NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHOD

ULTRASONIC TESTING
 Basic Principles of Sound
• Sound is produced by a vibrating body
and travels in the form of a wave.
• We need two conditions to be satisfied:
[Link]
[Link]
ball on a spring pendulum
 Basic Principles of Sound

W
Oscillation
The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed and the
oscillation will decreases and decelerate until it has used all its
kinetic energy.
 Basic Principles of Sound
Understanding wave propagation

Ball = atom Spring = elastic bonding force

 Basic Principles of Sound
•Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the particles
that make up the material.

distance travelled
 Basic Principles of Sound
Atomic structures
gas liquid solid

• low density • medium density • high density

• weak bonding • medium bonding • strong bonding
forces forces forces
 Basic Principles of Sound
Movement of the ball over time
displacement

Time

► Cycle: The complete sequence of movements.

► Period: The time required for moving one complete
cycle.
► Wave length: The distance a wave travels during one
complete cycle. ( )
► Frequency: The number of cycles in a given period of
time . ( f )
 Basic Principles of Sound

Typical velocities of propagation in different materials

 Basic Principles of Sound
Spectrum of sound
Frequency range Hz Description Example

0 - 20 Infrasound /subsound Earth quake

20 - 20.000 Audible sound Speech, music

<20.000 Ultrasound Bat, Quartz crystal

 Basic Principles of Sound
Why we use Ultrasound waves?
displacement
• Minimum discontinuity can be
detected should be loated at /2

discontinuity

• for steel V=5920 m/s

• using Audible sound waves at f =20.000 cps /2= 150 mm

• using Ultrasound waves at f =5000.000 cps /2 = 0.5 mm

 Sound propagation
1. Longitudinal wave (Compressional wave)

Direction of Direction of propagation

oscillation

Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.

 Sound propagation
2. Shear wave (Transverse wave)

Direction of oscillation
Direction of propagation

•Transverse waves only propagate in solid

bodies.
 Sound propagation
3. Surface wave (Rayleigh wave)
- The wave travels with an elliptic
particle motion.

- Penetrate only )1 ( so, its used to

detect surface cracks.

- Can follow the surface contour as long

as the contour does not sharply change.

- Surface waves only propagate in solid

bodies.
 Sound propagation
4. lamb wave (Plate wave)
We Can not propagate neither shear nor Surface waves in parts thinner
than (3/2(
 Properties Of Sound Wave
We use sound waves in flaw detection because they will
reflect when they encounter a sudden change in acoustic
impedance in material.
Acoustic Impedance
Behaviour at an interface

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material characteristics ,

e.g. the surface of a workpiece wave propagation will change too:

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Interface
 Reflection and mode conversion
► Reflection
occurs due to sudden change in
Acoustic Impedance.
Reflection and mode conversion cont.

S S
L
L

β
α

α α
β β
 Couplant
► We use substance to provide suitable sound path between the
transducer and the test surface.
There are some items should be found in the couplant:
1. It must exclude all air between the transducer and test surface.
2. Fills in and smoothes out irregularities on the surface of the test part.
3. Aids in the movement of the transducer over the surface in contact
testing.
4. Must be easy to apply and easy to remove and not to be harmless to
the tested part.
Types of couplant used:
1. Oil.
2. Water mixed with glycerin with ratio 2:1
3. Heavy oil or grease for rough or vertical surfaces.
4. Thin rubber.
 Refraction and SNELL’s law:
► Occurs
due to the difference in sound velocity
between two mediums

Perspex - Water Perspex - Steel

 Refraction and SNELL’s law :
We can summarise refraction and reflection S
and mode conversion as following: L

θr S

θi θr L
Medium 1 - Perspex Interface
Medium 2 - Steel θ RL

θ RS
SNELL’s law:
L

S
Refraction and SNELL’s law :
► If we increase θi, θRL will increase until it reach 90° and still have a
shear wave in medium 2.
► θi at this time called First Critical Angle and equal 28° for Perspex to
Steel and equal to 15° for Water to Steel.

θi

Medium 1 - Perspex Interface

Medium 2 - Steel θ RL L

θ RS

S
Refraction and SNELL’s law :
If we still increase θi, Longitudinal wave will Reflected and θRS increases until
reach 90° then we produces surface wave.
θi at this time called Second Critical Angle and equal 58° for Perspex to Steel .

θi θr
Medium 1 - Perspex L Interface
Medium 2 - Steel θ RS S
The Generation Of Ultrasonic waves
 Transducer And Piezo Electric Effect
Piezoelectric Effect
► The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the
conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy.

Piezoelectrical
+
Crystal (Quartz)
Battery
Piezoelectric Effect
An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)
Reception of ultrasonic waves
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces
crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages
at the crystal surfaces.

Electrical Piezoelectrical
crystal Ultrasonic wave
energy
Types Of Crystal materials:

Crystal Quartz Lithium Polarized Ceramics

items (SiO2) Sulphate
(Li2 SO4)
Types [Link] Metaniobate
[Link] Titanate
[Link] Zirconate/Titanate
-12 -12 -12
Generator 2.3 Х10 m/v 15 Х10 m/v 125 Х10 m/v

Receiver 4.9 Х109 v/m 8.2 Х109 v/m 1.5 Х109 v/m

Curie 576° C 130° C 120° C

Advantages Very stable Long life time The best generator

frequency c/c
Disadvantages Poor generator Soluble in water Have a tendency to wear
Crystal Cutting:
Crystal cutting methods which have responsibility of generate either
Longitudinal or Shear waves.
1. Cutting Perpendicular to X-axis Produce longitudinal waves.
2. Cutting Perpendicular to Y-axis Produce shear waves.
 Crystal size is a contributing factor in its
Performance

Input data Results

With decreasing diameter. D Spread of sound beam Θ

With D and f Can detect small defects λ
With D
Penetration
and f
Probe Design:
1. case: consist of metal housing
That contains all the following parts.
2. Backing Material:
Provide damping of the transducer
Oscillations (made of epoxy, rubber
or Plastics).
[Link]: Are primarily silver
or gold deposited on the piezo-
Electric element.
[Link] (piezo Electric element)
5. Wear face: Thin layer made of
Lucite, Ceramic or Quartz wear plate..
Types of Probe according to the refracted
wave introduced
1. Normal Probe
In normal beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at 90 degree to
the surface.
 2. Angle Probe
►Angle beam transducers
incorporate wedges to
introduce a refracted shear
wave into a material.
►The incident wedge angle is
used with the material velocity
to determine the desired
refracted shear wave according
to Snell’s Law)
►Transducers can use fixed or
variable wedge angles.
►Common application is in weld
examination.
 Types of Probe according to crystal which
housing
► Single Element:
1. Sender only
2. Receiver only
3. Sender and Receiver

Single crystal probe

► Double Element:
Two single mounted side by side or stacked
(one sender and the other receiver)
 The Capability Of Transducer:
1. Sensitivity: The ability to detect small discontinuities.

2. Resolution: The ability to separate the sound reflections from two

discontinuities close together in depth or time.

3. Efficiency: Energy conversion effectiveness.

 Propagation of Ultrasound
Attenuation
► The decay rate of the wave as it propagates through material.

► This further weakening results from :

1. Absorption-of energy due to moving the vibrating molecules.
2. Scatter-of sound waves reflecting from the grain boundaries.
3. Interference effects- close to the transducer
4. Beam spread
 Propagation of Ultrasound
Beam spread
•Since the ultrasound originates
from a number of points along the
transducer face, the ultrasound
intensity along the beam is
affected by constructive and
destructive wave interference .

•This wave interference leads

to extensive fluctuations in
the sound intensity near the
source and is known as the
near field. Because of acoustic
variations within a near field,
it can be extremely difficult to
accurately evaluate flaws in
materials when they are
positioned within this area.
 Propagation of Ultrasound
Beam spread
Secondary lobes
Crystal Angle of divergence
Focus Accoustical axis
θ
D

N
Near Zone
Far Zone (Fraunhofer)
(Fresnel)
 Ultrasonic Basic Testing Methods
A) Contact Testing Method
•Using Transducers With Frequency between (1 to 5 MHZ)
► To get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air between the
transducer and the test article must be removed. This is referred to as
coupling.
► In contact testing a couplant such as oil, grease or a gel is applied
between the transducer and the part.
The Basic Test Techniques

1. Pulse – Echo Technique

• A transducer sends out a pulse of energy and the same or a second
transducer listens for reflected energy (an echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the surfaces
of the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, which
provides the inspector information about the size and the location of
features that reflect the sound.

Straight beam probe

1. Pulse-Echo Testing (cont.)

•Digital display showing

signal generated from
sound reflecting off back
surface.

•Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector
midway through material, with
lower amplitude back surface
reflector.

•The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only

one side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.
2. Duel Crystal Technique
•There are two crystals One act as a Transmitter
and the other as a receiver.
•There are may be side by side or may be stacked.
3. Pitch-Catch Technique
► Its acts as duel crystal technique but with separate two
transducers.

Transmitter Transducer Receiver Transducer

4. Through-Transmission
• Two transducers located on opposing sides of
the test specimen are used. One transducer 11
acts as a transmitter, the other as a receiver.
T R

• Discontinuities in the sound path will result in a

partial or total loss of sound being transmitted T R
and be indicated by a decrease in the received
signal amplitude. 2

• Through transmission is useful in detecting 11

discontinuities that are not good reflectors, and
when signal strength is weak. It does not
provide depth information.
2

0 2 4 6 8 10
4. Through-Transmission (cont.)

Digital display showing

received sound through
material thickness.

Digital display showing

loss of received signal
due to presence of a
discontinuity in the
sound field.
5. Tandem Technique
Acts as Through Transmission but with angle transducers

Transmitter Transducer Receiver Transducer

B) Immersion Testing Method
► Using Transducers With Frequency between (10 to 25 MHZ)
► In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a
water bath. This arrangement allows better movement of the
transducer while maintaining consistent coupling.
► With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the part
is seen in the signal.

Immersion testing
B) Immersion Testing Method cont.
 Immersion test with propagate Immersion test with propagate
Longitudinal wave shear wave

1 2

Defect

IP 1 IP 2
FWE FWE

BWE BWE
DE

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Immersion Transducers
►Immersion transducers are
designed to transmit sound
whereby the transducer and
test specimen are immersed in
a liquid coupling medium
(usually water).
►Immersion transducers doesn’t
need protective layer.
►Immersion transducers
are manufactured with
planar, cylindrical or spherical
acoustic lenses (focusing lens).
Advantages Of Focussing Lens
1. Increasing The intensity.
2. Greater width of length (for spherical lens) greater
sensitivity.
3. Used with rough surfaces.
Display Ultrasonic Indications
Types of Scanning

►Information from ultrasonic testing can be presented

in a number of differing formats.
►Three of the more common formats include:

 A-scan
 B-scan
 C-scan
 Types of Scanning
A-scan
► A-scan presentation

Signal Amplitude
displays the amount of
received ultrasonic energy
as a function of time.

► Relative discontinuity size

can be estimated by Time

comparing the signal

amplitude to that from a

Signal Amplitude
known reflector.

► Reflector depth can be

determined by the position
of the signal on the
horizontal sweep. Time
 Types of Scanning
B-scan
►B-scan presentations display a
profile view (cross-sectional) of a
test specimen.

►Only the reflector depth in the

cross-section and the linear
dimensions can be determined.

►A limitation to this display technique

is that reflectors may be masked by
larger reflectors near the surface.
 Types of Scanning
C-scan
►The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of
the test specimen and discontinuities.
►C-scan presentations are produced with an automated
data acquisition system, such as in immersion
scanning.
►Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary
when depth determination is desired.

Photo of a Composite C-Scan Image of

Component Internal Features
 Calibration Methods

•The user must "calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings,
the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision
and accuracy are achieved.

•standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo
type setup, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and the
distance between the flaw and the transducer.

•By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the
actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.

•The type of standard used is dependent on the application and the form and shape
of the object being evaluated.
The IIW Type Calibration Block

► IIW "type" blocks can be commercially

obtained in a selection of materials.
► IIW "type" blocks usually have English units.
► IIW "type" blocks include additional
calibration and references features such as
notches, circular groves, and scales .
► There are two full-sized and a mini versions
of the IIW type blocks.
IIW Type US-1 (V1-Block)

IIW Type US-2 (V1-Block)

The IIW type US-2 block was developed for US Air Force applications.
 IIW Type Mini
Used for setting metal-distance and sensitivity
settings, determining the sound exit point and
refracted angle of angle beam transducers, and
evaluating depth resolution of normal beam
inspection setups.

The Miniature Angle-Beam or ROMPAS Calibration Block (V2-Block)

•block is much smaller and lighter than the IIW
block but performs many of the same functions.

•The miniature angle-beam block can be used to

check the beam angle and exit point of the
transducer. The block can also be used to make
metal-distance and sensitivity calibrations for both
angle and normal-beam inspection setups.
AWS Shear wave Distance/Sensitivity Calibration (DSC) Block
This block is used to determine the beam exit point and
refracted angle of angle-beam transducers and to calibrate
distance and set the sensitivity for both normal and angle
beam inspection setups.

AWS Shear wave Distance Calibration (DC) Block

The DC AWS Block is a metal path distance and beam

exit point calibration standard that conforms to the
requirements of the American Welding Society (AWS)
and the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
AWS Resolution Calibration (RC) Block

The RC Block is used to determine the resolution

of angle beam transducers per the requirements
of AWS and AASHTO. Engraved Index markers are
provided for 45, 60, and 70 degree refracted angle
beams.

30 FBH Resolution Reference Block

The 30 FBH resolution reference block is used to

evaluate the near-surface resolution and flaw
size/depth sensitivity of a normal-beam setup. The
block contains number 3 (3/64"), 5 (5/64"), and 8
(8/64") ASTM flat bottom holes at ten metal-
distances ranging from 0.050 inch (1.27 mm) to
1.250 inch (31.75 mm).
Miniature Resolution Block
The miniature resolution block is used to
evaluate the near-surface resolution and
sensitivity of a normal-beam setup It can be
used to calibrate high-resolution thickness
gages over the range of 0.015 inches (0.381
mm) to 0.125 inches (3.175 mm).

Step and Tapered Calibration Wedges

Step wedges are typically manufactured with

four or five steps but custom wedge can be
obtained with any number of steps.
 Distance/Sensitivity (DS) Block
The DS test block is a calibration standard used to
check the horizontal linearity and the dB accuracy
per requirements of AWS and )AASHTO (American
Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.

Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks
Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are
purchased as a ten-block set.
Sets can be purchased in Aluminum or titanium.
Each block contains a single flat-bottomed, plugged hole.
The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows:

•3/64" at 3"
•5/64" at 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 11/2", 3", and 6"
•8/64" at 3" and 6"
 Normal Beam Inspection
)Compression wave Technique)
Calibration To ensure proper positioning of zero and time base linearity

A) Distance Calibration
 Normal Beam Inspection Cont.
B) Resolution
Normal Beam Inspection cont.
Normal Beam Inspection Cont.
 Normal Beam Inspection Applications

Plate testing

IP

BE

lamination 0 2 4 6 8 10
Plate

IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo
 Normal Beam Inspection Applications

Flaw Detection - Delaminations

Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations on 36” rolled
beam.

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member.
 Normal Beam Inspection Applications

Wall thickness measurement

s
s

Corrosion 0 2 4 6 8 10
 Normal Beam Inspection Applications
Thickness Gauging
Ultrasonic thickness gauging is • Applications include
routinely utilized in the piping systems, storage
petrochemical and utility and containment
industries to determine various facilities, and pressure
degrees of corrosion/erosion. vessels.
 Angle Beam Inspection

(A) IIW Determination of the beam exit point.

(B) IIW Determination of refracted angle of angle-beam.

 Angle Beam Inspection

(C) Distance Calibration Using (V2-Block)

Angle Beam Inspection

Angle Beams I
Angle Beam Inspection Cont.
Angle Beam Inspection Cont.

Angle Beams II
Angle Beam Inspection Cont.
 Angle Beam Inspection Applications

Flaw Detection in Welds

►One of the most widely
used methods of
inspecting weldments is
ultrasonic inspection.
►Full penetration groove
welds lend themselves
readily to angle beam
shear wave examination.
 Movements of Transducer to scan
Longitudinal or Transverse discontinuities

• For Transverse discontinuities

•For Longitudinal discontinuities

Rotational movement Transverse movement

Lateral movement
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
AWS D1.1 Code

► D=A-B-C
► D: Discontinuity Severity
► A: Indication Level
► B: Reference Level
► C: Attenuation Factor
C=(S-1)Х2
Where S in inch
 Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

► Using V1-Block to get the

reference level.
► From the reference hole
indication and Rising The
Amplitude To 80% Of CRT.
► Get (B) in dB.
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

During scanning any indication appears

should be evaluated by rising the max
amplitude to 80% of the CRT.
From this indication we get (A) in dB
and (C) in inch.
where, C=(S-1)Х2
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
AWS D1.1 Code Cont.
Using all previous data we get (D) Which is the discontinuity severity.
From AWS D1.1 acceptance criteria.
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
AWS D1.1 Code Cont.
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
AWS D1.1 Code Cont.
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

Note the relation D=A-B-C

 Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
ASME Code
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have different amplitudes at
different distances from the transducer. Distance amplitude correction (DAC)
provides a means of establishing a graphic reference level sensitivity as a function of
sweep distance on the A-scan display.
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
ASME Code Cont.
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
ASME Code Cont.
Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
ASME Code Cont.
 Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
ASME Code Cont.
From ASME Code acceptance criteria

Where indications are interpreted to be

cracks, lack of fusion, or incomplete
penetration, they are unacceptable
regardless of discontinuity or signal
amplitude.

All indications which produce a

response Smaller than 20% of the
reference level , they are acceptable
regardless of the length of discontinuity
 Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
ASME Code Cont.
From ASME Code acceptance criteria

All indications which produce a response

greater than 80% of the reference level ,
they are acceptable
regardless of the length of discontinuity
 Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To
ASME Code Cont.
From ASME Code acceptance criteria

Defect Weld Acceptance

Length Thickness

6 mm Up to Reject
19 mm

t/3 From 19 mm Reject

To 57 mm

19 mm For t over Reject

57 mm
 Instrumentation

► Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased to satisfy

specific inspection needs, some users may purchase
general purpose equipment to fulfill a number of
inspection applications.
► Test equipment can be classified in a number of
different ways, this may include portable or
stationary, contact or immersion, manual or
automated.
► Further classification of instruments commonly
divides them into four general categories: D-meters,
Flaw detectors, Industrial and special application.
 Instrumentation (cont.)
►D-meters or digital thickness
gauge instruments provide
the user with a digital
(numeric) readout.
►They are designed primarily
for corrosion/erosion
inspection applications.

• Some instruments provide the user with both a digital readout and a
display of the signal. A distinct advantage of these units is that they
allow the user to evaluate the signal to ensure that the digital
measurements are of the desired features.
 Instrumentation (cont.)

►Flaw detectors are

instruments designed
primarily for the inspection
of components for defects.
►However, the signal can be
evaluated to obtain other
information such as material
thickness values.
►Both analog and digital
display.
►Offer the user options of
gating horizontal sweep and
amplitude threshold.
 Instrumentation (cont.)

►Industrialflaw detection
instruments, provide users
with more options than
standard flaw detectors.
►May be modulated units
allowing users to tailor the
instrument for their specific
needs.
►Generally not as portable
as standard flaw detectors.
 Instrumentation (cont.)

►Immersion ultrasonic scanning

systems are used for automated
data acquisition and imaging.
►They integrate an immersion
tank, ultrasonic instrumentation,
a scanning bridge, and computer
controls.
►The signal strength and/or the
time-of-flight of the signal is
measured for every point in the
scan plan.
►The value of the data is plotted
using colors or shades of gray to
produce detailed images of the
surface or internal features of a
component.
 Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

► Sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

►Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other methods.
► Onlysingle-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.
► Highaccuracy in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
► Minimal part preparation required.
►Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
► Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
► Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition
to flaw detection.
 Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

► Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

► Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods.
► Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of
sound energy into test specimen.
► Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
► Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to
inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
► Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
► Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws.
Thank you