Chemistry: An Introduction to General,

Organic, and Biological Chemistry

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 2
Chemistry and
Measurements

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Chemistry and Measurements
Registered nurses work
to promote patient health
and to prevent and treat
disease.

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2.1 Units of Measurement
There are many measurements in everyday life.

Learning Goal Write the names and abbreviations for the

metric or SI units used in measurements of volume, length,
mass, temperature, and time.
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Units of Measurement
Scientists use the metric system of measurement and
have adopted a modification of the metric system called
the International System of Units as a worldwide
standard.
The International System of Units (SI) is an official
system of measurement used throughout the world for
units of length, volume, mass, temperature, and time.

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Units of Measurement, Metric and SI
Table 2.1 Units of Measurement and Their Abbreviations

Measurement Metric SI
Volume liter (L) cubic meter (m3 )
m cubed

Length meter (m) meter (m)

Mass gram (g) kilogram (kg)
Temperature degree Celsius (°C) degrees Celsius kelvin (K)
Time second (s) second (s)

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Volume (1 of 2)
Volume, the space occupied by a substance,
• is measured using units of m3 in the SI system.
• is commonly measured in liters (L) and milliliters (mL) by
chemists.

Graduated cylinders are used to

measure small volumes.

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Volume (2 of 2)
Useful relationships between units of volume include:
1 L = 1000 m L
iter illi iters

1 L = 1.06 qt
iter

946 m L = 1 q
illi iters uart

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Length (1 of 2)
Length is measured in
• units of meters (m) in both the metric and SI systems.
• units of centimeters (cm) by chemists.

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Length (2 of 2)
Useful relationships between units of length include:
1 m = 100 c m enti eters

1 m = 39.4 in . ch

1 m = 1.09 y d ar

2.54 c m = 1 in .
enti eters ch

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Mass (1 of 2)
The mass of an object, a
measure of the quantity of
material it contains,
• is measured on an electronic
balance.
• has the SI unit of kilogram (kg).
• is often measured by chemists
in grams (g).

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Mass (2 of 2)
Useful relationships between units of mass include:
1 k g = 1000 g
ilo ram ram

1 k g = 2.20 lb
ilo ram

454 g = 1 lb
ram

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Temperature
Temperature, a measure of how
hot or cold an object feels,
• is measured on the Celsius (°C)
scale.
• is measured on the Kelvin (K)
scale in the SI system.
• water freezes at 0 °C (32 °F)
and boils at 100 °C (212 °F).
• the Kelvin scale for temperature begins at the
lowest possible temperature, 0 K . elvin

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Time
Time is based on an atomic
clock and is measured in units
of seconds (s) in both the
metric and SI systems.
A stopwatch is used to
measure the time of a race.

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Learning Check 1
For each of the following, indicate whether the unit describes
(1) length, (2) mass, or (3) volume.

A. A bag of onions has a mass of 2.6 k g . ilo ram

B. A person is 1.7 m tall.

eter

C. A medication contains 0.50 g of aspirin.

ram

D. A bottle contains 1.5 L of water.

iters

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Solution 1
For each of the following, indicate whether the unit describes
(1) length, (2) mass, or (3) volume.

A. A bag of onions has a mass of 2.6 k g . ilo rams (2)

B. A person is 1.7 m tall.
eter (1)
C. A medication contains 0.50 g of aspirin.
rams (2)
D. A bottle contains 1.5 L of water.
iter (3)

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Learning Check 2
Identify the SI unit for each of the following:
A. volume
B. mass
C. length
D. temperature

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Solution 2
Identify the SI unit for each of the following:

A. The SI unit for volume is the cubic meter (m3 )

B. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg)
C. The SI unit for length is the meter (m)
D. The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin (K)

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Learning Check 3
Identify the measurement given in an S I unit.
A. John’s height is Fill in the blank .
1. 1.5 y dar 2. 6 f t oo 3. 1.9 m eter

B. The mass of a lemon is Fill in the blank.

1. 12 oz 2. 0.145 k g ilo rams 3. 0.31 lb

C. The temperature is Fill in the blank.

1. 255 K elvin 2. 85 °C 3. 45 °F

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Solution 3
Identify the measurement given in an SI unit.

A. John’s height is Fill in the blank. (3) 1.9 m eter

B. The mass of a lemon is Fill in the blank. (2) 0.145 k g ilo rams

C. The temperature is Fill in the blank. (1) 255 K elvin

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2.2 Measured Numbers and Significant
Figures
The number of baseballs is
counted, which means 2 is
an exact number.

Learning Goal Identify a number as measured or exact;

determine the number of significant figures in a measured
number.

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Measured Numbers
A measuring tool
• is used to determine a quantity such as the length or the
mass of an object.
• provides numbers for a measurement called measured
numbers.

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Reporting Length
To report the length of an object,
• observe the numerical values of the marked lines at the
end of the object.
• estimate the last digit by visually dividing the space
between the smallest marked lines.
This estimated number is the final digit that is reported for a
measured number.

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Reporting Length: 4.5 c m enti eters

• The end of the object is between the 4-c m and 5-c m enti eters enti eters

marks.
• Estimate that the end is halfway between the 4-c m and enti eters

5-c m marks and report the value as 4.5 c m .

enti eters enti eters

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Reporting Length: 4.55 c m enti eters

• This metric ruler is marked at every 0.1 c m . enti eters

• You can now estimate that the length is halfway between

the 4.5-c m and 4.6-c m marks and report the value as
enti eters enti eters

4.55 c m .
enti eters

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Reporting Length: 3.0 c m enti eters

• The end of the object lines up with the 3-c m mark. enti eters

• Because the divisions are marked in units of 1 c m , the enti eters

estimated digit appears in the tenths place (0.1 c m ). enti eters

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Learning Check 1

What is the length of the red line?

1. 9.2 c m
enti eters

2. 9.4 c m
enti eters

3. 9.20 c m enti eters

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Solution 1

What is the length of the red line?

1. 9.2 c m
enti eters

2. 9.4 c m
enti eters

The correct answer is 3. 9.20 c m (we can estimate the last digit 0)
enti eters

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Significant Figures

In a measured number, the significant figures (SFs) are all

the digits including the estimated digit.
All nonzero numbers are counted as significant figures.
Zeros may or may not be significant, depending on their
position in the number.

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Rules for Significant Figures
A number is a significant figure (SF) if it is or has the following:
Table 2.2 Significant Figures in Measured Numbers
Rule Measured Number Number of Significant Figures
1. A number is a significant figure if it is
Blank Blank

a. not a zero 4.5 g rams 2

122.35 m eters 5
b. a zero between nonzero digits 205 °C 3
5.008 kg
205 degrees Celsius

4
5.008 kilograms

c. a zero at the end of a decimal number 50 L iter 2

16.00 mL 4
d. in the coefficient of a number written in 4.8 × 105 m 2
4.8 times 10 to the fifth power meters.
5.70 times 10 to the negative third power grams.

scientific notation 5.70 × 10−3 g 3

2. A zero is not significant if it is
Blank Blank

a. at the beginning of a decimal number 0.0004 s econds 1

0.075 c m enti eters 2
b. used as a placeholder in a large number 850 000 m eters 2
without a decimal point 1 250 000 g rams 3

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Counting Significant Figures
All nonzero numbers in a measured number are significant.

Number of
Measurement Significant Figures
38.15 c m enti eters 4
5.6 f t
oo 2
65.6 lb 3
122.55 m eters 5

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Zeros Between Digits
Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.

Number of
Measurement Significant Figures
50.08 k m
ilo eters 4
201 min utes 3
0.0702 lb 3
0.40505 m eters 5

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Zeros: Decimal Numbers (1 of 2)
Zeros at the end of decimal numbers are significant.

Number of
Measurement Significant Figures
200 min utes 3
40.00 g rams 4

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Zeros: Decimal Numbers (2 of 2)
Zeros at the beginning of decimal numbers are not
significant.
Number of
Measurement Significant Figures
0.440 k m ilo eters 3
0.022 g rams 2
0.003 s econds 1

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Zeros: Nondecimal Numbers
Zeros used as placeholders in a large number without a
decimal point are not significant.

Number of
Measurement Significant Figures
44 000 k m ilo eters 2
810 c m
enti eters 2
6 150 000 g rams 3

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Zeros: Scientific Notation (1 of 2)
Zeros in the coefficient of numbers written in scientific
notation are significant.
Number of
Measurement Significant Figures
4.90 × 103 m 3
4.90 times 10 to the third power meters

8.0 × 10−3 kg 2
8.0 times 10 to the negative third power kilograms

6.0330 × 10 −5 L 5
6.0330 times 10 to the negative five power Liters

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Zeros: Scientific Notation (2 of 2)
Keep only the significant zeros when writing numbers in
scientific notation.
Number of
Measurement Significant Figures Scientific Notation
500. g rams 3 5.00 × 102 g 5.00 times 10 to the power 2 grams

400 000 m eters 1 4 × 105 m 4 times 10 to the power 5 meters

0.30 c m
enti eters 2 3.0 × 10−1 cm
3.0 times 10 to the power negative 1 centimeters

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Learning Check 2
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in each of
the following numbers, and write each number in the
correct scientific notation:
A. 0.002 650 m eters

B. 43.026 g rams

C. 1 044 000 L iters

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Solution 2 (1 of 2)
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in each of the
following numbers, and write each number in the correct scientific
notation:

A. 0.002 650 m is written as 2.650 × 10−3 m four SFs

• The zeros preceding the 2 are not significant.
• The digits 2, 6, and 5 are significant.
• The zero in the last decimal place is significant.

B. 43.026 g is written as 4.3026 × 101 g five SFs

• The zeros between nonzero digits or at the end of decimal
numbers are significant.
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Solution 2 (2 of 2)
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in each of the
following numbers, and write each number in the correct scientific
notation:

C. 1 044 000 L is written as 1.044 × 106 L four SFs

• The zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
• The zeros at end of a number with no decimal point are not
significant.

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Exact Numbers (1 of 2)
Exact numbers are
• those numbers obtained by counting items.
• definitions that compare two units in the same measuring
system.

8 cookies
2 baseballs
1 f t = 12 in .
oo ches

1 k g = 1000 g
ilo rams rams

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Exact Numbers (2 of 2)
Exact numbers are not measured, do not have a limited
number of significant figures, and do not affect the number
of significant figures in a calculation.
Table 2.3 Examples of Some Exact Numbers

Counted Numbers Defined Equalities

Defined Equalities

Items Metric System U.S. System

8 doughnuts 1 L = 1000 m L
iter illi iter 1 f t = 12 in . oo ches

2 baseballs 1 meter = 100 c m enti eters 1 q t = 4 cups uar

5 capsules 1 k g = 1000 g
ilo ram rams 1 lb = 16 oz

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Learning Check 3
Identify the numbers below as measured or exact, and give
the number of significant figures in each measured number.
A. 3 coins
B. The diameter of a circle is 7.902 c m . enti eters

C. 60 min = 1 h
utes our

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Solution 3
Identify the numbers below as measured or exact, and give
the number of significant figures in each measured number.
A. The value 3 coins is obtained by counting, making it an
exact number.
B. The diameter of a circle is obtained using a measuring
device (ruler). The contained zero in this measured
number is significant, so it contains four SFs.
C. 60 min = 1 h is exact by definition.
utes our

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Learning Check 4
State the number of significant figures in each of the
following measurements:

A. 0.030 m eters

B. 4.050 L iters

C. 0.0008 g rams

D. 2.80 m eters

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Solution 4
State the number of significant figures in each of the
following measurements:

A. 0.030 m eters
2 SFs
B. 4.050 L iters 4 SFs
C. 0.0008 g rams 1 SF
D. 2.80 m eters 3 SFs

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Learning Check 5
A. Which answer contains three significant figures?

1. 0.4760 2. 0.00476 3. 4.076 × 103

B. All the zeros are significant in

1. 0.00307 2. 25.300 3. 2.050 × 103

C. The number of significant figures in 5.80 × 102 is

1. one 2. two 3. three

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Solution 5
A. Which answer contains three significant figures?

2. 0.00476

B. All the zeros are significant in

2. 25.300 and 3. 2.050 × 103

C. The number of significant figures in 5.80 × 102 is

3. three

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2.3 Significant Figures in Calculations
A calculator is helpful in
working problems and
doing calculations faster.

Learning Goal Adjust calculated answers to give the

correct number of significant figures.

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Rounding Off

In calculations,
• calculated answers are usually rounded off.
• rounding rules are used to obtain the correct number of
significant figures.

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Rules for Rounding Off
1. If the first digit to be dropped is 4 or less, then it and all
the following digits are dropped from the number.
2. If the first digit to be dropped is 5 or greater, then the last
retained digit of the number is increased by 1.

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Rounding Off and Significant Figures
Number to Round Off Three Significant Figures Two Significant Figures

8.4234 8.42 (drop 34) 8.4 (drop 234)

14.780 14.8 (drop 80, increase the 15 (drop 780, increase the
last retained digit by 1) last retained digit by 1)
3256 3260* (drop 6, increase the 3300* (drop 56, increase
last retained digit by 1, the last retained digit by
add 0) (3.26 × 103 )
3.26 times 10 to the third power. 1, add 00) (3.3 × 103 )
3.3 times 10 to the third power.

*The value of a large number is retained by using placeholder zeros to replace dropped digits.

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Learning Check 1
Write the correct value when 3.145 g is rounded off to each
of the following:
A. three SFs
B. two SFs

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Solution 1
Write the correct value when 3.145 g is rounded off to each
rams

of the following:
A. To round off 3.145 to three SFs,
• drop the final digit, 5
• increase the last remaining digit by 1
The answer is 3.15 g . rams

B. To round off 3.145 g to two SFs,

rams

• drop the final digits, 45

• do not increase the last number by 1 since the next
digit is 4
The answer is 3.1 g . rams

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Learning Check 2
Adjust the following calculated answers to give answers
with three significant figures:

A. 824.75 c m enti eters

B. 0.112 486 g rams

C. 5.3 L
iter

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Solution 2
Adjust the following calculated answers to give answers
with three significant figures:

A. 824.75 c m enti eter

825 c m enti eters

B. 0.112 486 g rams 0.112 g rams

C. 5.3 L
iters 5.30 L iters

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Multiplication and Division with
Measured Numbers

In multiplication or division, the final answer is written to

have the same number of significant figures (SFs) as the
measurement having the fewest SFs.

Example: 2.8 × 67.40

=
34.8

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Adding Significant Zeros
When the calculator answer is a small whole number and
more significant figures are needed, we can add one or
more zeros.

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Learning Check 3
Perform the following calculation of measured numbers.
Give the answer with the correct number of significant
figures.
5.00 cm × 3.408 cm
=
2.0 cm

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Solution 3
Perform the following calculation of measured numbers. Give
the answer with the correct number of significant figures.

5.00 cm × 3.408 cm
=
2.0 cm
Using a calculator:

5.00 × 3.408 ÷ 2.0 = 8.52

3 SFs 4 SFs 2 SFs Calculator display

Express answer with 2 SFs and proper units:

= 8.5 cm3

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Addition and Subtraction with SFs (1 of 2)
In addition or subtraction, the final answer is written so that it
has the same number of decimal places as the measurement
having the fewest decimal places.
Example 1 Add the following measured numbers:

2.012 Thousandths place

61.09 Hundredths place
+ 3.0 Tenths place
66.102 Calculator display
66.1 Answer rounded to the tenths place

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Addition and Subtraction with SFs (2 of 2)
Example 2 Subtract the following measured numbers:

65.09 Hundredths place

−3.0
negative 3.0

Tenths place
62.09 Calculator display
62.1 Answer rounded to the tenths place

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Learning Check 4
Add the following measured numbers:

82.409 mg
+ 22.0 mg

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Solution 4
Add the following measured numbers:

82.409 mg Thousandths place

+22.0 mg Tenths place
104.409 mg Calculator display
104.4 mg Answer rounded to the tenths place

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2.5 Writing Conversion Factors
In the United States,
the contents of many
packaged foods are
listed in both U.S. and
metric units.

Learning Goal Write a conversion factor for two units that

describe the same quantity.
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Equalities
Equalities
• use two different units to describe the same quantity
• can be between units of the metric system, or between
U.S. units, or between metric and U.S. units

1 m = 1000 m m
eter illi eter

1 lb = 16 oz
2.20 lb = 1 k g ilo ram

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Equalities on Food Labels
The contents of many
packaged foods
• are listed in both metric and
U.S. units.
• indicate the same amount of
a substance in two different
units.
In the United States, the
contents of many packaged
foods are listed in both U.S.
and metric units.

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Equalities and Significant Figures (1 of 2)
The numbers in any equality between two metric units or
between two U.S. system units are definitions.
Because numbers in a definition are exact, they are not used
to determine significant figures (SFs).
1 g = 1000 m g
ram illi rams

1 f t = 12 in .
oo ches

1 min = 60 s utes econds

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Equalities and Significant Figures (2 of 2)
When an equality consists of a metric unit and a U.S.
unit, one of the numbers in the equality is obtained by
measurement and counts toward the significant figures
(SFs) in the answer.
454 g = 1 lb
946 m L = 1 q t
illi iters uar

39.4 in . = 1 m ches eter

Exception: The equality 1 in . = 2.54 c m has been

ch enti eters

defined as an exact relationship, and therefore 2.54 is an

exact number.

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Conversion Factors

Any equality can be written as fractions called conversion

factors. Be sure to include units when you write conversion
factors.
Conversion Factors for the Equality 1 h = 60 min
Numerator → 60 min 1h
and
Denominator → 1 h 60 min
These conversion factors are read as “60 minutes per hour”
and “1 hour per 60 minutes.” The per means “divide.”
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Some Common Equalities
Table 2.7 Some Common Equalities
Quantity Metric (SI) U.S. Metric–U.S.
Length 1 k m = 1000 m ilo eter eters 1 f t = 12 in .
oo ches 2.54 c m = 1 in . (exact) enti eters ch

1 m = 1000 m m 1 yd = 3 f t 1 m = 39.4 in .
Blank

eter illi eters ar oo eter ches

1 c m = 10 m m 1 mi = 5280 f t 1 k m = 0.621 mi
Blank

enti eter illi eters le oo ilo eter les

Volume 1 L = 1000 m L iter illi iters 1 q t = 4 cups uar 946 m L = 1 q t illi iter uar

1 d L = 100 m L 1 q t = 2 pt 1 L = 1.06 q t
Blank

eci iter illi iters uar in s iter uar

1mL = 1cm3 1 gal = 4 q t 473 m L = 1 p t

Blank 1 milliliter = 1 cubic centimeter

lon uar illi iters in s

1 mL = 1 c c * 5 m L = 1 t (tsp)*
Blank Blank

illi iter ubic entimeter illi iters

15 m L = 1 T (tbsp)*
Blank Blank Blank

illi iters

Mass 1 k g = 1000 g ilo ram rams 1 lb = 16 oz 1 k g = 2.20 lb

ilo ram

1 g = 1000 m g 454 g = 1 lb
Blank Blank

ram illi rams rams

1 m g = 1000 mc g *
Blank Blank Blank

illi ram i ro rams

Time 1 h = 60 min 1 h = 60 min

Blank

our ute our ute

1 min = 60 s 1 min = 60 sec

Blank Blank

ute econds ute onds

*Used in medicine.

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Writing Conversion Factors
We can write
• metric conversion factors:

100 cm 1m
1m = 100 cm and
1m 100 cm

• metric–U.S. system conversion factors:

2.20 lb 1kg
1kg = 2.20 lb and
1kg 2.20 lb

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Learning Check 1
Write the equality and two conversion factors for each of
the following pairs of units:
A. liters and milliliters
B. inches and meters
C. milligrams and micrograms

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Solution 1
Write the equality and two conversion factors for each of the
following pairs of units:

1000 mL 1L
A. 1L = 1000 mL and
1L 1000 mL

39.4 in. 1m
B. 39.4 in. = 1m and
1m 39.4 in.

1000 mcg 1mg

C. 1mg = 1000 mcg and
1mg 1000 mcg

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Conversion Factors Within a Problem (1 of 2)
An equality may also be stated within a problem that only
applies to that problem.
1. The car travels at 85 k m /h . ilo eters our

Equality Conversion Factors Significant Figures or Exact

85 k m = 1 h 85 km 1h The 85 k m is measured: It has two
Start fraction 85 kilometers over 1 hour end fraction and start fraction 1 hour over 85 kilometers end fraction.

and
ilo eters our ilo eter

1h 85 km significant figures. The 1 h is exact.

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Conversion Factors Within a Problem (2 of 2)
2. The tablet contains 500 m g of vitamin C illi rams

Equality Conversion Factors Significant Figures or Exact

1 tablet = 500 500 mg vitamin C The 500 m g is measured: It has one
illi rams

milligrams of 1 tablet significant figure. The 1 tablet is

vitamin C and
start fraction 500 milligrams vitamin C over 1 tablet end fraction and start fraction 1 tablet over 500 milligrams vitamin C end fraction
exact.
1 tablet
500 mg vitamin C

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Conversion Factors from a Percentage
A percent (%) is written as a conversion factor by choosing a unit
and expressing the numerical relationship of the parts of this unit
to 100 parts of the whole.
• For example, a person has 18% body fat by mass.

Equality Conversion Factors Significant Figures or Exact

18 k g of body fat
ilo rams

18 kg body fat The 18 k g is measured: It

ilo rams

= 100 k g of has two significant figures.

100 kg body mass
ilo rams

body mass The 100 k g is exact.

and
ilo rams

Start fraction 18 kilograms of body fat over 100 kilograms of body mass end fraction. Start fraction 100 kilograms of body mass over 18 kilograms of body fat end fraction.

100 kg body mass

18 kg body fat

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Conversion Factors from Dosage
Problems
Equalities stated within dosage problems for medications can also
be written as conversion factors.
Example: Keflex (cephalexin), an antibiotic used for respiratory
and ear infections, is available in 250-m g capsules. illi rams

Equality Conversion Factors Significant Figures or Exact

1 capsule = 250 m g
illi rams

250 mg Keflex The 250 m g is measured: It has

illi rams

of Keflex 1 capsule two significant figures. The 1

capsule is exact.
and
1 capsule
Start fraction 250 milligrams of Keflex over 1 capsule end fraction, and start fraction 1 capsule over 250 milligrams of Keflex end fraction.

250 mg Keflex

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Learning Check 2
Write the equality and two conversion factors for each of the
following:
A. meters and decimeters
B. jewelry that contains 18% gold
C. One gallon of gas is $2.40.

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Solution 2
Write the equality and two conversion factors for each of the following:
A. meters and decimeters
10 dm 1m
1m = 10 dm and
1m 10 dm
B. jewelry that contains 18% gold

18 g gold 100 g jewelry

18 g of gold = 100 g of jewelry and
100 g jewelry 18 g gold

C. One gallon of gas is $2.40.

$2.40 1 gal
1 gal = $2.40 and
1 gal $2.40
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