MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERING

ADVANCED VECTORS

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

• Explain the Scalar or Dot Product.

• Explain the Vector or Cross Product.

• Explain the Triple Scalar Product.

• Explain the Triple Vector Product

The tutorial ‘Vectors’ should be studied before starting on this tutorial. It is presumed that students
are already proficient at algebra and trigonometry.

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1. VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

Multiplying vectors is not straightforward and there are two different ways of doing it producing
two different results called the Scalar Product and Vector Product. Both have their uses. Throughout
this work a vector is denoted by bold and underline characters and magnitude or scalar by an
ordinary character.

2. SCALAR or DOT PRODUCT

Consider two vectors A and B on the x – y plane as

shown. Let’s look at the result of multiplying the x – y
components to give (ax bx + ay by)
The way we write this kind of multiplication is with a dot
so we are finding A ● B = (ax bx + ay by)

The magnitude of A is √( ax2 + ay2)

The magnitude of B is √( bx2 + by2)
The angle of A to the x axis is θa = tan-1(ay/ax)
The angle of B to the x axis is θb = tan-1(by/bx)
The angle between the vectors is θ = θa - θb
Without proof A ● B = (ax bx + ay by) = A B cos θ

This form of multiplication has come about by multiplying the vector components in the x and y
directions and then adding them. The result is more easily calculated by multiplying the magnitudes
and the cosine of the angle between them. The result is NOT A VECTOR but a scalar so it has no
direction. This may be demonstrated by the following practical example.

Consider a body moving under the action of a force F

as shown. Suppose we wish to know the work done
when the body moves a distance ‘s’ in the x direction.
Note that distance ‘s’ and force ‘F’ are both vector
quantities.

The component of this acting in the x direction is F cos θ Figure 1

The work done in the x direction is Wx = F s cos θ
Work is a scalar quantity. We write the Dot product as F ● s
Wx = F s cos θ = F ● s

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Two vectors have the Cartesian coordinates A (4, 4) and B (6, 3). Find the dot product.

SOLUTION

ax = 4 ay = 4 bx = 6 by = 3
θa = tan-1(ay/ax) = 45o
θb = tan-1(by/bx) = 26.56o
θ = 45o - 26.56o = 18.43 o
Magnitudes A = √(42+ 42) = 5.657 B = √(62+ 32) = 6.708
A ● B = A B cos θ = (5.657)( 6.708)cos18.43 o = 36
A ● B = (ax bx + ay by) = (4)(6) + (4)(3) = 36

Both ways gives the result 36 with no direction.

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3. PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT

The scalar produced by a Dot product is the same no matter which is Dotted with which, so :-
A●B=B●A

If either vector is multiplied by a scalar λ then it follows λ(A ● B) = A ● λB = λA ● B

λA ● B = λA Bcos θ

A ● λB = λA B cos θ
Consider the example again. This time the body
is moved by two forces F1 and F2. The work done
in the x direction is:-
Wx = F1 ● s + F2 ● s

We get the same result by Dotting the resultant

of F1+ F2 with s so:-
Figure 2
(F1+ F2) ● s = F1 ● s + F2 ● s

In general for three vectors we have the rule ( A + B) ● C = A ● C + B ● C

Note when θ = 90o the result is zero.

The Dot product of a vector A with itself is A ● A cos 0 = A2

4. EXTENSION TO THREE DIMENSIONS

In three dimensional coordinates the dot product of two vectors is

A ● B = (ax bx + ay by + az bz) = A B cos θ

From the tutorial on coordinate systems we found the following.

For vector A the magnitude is A = √(ax2 + ay2 + az2)

The angle to the z – x plane is θ = tan-1 ay/( ax2 + az2)1/2

The angle rotated from the x – y plane is φ = tan-1(az/ ax)
The Cartesian coordinates are:-ax = A cosθ cosφ ay = R sinθ az = A cosθ sinφ

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Two vectors have coordinates:- A (-5, 7, 4) and B (2, -2, 3). Determine the angle between
them.

SOLUTION

A ● B = (ax bx + ay by + az bz) = (-5)(2) + (7)(-2) + (4)(3) = -12

A2 = ax2 + ay2 + az2 = (-5)2 + (7)2 + (4) 2 = 90 A= √90
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
B = bx + by + bz = (2) + (-2) + (3) = 17 B= √17
A ● B = -12 = A B cos θ
-12 = √90√17 cos θ = 39.11 cos θ = -12/39.11 = -0.306 θ = 107.8o

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. Determine the scalar product of the vector pair A (5, 10) and B (3, 6) (Answer 45)

2. Determine the scalar product of the vector pair A (12 ∠80o) and B (7, ∠30o) (Answer 54)

3. Determine the scalar product of the vector pair A (5, 4, 5) and B (2, 3, 5) (Answer 47)

4. Determine the magnitude of A and B and angle between them for (3). (Equate to find angle)
(Answer 8.124, 6.164 and 20.2o)

5. Two vectors have coordinates:- A (7, -3, 6) and B (5, -2, 10). Calculate the angle between
them. (Answer 23.48o)

5. VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT

This was developed to help define a moment of force in three dimensions.

The cross product of two vectors A and B is denoted A X B and the result is a third vector C in a
direction normal (orthagonal) to the plane formed by A and B.

We shall show that C = A X B = A B sin θ n̂

θ is the angle between the vectors and n̂ is a unit vector

normal to the plane created by A and B.

The direction of C is determined by the right hand rule as

follows. Point the index fingure of the right hand in the
direction of A and bend the other fingures to the direction
of B. The thumb then points the direction of C.
Figure 3

Let’s illustrate this with the following case. Consider

the force acting at an angle θ to a torque wrench as
shown. A turning moment (Torque) is produced
about the centre.
The component of the force acting normal to the
radius is F sin θ.
It follows that T = F Rsin θ. In this case the direction
is into the page. Figure 4

Since F and R are vectors, the result is obtained by using the

cross product F X R = F R sin θ

In general A X B = A B sin θ n̂

θ is the angle between them and n̂ is the unit vector normal

to the plane made by them and this makes the result a vector.
B is counter clockwise of A on that plane.
Figure 5

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6. ANGULAR QUANTITIES

When θ = 90o the vector product represents any angular quantity such as angle, angular velocity,
angular acceleration, torque and angular momentum. All these are vector quantities and can be
represented as a vector. The rule for determining the direction of the vector is that if you view the
plane so that the direction of rotation is clockwise, the vector points away from you. This is known
as the corkscrew rule because when a corkscrew is used you rotate clockwise and it moves into the
cork. The vector direction is summed up in the diagram.

Figure 6

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

Given the vectors A ( 3, 1, 2) and B = (2, -2, 3) determine A X B

SOLUTION

A X B = A B sin θ n̂

First find the magnitudes. A = √{32 + 12 + 22} = 3.742 B = √{22 + (-2)2 + 32} = 4.123

Next find the angle between them by using the scalar product method.

Scalar product A ● B = (3)(2) + (1)(-2) + (2)(3) = 10

10 = A B cos (θ)
θ = cos-1(10/{(3.742)(4.123)}) = 49.6o

A X B = A B sin θ n̂ = (3.742)(4.123) sin 49.6o = 11.747 n̂

n̂ is the unit vector in the direction normal to the plane of A B

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7. PROPERTIES OF CROSS PRODUCTS

Since the direction of the cross product is determined by the angle, then A X B is equal and opposite
to B X A so:-
AXB=-BXA

If either vector A or B is multiplied by a scalar λ, the cross product C will also be multiplied by λ
so:-
λ A X B = A X λ B = λ (A X B)

The distributive law can be proved to be A X (B + C) = A X B + A X C

8. CARTESIAN REPRESENTATION

Consider the cross product of two identical parallel vectors A. A x A = A A sin (0) = 0
If we have unit vectors i, j and k, then i x i = j x j = k x k = 0
Consider the cross product of two identical vectors at 90o to each other. A x A = A A sin (90) = A2
If we have unit vectors then i x j = k jxk=i kxi=j
j x i = -k k x j = -i i x k =- j
The unit vector indicates direction so the Cartesian coordinates used for A and B will be as follows.

A = i a1 + j a2 + k a3 B = i b1+ j b2 + k b3
A X B = (i a1 + j a2 + k a3) X (i b1+ j b2 + k b3)

By application of the property rules we can produce the result

A X B = {a1 b1(i X i) + a1 b2(i X j) + a1 b3 (i X k)} + {a2 b1(j X i) + a2 b2(j X j) + a2 b3 (j X k)} + ...
.......{a3 b1(k X i) + a3 b2(k X j) + a3 b3 (k X k)}

A X B = {a1 b1(0) + a1 b2(i X j) + a1 b3 (i X k)} + {a2 b1(j X i) + a2 b2(0) + a2 b3 (j X k)} + ...

.......{a3 b1(k X i) + a3 b2(k X j) + a3 b3 (0)}

A X B = {a1 b2(i X j) + a1 b3 (i X k)} + {a2 b1(j X i) + a2 b3 (j X k)} + {a3 b1(k X i) + a3 b2(k X j)}

A X B = {a1 b2(k) + a1 b3 (-j)} + {a2 b1(-k) + a2 b3 (i)} + {a3 b1(j) + a3 b2(-i)}

A X B = a1 b2(k) + a1 b3 (-j) + a2 b1(-k) + a2 b3 (i)} + a3 b1(j) + a3 b2(-i)

A X B = i(a2 b3 - a3 b2) + j(a3 b1- a1 b3) + k (a1 b2 - a2 b1 )

If you have studies matrices, you will recognise this law

happens to coincide with the determinant for a 3 x 3 matrix.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

Find the resulting vector when A ( 3, 1, 2) and B = (2, -2, 3) are crossed. Express the result in
Cartesian and Spherical coordinates.

SOLUTION

A X B = i(a2 b3 - a3 b2) + j(a3 b1- a1 b3) + k (a1 b2 - a2 b1 )

A X B = i {(1)(3) – (2)(-2)} + j {(2)(2) – (3)(3)}+ k {(3)(-2) – (1)(2)}

C =A X B = 7 i - 5 j - 8 k

The resulting vector is 7, -5, -8

The magnitude is C = √{(7)2 +(-5)2 + (-8)2 } = 11.747

⎡ c ⎤ ⎡ −5 ⎤
θ = tan −1 ⎢ 2
⎥ = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ = −25.2 o
⎢⎣ c12 + c 32 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 7 2 + (−8) 2 ⎥⎦
⎡c ⎤ ⎡− 8⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎢ 3 ⎥ = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ = −48.8o
⎣ c1 ⎦ ⎣ 7 ⎦

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

Given A and B in Cartesian coordinates determine the cross product and express the resulting
vector in Cartesian and Spherical coordinates.

1. A (1, 2, 3) B (3, 2, 1)

Answers A X B = 9.798 n, Cartesian coordinates (-4, 8, -4) Spherical (9.798, 54.7o and 45o)

2. A (-2, -7, 4) B (5, -2, 5)

Answers A X B = 56.125 n, Cartesian (-27,30, 39) and spherical (56.1, 32.3o and -55.3o)

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9. THE TRIPLE SCALAR PRODUCT

The triple SCALAR product is produced by three vectors. It is a scalar produced by the
combination (A x B) ● C
Studying the geometry of three vectors it may be shown that the triple product produces the volume
of a parallelepiped.

Figure 7

First consider again the cross product of A and B and let them lay on the x – z plane as shown.
The area of the parallelogram is A w = A B sin θ.
Since A x B = A B sin θ j it follows that A x B = is the volume of a parallelogram extruded one unit
in the y direction.
If we now examine vector C drawn as shown for convenience, it has a height normal to the x – z
plane of h = j C cos φ
The parallelepiped has a volume A w h = A B sin θ h
The volume is hence A B sin θ j C cos φ = (A x B) ● C
Since any of the flat faces of the parallelepiped could have been chosen as the reference plane, it
must follow that :-
(A x B) ● C = (A x C) ● B = (B x C) ● A = C ● (A x B) = B ● (A x C) = A ● (B x C)

In other words you swap any two vectors.

The three vectors may be expressed as a matrix of the Cartesian
coordinates as shown.
It can further be shown that the determinant gives the triple product.

A ● (B x C) = a1b2c3 – a1b3c2 – a2b1c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 – a3b2c1

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

Given three vectors A (2, 1, 0), B (2, -1, 1), and C (0, 1, 1) find A ● (B x C) and B ● (C x A)

SOLUTION

A ● (B x C) = a1b2c3 – a1b3c2 – a2b1c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 – a3b2c1

A ● (B x C) = (2)(-1)(1) – (2)(1)(1)– (1)(2)(1) + (1)(1)(0) + (0)(-1)(1) – (0)(-1)(0)
A ● (B x C) = -2 -2 -2 + 0 + 0 – 0 = -6

To solve B ● (C x A) we change the above pattern by simply changing a to b, b to c and c to a

B ● (C x A) = b1c2a3 –b1c3a2 – b2c1a3 + b2c3a1 + b3c1a2 – b3c2a1

B ● (C x A) = 0 – 2 0 – 2 + 0 – 2 = - 6

As expected the result is the same.

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. Find the volume of a parallelepiped formed by the three vectors A(4, 0, -1) B(1, 0, -4) and
C(2, 6, -4) all projected from the origin. (Answer 90 units)

2. Given the three vectors A(-2, 2, -1) B(-3, 1, 5) and C(5, 3, 4) all projected from the origin,
evaluate A ● (B x C) and B ● (C x A) and show that they are the same. (Answer 110 units).

10. THE TRIPLE VECTOR PRODUCT

The triple product of three vectors A, B and C is defined as (A x B) x C and this is a vector.
We already know that A X B = i(a2 b3 - a3 b2) + j(a3 b1- a1 b3) + k (a1 b2 - a2 b1 )

This is a vector with coordinates (a2 b3 - a3 b2), (a3 b1- a1 b3) and (a1 b2 - a2 b1)

Let this vector be designated R with coordinates :

r1 = (a2 b3 - a3 b2), r2 = (a3 b1- a1 b3) and r3 =(a1 b2 - a2 b1)

Now deduce R x C

R x C = i(r2 c3 – r3 c2) – j(r1 c3 – r3 c1 ) + k(r1 c2 – r2 c1)

Substitute for r1, r2 and r

R x C = (A x B) x C = i{(a3 b1- a1 b3) c3 – (a1 b2 - a2 b1) c2} ....

....– j{(a2 b3 - a3 b2)c3 – (a1 b2 - a2 b1) c1 } + k{(a2 b3 - a3 b2) c2 – r(a3 b1- a1 b3)c1}

(A x B) x C = i{(a3 b1 c3- a1 b3 c3) – (a1 b2 c2 - a2 b1 c2) } ...

– j{(a2 b3 c3 - a3 b2 c3) – (a1 b2 c1 - a2 b1 c1)} + k{(a2 b3 - a3 b2) c2 – r(a3 b1- a1 b3)c1}

Examine the first coordinate of the vector i{a3 b1 c3 - a1 b3 c3 - a1 b2 c2 + a2 b1 c2}

With manipulation it can be shown that this is the result of (A ● C) b1 - (B ● C) a1

Repeating the process for the other two components it can be shown that the three coordinates of
the vector are:

(A x B) x C = {(A ● C) b1 - (B ● C) a1}, {(A ● C) b2 - (B ● C) a2}, {(A ● C) b3 - (B ● C) a3}

This further simplifies to

(A x B) x C = (A ● C) B - (B ● C) A

We can go on to show that (B x C) x A = (A ● C) B - (A ● B) C

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6

Given three vectors A (3, -2, 1), B (-1, 3, 4), and C (2, 1, -3) find (A x B) x C and show that the
same result is obtained from (A ● C) B - (B ● C) A

SOLUTION

(A x B) = i(a2 b3 - a3 b2) + j(a3 b1- a1 b3) + k (a1 b2 - a2 b1 )

(A x B) = i[(-2)(4) – (1)(3)] + j[(1)( -1) – (3)(4)] + k [(3)(3) –(-2)(-1)]
(A x B) = i[(-8) – (3)] + j[( -1) – (12)] + k [(9) –(2)]
(A x B) = i[(-11)] + j[( -13)] + k [(7)]

Let this be a vector R r1 = -11 r2 = -13 r3 =7

Now deduce R x C
R x C = i(r2 c3 – r3 c2) – j(r1 c3 – r3 c1 ) + k(r1 c2 – r2 c1)
R x C = i[(-13)(-3) – (7)(1)] – j[(-11)(-3) – (7)(2)] + k[(-11)(1) –(-13)(2)]
R x C = i[(39) – (7)] – j[(33) – (14)] + k[(-11) –(-26)]
R x C = 32i –19j + 15k

(A x B) x C is a vector 32i –19j + 15k

Now evaluate (A ● C) B - (B ● C) A

(A ● C) = a1c1 + a2c2 + a3c3 = (3)(2) + (-2)(1) + (1)(-3)

(A ● C) = 6 - 2 -3 = 1
(A ● C) B is a vector 1(-1i, 3j, 4k) or simply (-i, 3j, 4k)

(B ● C) = b1c1 + b2c2 + b3c3 = (-1)(2) + (3)(1) + (4)(-3)

(B ● C) = -2 + 3 -12 = -11
(B ● C) A is a vector -11(3i, -2j, 1k) or (-33i, 22j, -11k)

(A ● C) B - (B ● C) A is a vector found by subtracting the coordinates to give

(A ● C) B - (B ● C) A = (-i, 3j, 4k) - (-33i, 22j, -11k) = (32i, -19j, 15k)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

1. Given the three vectors A(2, -3, 3) B(-3, 2, 2) and C(1, 2, -2) find the vector (A x B) x C and
show that the same result is obtained from (A ● C) B - (B ● C) A
(36, -29, -11 in both cases)

2. Given the three vectors A(2, -3, 3) B(-3, 2, 2) and C(1, 2, -2) find the vector A x (B x C) and
show that the same result is obtained from(A ● C) B - (A● B) C
(36, -8, -32 in both cases)

3. Given the three vectors A(-5, -3, 1) B(3, 2, -4) and C(2, -3, 10) find the vector (A x B) x C and
show that the same result is obtained from (A ● C) B - (B ● C) A
(-173, -102, 4 in both cases)

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