Chemistry: An Introduction to General,

Organic, and Biological Chemistry

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 4
Atoms and Elements

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4.2 The Periodic Table
The periodic table organizes 118 elements into groups with similar
properties and places them in order of increasing atomic mass.

Learning Goal Use the periodic table to identify the group and the
period of an element; identify the element as a metal, a nonmetal,
or a metalloid.
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The Periodic Table (1 of 2)
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev
• created the periodic table
• arranged elements by increasing atomic mass, and
• arranged elements into groups with similar properties

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The Periodic Table (2 of 2)

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Groups and Periods
On the periodic table,
• elements are arranged according to similar properties in
vertical columns called groups
• periods are horizontal rows of elements, counted from top
to bottom of the table as Periods 1–7
Period 1 contains two elements: H and He
Periods 2 and 3 each contain eight elements:
Period 2—Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
Period 3—Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar

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Group Numbers
Group numbers, which identify the vertical columns of the
periodic table, are written in two ways:
• the letter A is used for the representative elements 1A to
8A and the letter B for the transition elements
• the numbers 1 to 18 are used for the columns from left to
right

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Group Numbers and Names

Certain groups on the periodic table have common names.

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Representative Elements– Groups
and Names
Representative elements include
• Group 1A (1), called the alkali metals:
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr

• Group 2A (2), called the alkaline earth metals:

Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Ra
• Groups 3A (13), 4A (14), 5A (15), and 6A (16)
• Group 7A (17), called the halogens:

F, Cl, Br, I, At, and Ts

• Group 8A (18), called the noble gases:
He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn, and Og

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Alkali Metals
Lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and
potassium (K) are alkali metals
from Group 1A (1).

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Halogens
Chlorine ( Cl2 ) , bromine (Br2 ) ,
and iodine (I2 ) are halogens
from Group 7 A (17).

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Learning Check 1
Identify the element described by each of the following:
1. Group 7A (17), Period 4
A. Br B. Cl C. Mn

2. Group 2A (2), Period 3

B. boron C. magnesium
A. beryllium

3. Group 5A (15), Period 2

A. phosphorus B. nitrogen C. arsenic

4. Group 6B (6), Period 4

A. copper B. selenium C. chromium

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Solution 1
Identify the element described by each of the following:
1. Group 7A (17), Period 4
A. Br

2. Group 2A (2), Period 3

C. magnesium

3. Group 5A (15), Period 2

B. nitrogen
4. Group 6B (6), Period 4
C. chromium

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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids (1 of 4)
The heavy zigzag line separates
metals and nonmetals.
• Metals are located to the left
• Nonmetals are located to the
right
• Metalloids are located along
the heavy zigzag line between
the metals and nonmetals The metalloids on the
zigzag line exhibit
characteristics of both
metals and nonmetals.

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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids (2 of 4)
• Most metals are shiny solids, such as copper (Cu), gold
(Au), and silver (Ag). Metals are
• ductile, meaning they can be shaped into wires
• malleable, meaning they can be hammered into a flat
sheet
• good conductors of electricity
• melted at much higher temperatures than nonmetals
• solids at room temperature, except for mercury (Hg)

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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids (3 of 4)
Nonmetals include elements such as hydrogen (H), carbon
(C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), chlorine (Cl), and sulfur (S).
Nonmetals
• are not especially shiny, ductile, or malleable, and are
often poor conductors of heat and electricity
• typically have low melting points and low densities

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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids (4 of 4)
Except for aluminum (Al), the elements along the zigzag line
are metalloids. Metalloids
• include B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At, and Ts
• exhibit some properties typical of metals and some typical
of nonmetals
• are better conductors of heat and electricity than
nonmetals, but not as good as metals
• are semiconductors because they can be modified to
function as conductors or insulators

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Comparing a Metal, Nonmetal, and
Metalloid
Table 4.3 Some Characteristics of a Metal, a Metalloid, and a Nonmetal

Silver (Ag) Antimony (Sb) Sulfur (S)

Metal Metalloid Nonmetal
Shiny Blue-gray, shiny Dull, yellow
Extremely ductile Brittle Brittle
Can be hammered into Shatters when hammered Shatters when hammered
sheets (malleable)
Good conductor of heat Poor conductor of heat and Poor conductor of heat and
and electricity electricity electricity, good insulator
Used in coins, jewelry, Used to harden lead, color Used in gunpowder,
tableware glass and plastics rubber, fungicides
Density 10.5 g /m L rams illi iter Density 6.7 g /m L
rams illi iter Density 2.1 g /m L
ram illi iter

Melting point 962 °C

962 degrees Celsius Melting point 630 °C
630 degrees Celsius Melting point 113 °C 113 degrees Celsius

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Learning Check 2
Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal,
or metalloid:

A. sodium

B. bromine

C. boron

D. manganese

E. carbon

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Solution 2
Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal,
or metalloid:

A. sodium metal

B. bromine nonmetal

C. boron metalloid

D. manganese metal

E. carbon nonmetal

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Learning Check 3
Match the elements to the description.
A. Metals in Group 4A (14)

1. Sn, Pb 2. C, Si 3. C, Si, Ge, Sn

B. Nonmetals in Group 5A (15)

1. As, Sb, Bi 2. N, P 3. N, P, As, Sb

C. Metalloids in Group 4A (14)

1. Si, Ge, Sn, Pb 2. C, Si, Ge 3. Si, Ge

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Solution 3
Match the elements to the description.
A. Metals in Group 4A (14)

1. Sn, Pb

B. Nonmetals in Group 5A (15)

2. N, P

C. Metalloids in Group 4A (14)

3. Si, Ge

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Chemistry Link to Health Elements
Essential to Health (1 of 7)
Of all the elements,
• About 20 are essential for the well-being and survival of the
human body
• four elements—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—
make up 96% of our body mass
• the macrominerals Ca, P, K, Cl, S, Na, and Mg are
involved in the formation of bones and teeth, maintenance
of heart and blood vessels, muscle contraction, nerve
impulses, acid–base balance of body fluids, and regulation
of cellular metabolism

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Chemistry Link to Health Elements
Essential to Health (2 of 7)
Table 4.4 Typical Amounts of Essential Elements in a 60.-k g Adult ilo ram

Major Elements
Element Quantity Function
Oxygen (O) 39 k g ilo rams Building block of biomolecules and water (H2O )
H sub 2 O

Carbon (C) 11 k g ilo rams Building block of organic and biomolecules

Hydrogen (H) 6 kg ilo rams Component of biomolecules, water H(H 2O
sub ) , regulates pH of
2O

body fluids, stomach acid (HCl)

Nitrogen (N) 2 kg
ilo rams Component of proteins and nucleic acids

Macrominerals
Element Quantity Function
Calcium (Ca) 1000 g rams Needed for bones and teeth, muscle contraction, nerve
impulses
Phosphorus (P) 600 g rams Needed for bones and teeth, nucleic acids

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Chemistry Link to Health Elements
Essential to Health (3 of 7)
Table 4.4 [Continued]

Element Quantity Function

Potassium (K) 120 g rams

( )
Most common positive ion K + in cells, muscle
K super plus

contraction, nerve impulses

Chlorine (Cl) 100 g rams Most common negative ion (Cl− ) in fluids outside cells,
C l super minus

stomach acid (HCl)

Sulfur (S) 86 g rams Component of proteins, liver, vitamin B1, insulin B sub 1

Sodium (Na) 60 g rams Most common positive ion (Na+ ) in fluids outside cells,
N a super plus

water balance, muscle contraction, nerve impulses

Magnesium (M 36 g rams Component of bones, required for metabolic reactions
g)

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Chemistry Link to Health Elements
Essential to Health (4 of 7)
• the other essential elements, called microminerals or
trace elements, are mostly transition elements in Period 4
along with Si in Period 3 and Mo and I in Period 5
• they are present in the human body in very small amounts,
some less than 100 m g illi rams

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Chemistry Link to Health Elements
Essential to Health (5 of 7)
Table 4.4 [Continued]
Microminerals (Trace Elements)
Element Quantity Function
Iron (Fe) 3600 m g illi rams Component of oxygen carrier haemoglobin
Silicon (Si) 3000 m g illi rams Needed for growth and maintenance of bones and
teeth, tendons and ligaments, hair and skin
Zinc (Zn) 2000 m g illi rams Needed for metabolic reactions in cells, DNA
synthesis, growth of bones, teeth, connective tissue,
immune system
Copper (Cu) 240 m g illi rams Needed for blood vessels, blood pressure, immune
system
Manganese (Mn) 60 m g
illi rams Needed for growth of bones, blood clotting, metabolic
reactions

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Chemistry Link to Health Elements
Essential to Health (6 of 7)
Table 4.4 [Continued]

Element Quantity Function

Iodine (I) 20 m g illi rams Needed for proper thyroid function
Molybdenum (Mo) 12 m g illi rams Needed to process Fe and N from food
Arsenic (As) 3 mg illi rams Needed for growth and reproduction
Chromium (Cr) 3 mg illi rams Needed for maintenance of blood sugar levels, synthesis
of biomolecules
Cobalt (Co) 3 mg illi rams Component of vitamin BBsub1212, red blood cells
Selenium (Se) 2 mg illi rams Used in the immune system, health of heart and
pancreas
Vanadium (V) 2 mg illi rams Needed in the formation of bones and teeth, energy from
food

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Chemistry Link to Health Elements
Essential to Health (7 of 7)

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4.3 The Atom
Images of gold atoms are produced when magnified 16 million
times by a scanning microscope.

Learning Goal Describe the electrical charge and location in an

atom for a proton, a neutron, and an electron.
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The Atom
All of the elements listed on the
periodic table are made up of
atoms.
An atom is the smallest particle
of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.

Aluminum foil consists of

atoms of aluminum.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1 of 2)
The idea of atoms did not become scientific theory until
1808.
John Dalton (1766–1844) developed an atomic theory
proposing that atoms were responsible for the
combinations of elements in compounds.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (2 of 2)
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical to one another
and different from atoms of other elements.
3. Atoms of two or more different elements combine to form
compounds. A particular compound is always made up of
the same kinds of atoms and the same number of each
kind of atom.
4. A chemical reaction involves the rearrangement,
separation, or combination of atoms. Atoms are never
created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

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Subatomic Particles
By the end of the 1800s,
• experiments with electricity showed that atoms were
composed of tiny particles called subatomic particles,
including protons, neutrons, and electrons
• it was shown that some subatomic particles in an atom
have charge

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Electrical Charges in an Atom
Electrical charges can be positive or
negative:
• two positive charges repel each other
• two negative charges repel each other
• unlike charges attract each other

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J. J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray
Experiment
In 1897, J. J. Thomson
• discovered that cathode rays were streams of small,
negatively charged particles called electrons
• proposed the “plum-pudding” model of the atom in which
protons and electrons were randomly distributed in a
positively charged cloud like plums in a pudding

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Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment (1 of 2)
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford worked with J. J. Thomson and
developed a new structure for the atom based on
Rutherford’s gold foil experiments.

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Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment (2 of 2)
From his gold foil experiments, Rutherford determined that
atoms contained
• a small positively charged region in the center, which he
called the nucleus
• a region of space surrounding the nucleus that was
occupied by electrons

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Structure of the Atom
An atom consists of
• a nucleus that contains protons (+) and neutrons (0)
• electrons (−) in a large, empty space around the nucleus

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Mass of the Atom
Atomic Mass Unit
• The mass of the atom is due to the protons and neutrons
in the nucleus. Electrons have a much smaller mass.
• Chemists use a unit called the atomic mass unit (amu)
which has a mass equal to one-twelfth of the mass of the
carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
• A proton has a mass of about 1 a m u (1.007).
tomic ass nit

• A neutron has a mass of about 1 a m u (1.008). tomic ass nit

• An electron has a very small mass (0.000 55 a m u ). tomic ass nit

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Subatomic Particles in the Atom
Table 4.5 Subatomic Particles in the Atom

Particle Symbol Charge Mass (a m u )

tomic ass nit Location in Atom
Proton p or p +
p or p super plus

1+ 1.007 Nucleus
Neutron n or n 0
n or n super 0

0 1.008 Nucleus
Electron e− 1− 0.000 55 Outside nucleus
1 minus

e super minus

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Learning Check 1
Which of the following subatomic particles fits each of the
descriptions below?

proton, neutron, electron

A. found outside the nucleus

B. has a positive charge

C. has mass but no charge

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Solution 1
Which of the following subatomic particles fits each of the
descriptions below?

proton, neutron, electron

A. found outside the nucleus electron

B. has a positive charge proton

C. has mass but no charge neutron

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Learning Check 2
Is each of the following statements true or false?

A. The mass of an electron is greater than

the mass of a proton.

B. Protons have a positive charge, and

electrons have a negative charge.

C. The nucleus of an atom contains only

the protons and neutrons.

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Solution 2
Is each of the following statements true or false?

A. The mass of an electron is greater than

the mass of a proton. False

B. Protons have a positive charge, and True

electrons have a negative charge.

C. The nucleus of an atom contains only True

the protons and neutrons.

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4.4 Atomic Number and Mass Number
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons
and the same atomic number.

Learning Goal Given the atomic number and the mass

number of an atom, state the number of protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
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Atomic Number
The atomic number
• is a whole number specific for each element
• is the same for all atoms of that element
• is equal to the number of protons in an atom
• appears above the symbol of an element in the periodic
table

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Atomic Numbers and Protons
• Hydrogen has atomic number 1; every H atom has 1 proton
• Carbon has atomic number 6; every C atom has 6 protons
• Copper has atomic number 29; every Cu atom has 29
protons
• Gold has atomic number 79; every Au atom has 79 protons

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Atomic Number = Protons in an Atom

All atoms of lithium contain three protons, and all atoms of

carbon contain six protons.
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Learning Check 1
Select the correct number of protons in each atom.
A. Fluorine atom

1. 9 protons 2. 17 protons 3. 10 protons

B. Potassium
1. 15 protons 2. 39 protons 3. 19 protons

C. Barium atom

1. 137 protons 2. 56 protons 3. 81 protons

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Solution 1
Select the correct number of protons in each atom.
A. Fluorine atom
1. 9 protons
B. Potassium
3. 19 protons
C. Barium atom
2. 56 protons

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Atoms Are Neutral
An atom of any element
• is electrically neutral; it has a net charge of zero.
• has an equal number of protons and electrons.

A neutral atom of calcium, atomic number 20, contains 20

protons and 20 electrons. It has zero net charge.

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Learning Check 2
Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number of
protons, and number of electrons for each of the following
elements:

Element Atomic Number of Number of

Number Protons Electrons
Na
Blank Blank Blank

Zn
Blank Blank Blank

S
Blank Blank Blank

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Solution 2
Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number of
protons, and number of electrons for each of the following
elements:

Element Atomic Number of Number of

Number Protons Electrons
Na 11 11 11
Zn 30 30 30
S 16 16 16

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Mass Number

The mass number

• represents the number of particles in the nucleus
• is equal to the number of protons + the number of neutrons
• does not appear in the periodic table because it applies to
single atoms only

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Mass Number and Neutrons
We calculate the number of neutrons in an atom from its
mass number and atomic number:

mass number − atomic number =

number of neutrons

Potassium has a mass number of 39 and an atomic number

of 19. To find the number of neutrons, subtract the atomic
number from its mass number.

39 ( mass number ) − 19 ( atomic number ) = 20 neutrons

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Composition of Elements
Table 4.6 Composition of Some Atoms of Different Elements

Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Element Symbol Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 0 1
Nitrogen N 7 14 7 7 7
Oxygen O 8 16 8 8 8
Chlorine Cl 17 37 17 20 17
Iron Fe 26 58 26 32 26
Gold Au 79 197 79 118 79

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Study Tip: Protons and Neutrons
Number of protons = atomic number
Number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number
Number of neutrons = mass number − atomicnumber
Note: Mass numbers apply to only specific atoms of an
element.

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Learning Check 3
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.
A. How many protons are in the nucleus?
B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?
C. How many electrons are in the atom?

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Solution 3 (1 of 2)
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.
A. How many protons are in the nucleus?
Lead has an atomic number of 82;
number of protons = 82
B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?
number of neutrons
mass number − atomic number
= 207 − 82
= 125 neutrons

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Solution 3 (2 of 2)
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.
C. How many electrons are in the atom?
An atom is neutral, which means that the number of
electrons is equal to the number of protons.
Since an atom of Pb has 82 protons, it also has 82
electrons.

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Learning Check 4
An atom of zinc has a mass number of 65.
A. How many protons are in the nucleus?
1. 30 2. 35 3. 65
B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?

1. 30 2. 35 3. 65

C. What is the mass number of a zinc atom that has 37 neutrons?

1. 37 2. 65 3. 67

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Solution 4
An atom of zinc has a mass number of 65.
A. How many protons are in the nucleus?
1. 30

B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?

2. 35

C. What is the mass number of a zinc atom that has 37 neutrons?

3. 67

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Learning Check 5
An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.
A. What is its atomic number?
1. 6 2. 14 3. 34
B. What is its mass number?

1. 14 2. 16 3. 34

C. What is the element?

1. Si 2. Ca 3. Se

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Solution 5
An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.
A. What is its atomic number?
2. 14

B. What is its mass number?

3. 34

C. What is the element?

1. Si

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4.5 Isotopes and Atomic Mass

Learning Goal Determine the number of protons, neutrons,

and electrons in one or more of the isotopes of an element;
identify the most abundant isotope of an element.

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Isotopes
Isotopes
• are atoms of the same
element that have different
mass numbers
• have the same number of
protons, but different
numbers of neutrons

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Atomic Symbol

An atomic symbol
• represents a particular isotope of an element
• gives the mass number in the upper left corner and the
atomic number in the lower left corner

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Atomic Symbols, Subatomic Particles
The atomic symbol indicates the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in a specific isotope of an element.

16 31 65
8O 15 P 30 Zn
Atomic symbol O, with superscript 16 and subscript 8. Atomic symbol P, with superscript 31 and subscript 15. Atomic symbol Z n, with superscript 65 and subscript 30.

8 protons 15 protons 30 protons

8 neutrons 16 neutrons 35 neutrons
8 electrons 15 electrons 30 electrons

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Learning Check 1
There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon: C-12,
C-13, and C-14. Write the atomic symbol for each isotope,
and state the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in
each of these isotopes.

Atomic Number of Number of Number of

Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons
Blank Blank Blank Blank

Blank Blank Blank Blank

Blank Blank Blank Blank

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Solution 1
There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon: C-12,
C-13, and C-14. Write the atomic symbol for each isotope,
and state the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in
each of these isotopes.

Atomic Number of Number of Number of

Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons
12
6C
Super 12, sub 6, C.

6 6 6
13
6C
Super 13, sub 6, C.

6 7 6
14
6C
Super 14, sub 6, C.

6 8 6

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Learning Check 2
Write the atomic symbols for atoms with the following
subatomic particles:

A. 8 protons 8 neutrons 8 electrons

B. 17 protons 20 neutrons 17 electrons

C. 47 protons 60 neutrons 47 electrons

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Solution 2
Write the atomic symbols for atoms with the following
subatomic particles:

A. 8 protons 8 neutrons 8 electrons 16

8 O

B. 17 protons 20 neutrons 17 electrons 37

17 Cl

C. 47 protons 60 neutrons 47 electrons 107

47 Ag

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Learning Check 3
Consider the following pairs of atoms in which X represents
the chemical symbol of the element:

A. 15 15 B. 12 14 15 16
8X 7X 6X 6X C. 7X 8X

1. Which of the pairs are isotopes of the same element?

2. In which of the pairs do both atoms have eight neutrons?

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Solution 3 (1 of 2)
Consider the following pairs of atoms in which X represents
the chemical symbol of the element:

A. 15 15 B. 12 14 15 16
8X 7X 6X 6X C. 7X 8X

1. Which of the pairs are isotopes of the same element?

B. 12
6X
14
6X

Each has 6 protons, so the element is carbon. The

different mass numbers indicate that each species has
a different number of neutrons. These are isotopes.

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Solution 3 (2 of 2)
Consider the following pairs of atoms in which X represents
the chemical symbol of the element:

A. 15 15 B. 12 14 15 16
8X 7X 6X 6X C. 7X 8X

2. In which of the pairs do both atoms have eight neutrons?

15 16
C. 7X 8X
15
7X Number of neutrons = 15 ( mass number ) − 7 ( atomic number )
= 8 neutrons

16 Number of neutrons = 16 ( mass number ) − 8 ( atomic number )

8X
= 8 neutrons
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Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is
• listed below the symbol of each element on the periodic
table
• calculated based on the weighted average of all naturally
occurring isotopes
• based on its comparison to the mass of carbon-12
• not the same as the mass number

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Learning Check 4
Using the periodic table, specify the atomic mass of each
element.

A. calcium Fill in the blanks

B. aluminum Fill in the blanks

C. lead Fill in the blanks

D. barium Fill in the blanks

E. iron Fill in the blanks

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Solution 4
Using the periodic table, specify the atomic mass of each
element.

A. calcium 40.08 a m u tomic ass nit

B. aluminum 26.98 a m u tomic ass nit

C. lead 207.2 a m u tomic ass nit

D. barium 137.3 a m u tomic ass nit

E. iron 55.85 a m u tomic ass nit

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Isotopes and Atomic Mass
Most elements have two or more isotopes that contribute to
the atomic mass of that element.
Table 4.8 The Atomic Mass of Some Elements
Element Atomic Symbols Atomic Mass Most Abundant Isotope
6 7 7
Lithium 3 Li, 3Li
Super 6, sub 3, L i. Super 7, sub 3, L i.

6.941 a m u
tomic ass nit

3 Li
Super 7, sub 3, L i

12 13 14 12
Carbon 6 C, 6 C, 6 C
Super 12, sub 6, C. Super 13, sub 6, C. Super 14, sub 6, C.

12.01 a m u
tomic ass nit

6C
Super 12, sub 6, C

16 17 18 16
Oxygen 8 O, 8 O, 8 O
Super 16, sub 8, O. Super 17, sub 8, O. Super 18, sub 8, O.

16.00 a m u
tomic ass nit

8O
Super 16, sub 8, O

19 19
Fluorine 9F
Super 19, sub 9, F.

19.00 a m u
tomic ass nit

9F
Super 19, sub 9, F

32 33 34 36 32
Sulfur 16 S, 16 S, 16 S, 16 S
Super 32, sub 16, S. Super 33, sub 16, S. Super 34, sub 16, S. Super 36, sub 16, S.

32.07 a m u
tomic ass nit

16 S
Super 32, sub 16, S

39 40 41 39
Potassium 19 K, 19 K, 19K
Super 39, sub 19, K. Super 40, sub 19, K. Super 41, sub 19, K.

39.10 a m u
tomic ass nit

19 K
Super 39, sub 19, K

63 65 63
Copper 29 Cu, 29Cu
Super 63, sub 29, C u. Super 65, sub 29, C u.

63.55 a m u
tomic ass nit

29 Cu
Super 63, sub 29, C u

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Isotopes of Magnesium (1 of 2)
Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes.
Table 4.7 Isotopes of Magnesium

24 25 26
Atomic Symbol 12 Mg
Superscript 24, sub 12, M g

12 Mg
Superscript 25, sub 12, M g

12 Mg
Superscript 26, sub 12, M g

Name Mg-24 Mg-25 Mg-26

Number of Protons 12 12 12
Number of Electrons 12 12 12
Mass Number 24 25 26
Number of Neutrons 12 13 14
Percent 78.70 10.13 11.17

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Isotopes of Magnesium (2 of 2)
Magnesium, with three
naturally occurring
isotopes, has an atomic
mass of 24.31 a m u .
tomic ass nit

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Calculating Atomic Mass (1 of 2)
The atomic mass of 35.45 a m u fortomic ass nit

chlorine that we see on the periodic

table is the average mass of a
sample of Cl atoms, although no
individual Cl atom actually has this
mass.
The atomic mass of 35.45 is closer
to the mass number of the isotope C
l-35 which indicates a higher
percentage of Cl-35 atoms in the
chlorine sample.

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Calculating Atomic Mass (2 of 2)
To calculate atomic mass,
• use an experimental percent abundance of each isotope of
the element
• multiply the percent abundance by the atomic mass of that
isotope
• sum the total mass of each isotope

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Learning Check 5
Lithium has two naturally occurring isotopes, Li-6 and Li-7.
If the atomic mass for lithium on the periodic table is 6.941,
which isotope of lithium is more abundant?

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Solution 5
Lithium has two naturally occurring isotopes, Li-6 and Li-7.
If the atomic mass for lithium on the periodic table is 6.941,
which isotope of lithium is more abundant?
The isotope Li-7 is more abundant because its mass is
closer to the atomic mass of Li on the periodic table.

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Learning Check 6
There are three naturally occurring isotopes of potassium,
K-39, K-40, and K-41. If the atomic mass for potassium on
the periodic table is 39.10, which isotope of potassium is
most abundant?

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Solution 6
There are three naturally occurring isotopes of potassium,
K-39, K-40, and K-41. If the atomic mass for potassium on
the periodic table is 39.10, which isotope of potassium is
most abundant?
The isotope K-39 is most abundant because its mass
is closest to the atomic mass of K on the periodic
table.

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4.6 Electron Energy Levels
A rainbow forms when light
passes through water
droplets.

Learning Goal Given the name or symbol of one of the first

20 elements in the periodic table, write the electron
arrangement.
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Electromagnetic Radiation
We experience electromagnetic radiation in different forms
when we listen to a radio, use a microwave oven, see colors
in a rainbow, or have an X-ray taken.
All types of electromagnetic radiation, including light, consist
of particles that move as waves of energy.
• the distance between the peaks of waves is called the
wavelength
• high-energy radiation has shorter wavelengths
• low-energy radiation has longer wavelengths

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The electromagnetic spectrum shows the arrangement of

wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, with the visible
range from 700 to 400 n m . ano eters

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Learning Check 1
Identify the form of electromagnetic radiation in each pair
that has the greater energy:
A. yellow light or blue light
B. ultraviolet light or infrared light
C. X-rays or microwaves

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Solution 1
Identify the form of electromagnetic radiation in each pair
that has the greater energy:
A. yellow light or blue light blue light
B. ultraviolet light or infrared light ultraviolet light
C. X-rays or microwaves X-rays

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Atomic Spectrum
When light from a heated element passes through a prism, it
separates into distinct lines of color separated by dark areas
called an atomic spectrum.
Each element has its own unique atomic spectrum.

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Electron Energy Levels (1 of 2)
The lines in an atomic spectrum are associated with the
changes in energies of the electrons.
In an atom, each electron has a specific energy level.
Energy levels
• are assigned values called principal quantum numbers
(n): n = 1, n = 2, …

• increase in energy as the value of n increases and they are

farther away from the nucleus

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Electron Energy Levels (2 of 2)
• Electrons can only have certain
energy values; we therefore say
that the energy of an electron is
quantized.
• Energy levels increase in energy
as the value of n increases.

An electron can have only the

energy of one of the energy
levels in an atom.

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Changes in Electron Energy Level
• When electrons change
from a lower to a higher
energy level, they absorb
the energy equal to the
change in energy levels.
• When electrons change
from a higher to a lower
energy level, they emit
energy equal to the change
in energy levels.

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Learning Check 2
In each of the following energy level changes, indicate if
energy is (1) absorbed, (2) emitted, or (3) not changed:

A. An electron moves from the first energy level

(n = 1) to the third energy level (n = 3).

B. An electron falls from the third energy level to

the second energy level.

C. An electron moves within the third energy level.

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Solution 2
In each of the following energy level changes, indicate if
energy is (1) absorbed, (2) emitted, or (3) not changed:

A. An electron moves from the first energy level

(n = 1) to the third energy level (n = 3).
1. absorbed
B. An electron falls from the third energy level to
the second energy level.
2. emitted
C. An electron moves within the third energy level.

3. not changed

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Electron Arrangements (1 of 3)

Table 4.9 Electron Arrangements for the First 20 Elements

Number of Number of Number of Number of
Electrons Electrons Electrons Electrons
Atomic in Energy in Energy in Energy in Energy
Element Symbol Number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Hydrogen H 1 1
Blank Blank Blank

Helium He 2 2
Blank Blank Blank

Lithium LI 3 2 1
Blank Blank

Beryllium Be 4 2 2
Blank Blank

Boron B 5 2 3
Blank Blank

Carbon C 6 2 4
Blank Blank

Nitrogen N 7 2 5
Blank Blank

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Electron Arrangements (2 of 3)
Table 4.9 [Continued]
Number of Number of Number of Number of
Electrons Electrons Electrons Electrons
Atomic in Energy in Energy in Energy in Energy
Element Symbol Number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Oxygen O 8 2 6
Blank Blank

Fluorine F 9 2 7
Blank Blank

Neon Ne 10 2 8
Blank Blank

Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Blank

Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2
Blank

Aluminum Al 13 2 8 3
Blank

Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Blank

Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5
Blank

Sulfur S 16 2 8 6
Blank

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Electron Arrangements (3 of 3)
Table 4.9 [Continued]
Number of Number of Number of Number of
Electrons Electrons Electrons Electrons
Atomic in Energy in Energy in Energy in Energy
Element Symbol Number Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7
Blank

Argon Ar 18 2 8 8
Blank

Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1

Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2

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Electron Arrangements in Period 1
The single electron of hydrogen goes into energy level 1,
and the two electrons of helium fill energy level 1.

Electron Arrangement
Blank

Hydrogen 1
Helium 2

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Electron Arrangements in Period 2
For the elements of the second period (lithium, Li to neon, N
e), we fill the first energy level with two electrons, and place
the remaining electrons in the second energy level.
Electron Arrangement
Blank

Lithium 2,1
Beryllium 2,2
Boron 2,3
Carbon 2,4
Nitrogen 2,5
Oxygen 2,6
Fluorine 2,7
Neon 2,8

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Electron Arrangements in Period 3
For the elements of the third period (sodium, Na to argon, Ar), we
fill the first energy level with two electrons, the second energy level
with eight electrons, and place the remaining electrons in the third
energy level.
Electron Arrangement
Blank

Sodium 2,8,1
Magnesium 2,8,2
Aluminum 2,8,3
Silicon 2,8,4
Phosphorus 2,8,5
Sulfur 2,8,6
Sodium 2,8,7
Magnesium 2,8,8

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Electron Arrangements in Period 4
For potassium, the first element in Period 4, electrons fill
the first, second, and third energy levels. The remaining
electron of potassium enters energy level 4.
For calcium, the process is similar, except that calcium
has two electrons in the fourth energy level.

Electron Arrangement
Blank

Potassium 2,8,8,1
Calcium 2,8,8,2

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Electron Arrangements Beyond 20
Following calcium, the next 10 electrons (Sc to Zn) are
added to the third energy level, which already has 8
electrons, until it is complete with 18 electrons.
The higher energy levels 5, 6, and 7 can theoretically
accommodate up to 50, 72, and 98 electrons, but they are
not completely filled.

Energy Level (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Number of 2 8 18 32 32 18 8
Electrons

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Learning Check 3
Write the electron arrangements for the following elements:

Si

Na
N

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Solution 3
Write the electron arrangements for the following elements:

C atomic number = 6 2,4

Si atomic number = 14 2,8,4

Na atomic number = 11 2,8,1

N atomic number = 7 2,5

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Chemistry Link to Health
Biological Reactions to UV Light
• In a type of depression called
seasonal affective disorder (S
AD), people experience mood
swings and depression during
the winter.
• Some research suggests that S
AD is the result of a decrease in
serotonin, or an increase in
melatonin, when there are fewer
hours of sunlight.
• One treatment for SAD is
therapy using bright light
provided by a lamp called a light
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4.7 Trends in Periodic Properties
The change in temperature with the seasons is a periodic
property we observe in everyday life.

Learning Goal Use the electron arrangement of elements to

explain the trends in periodic properties.
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Periodic Properties (1 of 4)

The electron arrangements of atoms is an important factor

in the physical and chemical properties of the elements.
Periodic properties (such as atomic size, ionization
energy, and metallic character) increase or decrease
across a period, and then the trend is repeated in each
successive period.

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Periodic Properties (2 of 4)
Table 4.10 Comparison of Electron Arrangements, by Group, for Some
Representative Elements
Number of Number of Number of Number of
Electrons in Electrons Electrons in Electrons in
Group Energy in Energy Energy Energy
Number Element Symbol Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
1A (1) Lithium Li 2 1
Blank Blank

Sodium Na 2 8 1
1A (1) Blank

Potassium K 2 8 8 1
1A (1)

2A (2) Beryllium Be 2 2
Blank Blank

Magnesium Mg 2 8 2
2A (2) Blank

Calcium Ca 2 8 8 2
2A (2)

3A (13) Boron B 2 3
Blank Blank

Aluminum Al 2 8 3
3A (13) Blank

Gallium Ga 2 8 18 3
3A (13)

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Periodic Properties (3 of 4)
Table 4.10 [Continued]

Number of Number of Number of Number of

Electrons in Electrons Electrons in Electrons in
Group Energy in Energy Energy Energy
Number Element Symbol Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
4A (14) Carbon C 2 4
Blank Blank

Silicon Si 2 8 4
4A (14) Blank

Germanium Ge 2 8 18 4
4A (14)

5A (15) Nitrogen N 2 5
Blank Blank

Phosphorus P 2 8 5
5A (15) Blank

Arsenic As 2 8 18 5
5A (15)

6A (16) Oxygen O 2 6
Blank Blank

Sulfur S 2 8 6
6A (16) Blank

Selenium Se 2 8 18 6
6A (16)

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Periodic Properties (4 of 4)
Table 4.10 [Continued]

Number of Number of Number of Number of

Electrons in Electrons Electrons in Electrons in
Group Energy in Energy Energy Energy
Number Element Symbol Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
7A (17) Fluorine F 2 7
Blank Blank

Chlorine Cl 2 8 7
7A (17) Blank

Bromine Br 2 8 18 7
7A (17)

8A (18) Helium He 2
Blank Blank Blank

Neon Ne 2 8
8A (18) Blank Blank

Argon Ar 2 8 8
8A (18) Blank

Krypton Kr 2 8 18 8
8A (18)

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Group Number and Valence
Electrons (1 of 2)
• For representative elements in Groups 1A (1) to 8A (18),
chemical properties are mostly due to the number of
valence electrons.
• Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost
energy level.
• The group number gives the number of valence
electrons for the representative elements.

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Group Number and Valence
Electrons (2 of 2)
Group Number Number of Valence Electrons
1A (1) 1
2A (2) 2
3A (13) 3
4A (14) 4
5A (15) 5
6A (16) 6
7A (17) 7
8A (18) 8

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Learning Check 1
Using the periodic table, write the group number and the
number of valence electrons for each of the following
elements:
A. strontium

B. argon

C. silicon

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Solution 1
Using the periodic table, write the group number and the
number of valence electrons for each of the following
elements:
A. strontium group 2A (2); 2 valence electrons

B. argon group 8A (18); 8 valence electrons

C. silicon group 4A (14); 4 valence electrons

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Lewis Symbols

A Lewis symbol
• is a convenient way to represent the valence electrons of an
element
• dots are placed on the sides, top, or bottom of the symbol for
the element
For example, the element aluminum has
an electron arrangement of 2,8,3. Three
dots are placed around the symbol Al to
represent the three valence electrons.

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Lewis Symbol for Mg
Possible Lewis symbols for magnesium, with the electron
arrangement of 2,8,2
• include two valence electrons, represented as dots
• can be drawn in more than one way

Lewis Symbols for Magnesium

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Lewis Symbols for Selected Elements
Table 4.11 Lewis Symbols for Selected Elements in Periods 1 to 4

*Helium (He) is stable with two valence electrons.

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Learning Check 2
Draw the Lewis symbol for each of the following elements:

A. chlorine

B. selenium

C. potassium

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Solution 2
Draw the Lewis symbol for each of the following elements:

A. chlorine

B. selenium

C. potassium

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Atomic Size (1 of 2)
Atomic size
• is determined by the distance of
the valence electrons from the
nucleus of the atom
• increases for representative
elements going from top to
bottom of the periodic table
• decreases going from left to right
across a period as a result of the
increased number of protons in
the nucleus

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Atomic Size (2 of 2)
For representative elements,
the atomic size increases
going down a group but
decreases going from left to
right across a period.

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Learning Check 3
Identify the larger atom in each pair.

A. K or Li

B. S or Si

C. potassium or bromine

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Solution 3
Identify the larger atom in each pair.

A. K or Li K ; atomic size increases going

down a group

B. S or Si Si ; atomic size decreases going

from left to right across a period

C. Ca or Br Ca ; atomic size decreases going

from left to right across a period

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Ionization Energy (1 of 2)
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one of
the outermost electrons.

Na ( g ) + energy ( ionization ) → Na + ( g ) + e −

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Ionization Energy (2 of 2)
Ionization energy for the
representative elements
decrease going down a
group and increase going
across a period from left to
right.

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Learning Check 4
Identify the element in each pair that has the higher
ionization energy.

A. K or Li

B. S or Si

C. potassium or bromine

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Solution 4
Identify the element in each pair that has the higher
ionization energy.

A. K or Li Li ; ionization energy decreases

going down a group

B. S or Si S ; ionization energy increases going

from left to right across a period

C. Ca or Br Br ; ionization energy increases going

from left to right across a period

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Metallic Character (1 of 2)
An element with metallic character is one that loses
valence electrons easily.
Metallic character
• is higher in the elements (metals) on the left side of the
periodic table
• is lower in the elements (nonmetals) on the right side of
the periodic table, which do not lose electrons easily

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Metallic Character (2 of 2)
Metallic character of the
representative elements
increases going down a
group and decreases going
from left to right across a
period.

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Learning Check 5
Identify the element in each pair that has the more metallic
character.

A. K or Li

B. S or Si

C. potassium or bromine

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Solution 5
Identify the element in each pair that has the more metallic
character.

A. K or Li K ; metallic character increases

going down a group

B. S or Si Si ; metallic character decreases

going from left to right across a
period

C. Ca or Br Ca ; metallic character decreases

going from left to right across a
period

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Summary of Trends in the Periodic
Table
Table 4.12 Summary of Trends in Periodic Properties of
Representative Elements
Periodic Property Top to Bottom within a Group Left to Right across a Period

Valence Electrons Remains the same Increases

Atomic Size Increases due to the increase in Decreases due to the increase of
number of energy levels protons in the nucleus that pull
electrons closer
Ionization Energy Decreases because valence Increases as the attraction of the
electrons are easier to remove protons for outer electrons requires
when they are farther from the more energy to remove an electron
nucleus
Metallic Character Increases because valence Decreases as the attraction of the
electrons are easier to remove protons makes it more difficult to
when they are farther from the remove an electron
nucleus

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Learning Check 6
Given the following elements, answer the questions:

Li N F

Which is the largest atom?

Which has the highest ionization energy?

Which belongs to Group 5A (15)?

Which has the most metallic character?

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Solution 6
Given the following elements, answer the questions:

Li N F

Which is the largest atom? Li

Which has the highest ionization energy? F

Which belongs to Group 5A (15)? N

Which has the most metallic character? Li

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Concept Map

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Copyright

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