen

For ductile materials failure occurs by slippage of the For brittle materials failure occurs due to internal
material along oblique surfaces and is due primarily to defects that initiate a crack perpendicular to the
shearing stresses (form a cone shape of angle 45o) normal stress.

8
True stress – strain diagram

➢ Due to the reduction occurred in the material in the period of the tensile test, there is a value of stress is
different from the one we assumed previously (P/Ao).
➢ Assume we have the ability to measure the area through the test ( call it A), then a true value of stress
can be determined (σT = P/A).
➢ If σT is used instead of σ in drawing a stress – strain diagram, this diagram is called true stress – strain
diagram.
➢ In many cases and because as engineers design in the elastic region, we use the first type of stress –
strain diagram which is called engineering stress – strain diagram to define the material properties. You
can observe that both true and engineering stress – strain diagrams share the same elastic region.

9
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS OF BRITTLE MATERIALS.

➢ The ductile material is a material needs

large strain to reach the break point. On the
contrary, brittle material is a material can
not hold a large to reach fracture. Glass is
one of the famous examples on such
materials.

10
❑ There is an important note about some types of ductile
materials which is:- there are some materials that have
a stress-strain diagrams where the yield strength can
not be determined easily. For such cases, the offset
method is used. This method is shown in the figure for
the aluminum alloy.
➢ Observe the strain value chosen for the aluminum alloy
(i.e. ε = 0.002 = 0.2%) also observe the line drawn
from this value parallel to the elastic line

❑ For ductile material

Percent of elongation Percent of reduction of area

11
❖ Compression Test.

12
 REPEATED LOADING (FATIGUE)

❑ Fatigue properties are shown on S-N

diagrams.

❑ Local plastic deformation occurs

before reaching the yielding point.

❑ Endurance limit: is the stress for

which failure will never occur.

13
 HOOK’S LAW (MODULUS OF ELASTICITY)

❑ In the elastic region a linear relationship between stress and strain is existed.

 = E Hook’s law

❑ Elastic versus plastic behaviour of a material

➢ Elastic region:
▪ The deformation is recovered after releasing the load.
▪ Percentage of deformation is small.

➢ Plastic region:
▪ the deformation is permanent.
▪ Percentage of deformation is magnificent.
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 DEFORMATION OF MEMBERS UNDER AXIAL LOADING

❑ For multi − sections

𝐏𝐢 𝐿𝑖
 = E 𝛿=෍
𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖
P  𝑖
= E ❑ For variable cross − section
A L 𝐏(𝑥)
PL 𝑑𝛿 = 𝜀𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐴(𝑥)𝐸
AE 𝐿
𝐏(𝑥)
𝛿=න 𝑑𝑥
𝐴(𝑥)𝐸
0

15
 SIGN CONVENTION

Regardless of the direction, the deformation  is positive if the length increased and
negative otherwise

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 EXAMPLES

Determine the deformation of the steel rod shown

under the given loads (E=200 GPa).

17
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞:
Segments AB and CD of the assembly are
solid circular rods; segment BC is a tube. If
the assembly is made of steel E=200 GPa,
Determine the displacement of end D with
respect to end A.

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
−10 × 103 × 0.4 10 × 103 × 0.4 −20 × 103 × 0.4
𝛿𝐷/𝐴 = 𝜋 +𝜋 +𝜋
2
× (0.02) × 200 × 109 2 2
× (0.04) − (0.03) × 200 × 109 × (0.02)2 × 200 × 109
4 4 4

𝛿𝐷/𝐴 = −0.155 𝑚𝑚

18
 𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞:
𝑑𝐴𝐶 = 20 mm
𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 200 GPa
𝑑𝐵𝐷 = 40 mm
𝐸𝐵𝐷 = 70 GPa
Find 𝛿𝐹

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

σ 𝐅𝐲 = 0 → 𝐅𝐀𝐂 +𝐅𝐁𝐃 − 90 = 0 F.B.D

σ 𝐌𝐴 = 0 → −90 × 200 + 𝐅𝐁𝐃 × 600 = 0 → 𝐅𝐁𝐃 = 30 kN
𝐅AC = 60 kN

𝐅𝐀𝐂 𝐿𝐴𝐶 −60 × 103 × 0.3

𝛿𝐴 = =𝜋 = −286 × 10−6 m
𝐴𝐴𝐶 𝐸𝐴𝐶 × (0.02)2 × 200 × 109
4

𝐅𝐁𝐃 𝐿𝐵𝐷 −30 × 103 × 0.3

𝛿𝐵 = =𝜋 = −102 × 10−6 m
𝐴𝐵𝐷 𝐸𝐵𝐷 × (0.04)2 × 70 × 109 19
4
  400 mm 
 F = 0.102 mm + 0.184 mm   = 0.225 mm
 600 mm 

20
Example :
AAB = 400 mm 2
E AB = 70 GPa
d BC = 10 mm
EBC = 200 GPa
Find  C

Solution :
FLBC 80 103  0.6
C / B = = = 3.056 mm →
ABC EBC   (0.01) 2  200 109
4
FLAB −80 103  0.4
B = = −6
= 1.143 mm →
AAB E AB 400 10  70 10 9

 C =  B +  C / B = 4.2 mm → 21
Example : 20 kN/m
E = 200 GPa
A = 100 mm 2
find  A

Solution :
P (x ) = 20 103 x − 10 103
0.9

 ( 20 10 x − 10 10 )dx

1
A = 3 3

AE 0

1  20 103 
=  2  (0.9) − 10 10  (0.9) 
2 3

100 10−6  200 109  

= −45  m
22
 2.2 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
❑ Number of unknowns are more than
number of equilibrium equations.
❑ We use the compatibility conditions
to solve the problem.
FA + FB − P = 0 (1)

Compatibility condition
 A/ B = 0
FA LAC FB LCB
− =0 (2)
AE AE
From Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, we get

 LBC   LAC 
FA =  P and FB =  P
 L   L  23
 A= 500 mm2 A= 400 mm2
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: A= 300 mm2
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 200 GPa 700 kN 1500 kN
𝐸𝐴𝐿 = 70 GPa 300 kN
𝐸𝐶𝑢 = 110 GPa steel AL
Cu

Find the reaction forces at supports

1m 1m 1.5 m 0.8 m

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Example :
Find P1 and P2
Solution :
P1 + P2 − P = 0 (1)
1 =  2
P1 P2
= (2)
A1 E1 A2 E2
then we get
A1 E1
P1 = P
A1 E1 + A2 E2
A2 E2
P2 = P
A1 E1 + A2 E2

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 SUPERPOSITION METHOD
❑ The reaction force to be removed is called redundant
❑ The redundant force is removed and the deformation is calculated
❑ The deformation of the redundant is considered in separate.

displacement at B after displacement at B

no displacement at B = the redundant removal + when applying only the 26
redundant
 𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: 𝐸 = 200GPa

Find 𝐑 𝐀 and 𝐑 𝐁

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
4
𝐏𝑖 𝐿𝑖 900 × 103 600 × 103 600 × 103 0.15
𝛿𝐿 = ෍ = + + +0 ×
𝐴𝑖 𝐸 250 × 10−6 250 × 10−6 400 × 10−6 𝐸
𝑖=1

1.125 × 109
𝛿𝐿 = = 5.63 mm
𝐸
2
Pi Li  −R B −R B  0.3
R =  = −6
+ −6 

i =1 A i E  250 10 400 10  E
−1.95 103 R B
R =
E
L + R = 0
R B = 577 kN
R A = 900 kN − 577 kN = 323 kN
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Example :
E = 200 GPa
Find R B

Solution :
 =  L +  R = 4.5 10−3
1.125 109
L = = 5.63 mm
E
−1.95 103 R B
R =
E
R B = 115.4 kN
R A = 900 kN − R B = 785 kN
Note: if  L  4.5 10−3 then
R A = 900 kN
RB = 0
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𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞:
Find 𝐑 𝐀 , 𝐑 𝐂 and 𝐑 𝐄 given
𝐴𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐸𝐹 = 50 mm2
𝐴𝐶𝐷 = 30 mm2
all bars made of steel

Solution :
F = 0
y → FA + FC + FE − 15 kN = 0 (1)
M = 0 C → −0.4FA + 0.2 15 103 + 0.4FE = 0 (2)

2 equilibrium equations and 3 unknowns

(statically indeterminate problem).
Solve using the compatibility conditions.

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 A −E C −  E
= re-order, we get
0.8 0.4
1 1
C =  A +  E
2 2
FC L FA L FE L
= + (3)
ACD E 2 AAB E 2 AEF E
from Eqs. 1-3, we get
FA = 9.52 kN
FC = 3.46 kN
FE = 2.02 kN

30
Example :
d st = 20 mm
Est = 200 GPa
Ec = 25 GPa
Find  st and  c

Solution :
Fst + Fc = 900 kN (1)
 st = c (2)
Fst Fc
=
 0.25  0.375  25  10 9
6  (0.02)  200 10
2 9

4
then, we get Fst
 st = = 66.15 MPa
Fst = 124.7 kN 
6  (0.02) 2
4
Fc = 775.3 kN
Fc
c = = 8.27 MPa
0.25  0.375 31
Problem: (ACDF is rigid).
Given E = 100 GPa, find:
1- the forces acting on members BC and DE,
2- the deflection at point A

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2.3 PROBLEMS INVOLVING TEMPERATURE CHANGES

Thermal expansion
coefficient

 T =  ( T ) L

Thermal deformation

 T =  ( T )

Thermal strain

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THERMAL FORCES

T +  L = 0
PL
 ( T ) L − =0
AE
P =  ( T ) AE

34
 Example :
E = 70 GPa
T1 = 20 0 C
T2 = 80 0 C
 = 2110−6 / 0 C
Find the stress in section AC and CB

Solution :
T +  L = 0
 PL1 PL 2 
 ( T ) L −  + =0
 A1E A 2 E 
P = 27.14 kN
P
T1 = = 108.6 MPa (thermal stresses)
A1
P
T2 = = 67.9 MPa (thermal stresses)
35
A2
Example : A= 1.25×10-3 m2
A= 7.07×10-4 m2

E= 105 GPa 60 kN 40 kN
T1= 20 oC
T2= 50 oC
α= 18.8×10-6 /oC
Find the reaction forces at supports. 0.18 m 0.12 m 0.1 m 0.1 m
0.12×10-3 m

36
2.4 POISSON’S RATIO

lateral strain
v=−
axial strain
y 
v=− =− z
x x
x v x
 x = . Thus,  y =  z = −
E E 37
Example:
Find v and E

Solution :
P 12 103
x = = = 59.7 MPa
A 
(0.016) 2
4
 x 300 10−6
x = = = 600 10−6
L 0.5
y 2.4 10−6
y = =− = − 150  10 −6

L 16 10−3
Now
x
E = = 99.5 GPa
x
y
v =− = 0.25
x 38
2.5 MULTI-AXIAL LOADING
(GENERALIZED HOOK’S LAW)

x y z
x = + −v −v
E E E
x y z
 y = −v + −v
E E E
x y z
 z = −v −v +
E E E

39
Example:

40
1.4 * STRESS UNDER GENERAL LOADING CONDITIONS;
COMPONENTS OF STRESS

F x
 x = lim
A→0 A

Vyx
 xy = lim
A→0 A

Vzx
 xz = lim
A→0 A

41
42
M z = 0; ( xy A)a −( yx A)a = 0
 xy =  yx
also
 xz =  zx  yz =  zy
43
2.7 SHEARING STRAIN

44
  xy +

 xy = G xy Shear strain (rad)

Shear stress Modulus of rigidity 45

Also
 yz = G yz
 xz = G xz
recall from chapter 1 that
 xy =  yx
 xz =  zx
 yz =  zy

46
Example:
G = 600 MPa
The upper plate is rigid and moved 0.8 mm
Determine:
1- The average shearing strain
2- The force P

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
𝛾𝑥𝑦 ≃ tan 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (small angles)
0.8
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = = 0.02
40
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 12 MPa
𝐏 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 × 𝐴 = 12 × 106 × 0.16 × 0.05 = 96 kN

47
2.8 DEFORMATIONS UNDER AXIAL LOADING -RELATION
BETWEEN v, E AND G

modulus of elasticity
E
G=
modulus of rigidity 2(1 + v)

poisson’s ratio

48
2.10 STRESS AND STRAIN DISTRIBUTION UNDER
AXIAL LOADING (SAINT-VENANT’S PRINCIPLE)

Axial load applied

by rigid plate

Concentrated axial
load applied directly

49
▪ Saint-Venant’s Principle: The stress distribution is uniform far from the vicinity of the
applied loads.
▪ Far means away by at least a magnitude equal to the largest dimension of the cross-
section.
50
 2.11 STRESS CONCENTRATION

❑ Stress concentration is independent of the size of the piece.

❑ It depends upon the relation between the geometric parameters.
❑ Designers are only interested in maximum value of stress.
❑ Fillet is used to reduce the stress concentration.
❑ For brittle materials: crack will be initiated at the place of the
stress concentration and will propagate until failure.
❑ For ductile materials: stress concentration will cause local
plastic deformation.
51
  max
K=
 ave 52
  max
K=
 ave 53
Example : Given
 y = 300 MPa
Find F.S

Solution :
P 10 103
 ave = = = 100 MPa
A 0.01 0.01
to find K
r 1
= = 0.1
d 10
D 15
= = 1.5
d 10
from the previous figure,
K = 2.2
thus,  max = K   ave = 220 MPa
y
F .S = = 1.36
 max 54