Chapter 1: The particulate nature of matter
Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
Elements are substances made from one kind of atom. Compounds are made from two or more elements
chemically combined. Elements take part in chemical reactions in which new substances are made in processes that
most often involve an energy change. In these reactions, atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them
full outer shells of electrons, producing compounds. The properties of compounds can be quite different from the
elements that form them. Compounds are made from two or more elements chemically combined.
This means the components of a mixture retain the same characteristic
properties as when they are in their pure form. Substances will burn in air
because the oxygen present in the air supports combustion.
Homogeneous or heterogeneous
A homogeneous mixture has uniform composition and properties throughout.
A heterogeneous mixture has non-uniform composition, so its properties are
not the same throughout.
Separating Mixtures
The components retain their individual properties in a mixture and we can often separate them relatively easily.
The technique we choose to achieve this will take advantage of a suitable difference in the physical properties of
the components.
The choice of the method of separation depends on the nature of the substances being separated.
All methods rely on there being a difference of some sort, usually in a physical property such as boiling point
between the substances being separated.
Separating a mixture of solids
Differences in solubility can be used to separate solids
For a difference in solubility, a suitable solvent must be chosen
to ensure the desired substance only dissolves in it and not
other substances or impurities, e.g. to separate a mixture of
sand and salt, water is a suitable solvent to dissolve the salt,
but not the sand.
Solvation & Filtration
Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the
solid and a liquid / solution. Centrifugation can also be used for
this mixture.
Crystallisation
Used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the
solid is more soluble in hot solvent than in cold.
Recrystallisation
Recrystallisation is used to purify impure solids.
The principle is that a hot solvent is used to dissolve both the
organic solid and the impurities and then as the solution cools
the solid crystallises out and leaves behind the impurities in the
solution.
Simple Distillation
Used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution or a
pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
Fractional distillation
Used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one
another. The solution is heated to the temperature of the
substance with the lowest boiling point.
Paper Chromatography
This technique is used to separate substances that have
different solubilities in a given solvent.
The Kinetic Molecular Theory
What are the Three States of Matter?
State Solid Liquid Gas
Density High Medium Low
Arrangement Regular pattern Randomly arranged Randomly arranged
Vibrate around a fixed Move quickly in all
Movement Move around each other
position directions
Energy Low Greater Highest
2D Diagram
Changes of state are physical changes that are reversible, these changes do not change the chemical properties
or chemical makeup of the substances involved.
Temperature & Average Kinetic Energy
Between 1 & 2, the particles are vibrating and gaining
kinetic energy and the temperature rises.
Between 2 & 3, all the energy goes into breaking bonds –
there is no increase in kinetic energy or temperature.
Between 3 & 4, the particles are moving around and
gaining in kinetic energy.
Between 4 & 5, the substance is boiling, so bonds are
breaking and there is no increase in kinetic energy or
temperature.
From 5 & 6, the particles are moving around rapidly and
increasing in kinetic energy.
Converting between Celsius and Kelvin
Temperature in K = Temperature in °C + 273
Temperature in °C = Temperature in K - 273