INTERNATIONAL ISO

STANDARD 25178-604

First edition
2013-08-01

Geometrical product specifications

(GPS) — Surface texture: Areal —
Part 604:
Nominal characteristics of non-
contact (coherence scanning
interferometry) instruments
Spécification géométrique des produits (GPS) — État de surface:
Surfacique —
Partie 604: Caractéristiques nominales des instruments sans contact
(à interférométrie par balayage à cohérence)

Reference number
ISO 25178-604:2013(E)

© ISO 2013
ISO 25178-604:2013(E)


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 ISO 25178-604:2013(E)


Contents Page

Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... iv
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................v
1 Scope.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Terms and definitions...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
2.1 Terms and definitions related to all areal surface texture measurement methods...................... 1
2.2 Terms and definitions related to x- and y-scanning systems........................................................................... 6
2.3 Terms and definitions related to optical systems...................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Terms and definitions related to optical properties of the workpiece................................................. 10
2.5 Terms and definitions specific to coherence scanning interferometric microscopy................ 10
3 Descriptions of the influence quantities...................................................................................................................................14
3.1 General......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Influence quantities.......................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Annex A (informative) Overview and components of a coherence scanning interferometry
(CSI) microscope.................................................................................................................................................................................................17
Annex B (informative) Coherence scanning interferometry (CSI) theory of operation................................22
Annex C (informative) Spatial resolution......................................................................................................................................................31
Annex D (informative) Example procedure for estimating surface topography repeatability..............36
Annex E (informative) Relation to the GPS matrix model............................................................................................................37
Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39

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Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2. [Link]/directives
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received. [Link]/patents
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
The committee responsible for this document is ISO/TC 213, Dimensional and geometrical product
specifications and verification. The document was prepared in collaboration with Technical Committee
CEN/TC 290, Dimensional and geometrical product specifications and verification.
ISO 25178 consists of the following parts, under the general title Geometrical product specifications
(GPS) — Surface texture: Areal:
— Part 1: Indication of surface texture
— Part 2: Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters
— Part 3: Specification operators
— Part 6: Classification of methods for measuring surface texture
— Part 70: Physical measurement standards
— Part 71: Software measurement standards
— Part 601: Nominal characteristics of contact (stylus) instruments
— Part 602: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (confocal chromatic probe) instruments
— Part 603: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (phase shifting interferometric microscopy) instruments
— Part 604: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (coherence scanning interferometry) instruments
— Part 605: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (point autofocus probe) instruments
— Part 606: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (focus variation) instruments
— Part 701: Calibration and measurement standards for contact (stylus) instruments
The following part is under preparation:
— Part 72: XML file format x3p

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Introduction
This part of ISO 25178 is a geometrical product specification (GPS) standard and is to be regarded as
a general GPS standard (see ISO/TR 14638). It influences chain link 5 of the chains of standards on
roughness profile, waviness profile, primary profile and areal surface texture.
The ISO/GPS Masterplan given in ISO/TR 14638 gives an overview of the ISO/GPS system of which this
document is a part. The fundamental rules of ISO/GPS given in ISO 8015 apply to this document and
the default decision rules given in ISO 14253-1 apply to specifications made in accordance with this
document, unless otherwise indicated.
For more detailed information on the relation of this part of ISO 25178 to other standards and to the GPS
matrix model, see Annex E.
This part of ISO 25178 describes the metrological characteristics of coherence scanning interferometric
microscopes, designed for the measurement of surface topography maps. For more detailed information
on the coherence scanning technique, see Annex A and Annex B.
NOTE Portions of this document, particularly the informative texts, may describe patented systems and
methods. This information is provided only to assist users in understanding the operating principles of coherence
scanning interferometry. This document is not intended to establish priority for any intellectual property, nor
does it imply a license to any proprietary technologies that may be described herein.

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 25178-604:2013(E)

Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface

texture: Areal —
Part 604:
Nominal characteristics of non-contact (coherence
scanning interferometry) instruments

1 Scope
This part of ISO 25178 specifies the metrological characteristics of coherence scanning interferometry
(CSI) systems for 3D mapping of surface height.

2 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.

2.1 Terms and definitions related to all areal surface texture measurement methods
2.1.1
areal reference
component of the instrument that generates a reference surface with respect to which the surface
topography is measured
2.1.2
coordinate system of the instrument
right hand orthonormal system of axes (x, y, z) defined as:
— (x, y) is the plane established by the areal reference of the instrument (note that there are optical
instruments that do not possess a physical areal guide)
— z-axis is mounted parallel to the optical axis and is perpendicular to the (x, y) plane for an optical
instrument; the z-axis is in the plane of the stylus trajectory and is perpendicular to the (x, y) plane
for a stylus instrument (see Figure 1)

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Key
1 coordinate system of the instrument
2 measurement loop

Figure 1 — Coordinate system and measurement loop of the instrument

Note 1 to entry: Normally, the x-axis is the tracing axis and the y-axis is the stepping axis. (This note is valid for
instruments that scan in the horizontal plane.)

Note 2 to entry: See also “specification coordinate system” [ISO 25178‑2:2012, 3.1.2] and “measurement coordinate
system” [ISO 25178‑6:2010, 3.1.1].

2.1.3
measurement loop
closed chain which comprises all components connecting the workpiece and the probe, e.g. the means of
positioning, the work holding fixture, the measuring stand, the drive unit, the probing system
Note 1 to entry: The measurement loop will be subjected to external and internal disturbances that influence the
measurement uncertainty.

SEE: Figure 1.
2.1.4
real surface of a workpiece
set of features which physically exist and separate the entire workpiece from the surrounding medium
Note 1 to entry: The real surface is a mathematical representation of the surface that is independent of the
measurement process.

Note 2 to entry: See also “mechanical surface” [ISO 25178‑2:2012, [Link] or ISO 14406:2010, 3.1.1] and
“electromagnetic surface” [ISO 25178‑2:2012, [Link] or ISO 14406:2010, 3.1.2].

Note 3 to entry: The electro-magnetic surface considered for one type of optical instrument may be different from
the electro-magnetic surface for other types of optical instruments.

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2.1.5
surface probe
device that converts the surface height into a signal during measurement
Note 1 to entry: In earlier standards, this was termed “transducer”.

2.1.6
measuring volume
range of the instrument stated in terms of the limits on all three coordinates measured by the instrument
Note 1 to entry: For areal surface texture measuring instruments, the measuring volume is defined by the
measuring range of the x- and y- drive units, and the measuring range of the z-probing system.

[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑601:2010, 3.4.1]

2.1.7
response curve
Fx, Fy, Fz
graphical representation of the function that describes the relation between the actual quantity and the
measured quantity
Note 1 to entry: An actual quantity in x (respectively y or z) corresponds to a measured quantity xM
(respectively yM or zM ).

Note 2 to entry: The response curve can be used for adjustments and error corrections.

[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑601:2010, 3.4.2]

2.1.8
amplification coefficient
α x, αy, α z
slope of the linear regression curve obtained from the response curve (2.1.7)
Note 1 to entry: There will be amplification coefficients applicable to the x, y and z quantities.

Note 2 to entry: The ideal response is a straight line with a slope equal to 1, which means that the values of the
measurand are equal to the values of the input quantities.

Note 3 to entry: See also “sensitivity of a measuring system” (ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007,[1] 4.12)

[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑601:2010, 3.4.3, modified —Note 3 to entry has been added.]
2.1.9
instrument noise
Ni
internal noise added to the output signal caused by the instrument if ideally placed in a noise-free environment
Note 1 to entry: Internal noise can be due to electronic noise, as e.g. amplifiers, or optical noise, as e.g. stray light.

Note 2 to entry: This noise typically has high frequencies and it limits the ability of the instrument to detect small
spatial wavelengths of the surface texture.

Note 3 to entry: The S-filter according ISO 25178‑3 may reduce this noise.

Note 4 to entry: For some instruments, instrument noise cannot be estimated because the instrument only takes
data while moving.

2.1.10
measurement noise
NM
noise added to the output signal occurring during the normal use of the instrument
Note 1 to entry: Notes 2 and 3 of 2.1.9 apply as well to this definition.

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Note 2 to entry: Measurement noise includes instrument noise (2.1.9).

2.1.11
surface topography repeatability
repeatability of topography map in successive measurements of the same surface under the same
conditions of measurement
Note 1 to entry: Surface topography repeatability provides a measure of the likely agreement between repeated
measurements normally expressed as a standard deviation.

Note 2 to entry: See ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007,[1] 2.15 and 2.21, for a general discussion of repeatability and
related concepts.

Note 3 to entry: Evaluation of surface topography repeatability is a common method for determining the
measurement noise.

2.1.12
sampling interval in x
Dx
distance between two adjacent measured points along the x-axis
Note 1 to entry: In many microscopy systems, the sampling interval is determined by the distance between
sensor elements in a camera, called pixels. For such systems, the terms pixel pitch and pixel spacing are often
used interchangeably with the term sampling interval. Another term, pixel width, indicates a length associated
with one side (x or y) of the sensitive area of a single pixel and is always smaller than the pixel spacing. Yet another
term, sampling zone, may be used to indicate the length or region over which a height sample is determined. This
quantity could either be larger or smaller than the sampling interval.

2.1.13
sampling interval in y
Dy
distance between two adjacent measured points along the y-axis
Note 1 to entry: In many microscopy systems, the sampling interval is determined by the distance between
sensor elements in a camera, called pixels. For such systems, the terms pixel pitch and pixel spacing are often
used interchangeably with the term sampling interval. Another term, pixel width, indicates a length associated
with one side (x or y) of the sensitive area of a single pixel and is always smaller than the pixel spacing. Yet another
term, sampling zone, may be used to indicate the length or region over which a height sample is determined. This
quantity could either be larger or smaller than the sampling interval.

2.1.14
digitization step in z
Dz
smallest height variation along the z-axis between two ordinates of the extracted surface
2.1.15
lateral resolution
Rl
smallest distance between two features which can be detected
[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑601:2010, 3.4.10, modified —The word “separation” has been removed before
“distance”.]
2.1.16
width limit for full height transmission
Wl
width of the narrowest rectangular groove whose measured height remains unchanged by the measurement
Note 1 to entry: Instrument properties (such as the sampling interval in x and y, the digitization step in z, and the
short wavelength cutoff filter) should be chosen so that they do not influence the lateral resolution and the width
limit for full height transmission.

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Note 2 to entry: When determining this parameter by measurement, the depth of the rectangular groove should
be close to that of the surface to be measured.

[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑601:2010, 3.4.11, modified —The notes have been changed.]
2.1.17
lateral period limit
DLIM
spatial period of a sinusoidal profile at which the height response of an instrument falls to 50 %
Note 1 to entry: The lateral period limit is one metric for describing spatial or lateral resolution of a surface
topography measuring instrument and its ability to distinguish and measure closely spaced surface features. Its
value depends on the heights of surface features and on the method used to probe the surface. Maximum values
for this parameter are listed in ISO 25178‑3:2012, Table 3, in comparison with recommended values for short
wavelength (s-)filters and sampling intervals.

Note 2 to entry: Spatial period is the same concept as spatial wavelength and is the inverse of spatial frequency.

Note 3 to entry: One factor related to the value of DLIM for optical tools is the Rayleigh criterion (2.3.7). Another is
the degree of focus of the objective on the surface.

Note 4 to entry: One factor related to the value of DLIM for contact tools is the stylus tip radius, r TIP (see
ISO 25178‑601).

Note 5 to entry: Other terms related to lateral period limit are structural resolution and topographic spatial resolution.

2.1.18
maximum local slope
greatest local slope of a surface feature that can be assessed by the probing system
Note 1 to entry: The term “local slope” is defined in ISO 4287:1997, 3.2.9.

2.1.19
instrument transfer function
ITF
fITF
function of spatial frequency describing how a surface topography measuring instrument responds to
an object surface topography having a specific spatial frequency
Note 1 to entry: Ideally, the ITF tells us what the measured amplitude of a sinusoidal grating of a specified spatial
frequency ν would be relative to the true amplitude of the grating.

Note 2 to entry: For several types of optical instruments, the ITF may be a nonlinear function of height except for
heights much smaller than the optical wavelength.

2.1.20
hysteresis
xHYS, yHYS, zHYS
property of measuring equipment, or characteristic whereby the indication of the equipment or value of
the characteristic depends on the orientation of the preceding stimuli
Note 1 to entry: Hysteresis can also depend, for example, on the distance travelled after the orientation of
stimuli has changed.

Note 2 to entry: For lateral scanning systems, the hysteresis is mainly a repositioning error.

[SOURCE: ISO 14978:2006, 3.24, modified —Note 2 to entry and the symbols have been added.]

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2.1.21
metrological characteristic
metrological characteristic of a measuring instrument
<measuring equipment> characteristic of measuring equipment, which may influence the results of
measurement
Note 1 to entry: Calibration of metrological characteristics may be necessary.

Note 2 to entry: The metrological characteristics have an immediate contribution to measurement uncertainty.

Note 3 to entry: Metrological characteristics for areal surface texture measuring instruments are given in Table 1.

Table 1 — List of metrological characteristics for surface texture measurement methods

Metrological characteristic Symbol Definition Main poten-
tial error
along
Amplification coefficient α x, αy, α z 2.1.8 x, y, z
Linearity deviation lx, ly, lz Maximum local difference between x, y, z
the line from which the amplifica-
tion coefficient is derived and the
response curve.
Residual flatness zFLT Flatness of the areal reference z
Measurement noise NM 2.1.10 z
Lateral period limit DLIM 2.1.17. z
Perpendicularity ΔPERxy Deviation from 90° of the angle x, y
between the x- and y-axes

[SOURCE: ISO 14978:2006, 3.12, modified — The notes are different and the table has been added.]

2.2 Terms and definitions related to x- and y-scanning systems

2.2.1
areal reference guide
component(s) of the instrument that generate(s) the reference surface, in which the probing system
moves relative to the surface being measured according to a theoretically exact trajectory
Note 1 to entry: In the case of x- and y-scanning areal surface texture measuring instruments, the areal reference
guide establishes a reference surface [ISO 25178‑2:2012, 3.1.8]. It can be achieved through the use of two linear
and perpendicular reference guides [ISO 3274:1996, 3.3.2] or one reference surface guide.

2.2.2
lateral scanning system
system that performs the scanning of the surface to be measured in the (x, y) plane
Note 1 to entry: There are essentially four aspects to a surface texture scanning instrument system: the x-axis
drive, the y-axis drive, the z-measurement probe and the surface to be measured. There are different ways in
which these may be configured and thus there will be a difference between different configurations as explained
in Table 2.

Note 2 to entry: When a measurement consists of a single field of view of a microscope, x- and y-scanning is not
used. However, when several fields of view are linked together by stitching methods, see Reference [2] the system
is considered to be a scanning system.

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Table 2 — Possible different configurations for reference guides (x and y)

Drive unit
Two reference guides (x and y)a One areal reference guide
Px o Cy Px o Py Cx o Cy Pxy Cxy
A: without arcuate
Px o Cy-A Px o Py-A Cx o Cy-A Pxy-A Cxy-A
error correction
Probing S: without arcu-
System ate error or with
Px ο Cy-S Px o Py-S Cx o Cy-S Pxy-S Cxy-S
arcuate error cor-
rected
a For two given functions f and g, f ο g is the combination of these functions

Px = probing systems moving along the x-axis

Py = probing systems moving along the y-axis

Cx = component moving along the x-axis

Cy = component moving along the y-axis

2.2.3
drive unit x
component of the instrument that moves the probing system or the surface being measured along the
reference guide on the x-axis and returns the horizontal position of the measured point in terms of the
lateral x coordinate of the profile
2.2.4
drive unit y
component of the instrument that moves the probing system or the surface being measured along the
reference guide on the y-axis and returns the horizontal position of the measured point in terms of the
lateral y coordinate of the profile
2.2.5
lateral position sensor
component of the drive unit that provides the lateral position of the measured point
Note 1 to entry: The lateral position can be measured or inferred by using, for example, a linear encoder, a laser
interferometer, or a counting device coupled with a micrometre screw.

2.2.6
speed of measurement
vx
speed of the probing system relative to the surface to be measured during the measurement along the x-axis
[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑601:2010, 3.4.13]
2.2.7
static noise
NS
combination of the instrument noise (2.1.9) and environmental noise on the output signal when the
instrument is not scanning laterally
Note 1 to entry: Environmental noise is caused by e.g. seismic, sonic and external electromagnetic disturbances.

Note 2 to entry: Notes 2 and 3 in 2.1.9 also apply to this definition.

Note 3 to entry: Static noise is included in measurement noise (2.1.10)

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2.2.8
dynamic noise
ND
noise occurring during the motion of the drive units on the output signal
Note 1 to entry: Notes 2 and 3 in 2.1.9 also apply to this definition.

Note 2 to entry: Dynamic noise includes the static noise.

Note 3 to entry: Dynamic noise is included in measurement noise (2.1.10).

2.3 Terms and definitions related to optical systems

2.3.1
light source
optical device emitting an appropriate range of wavelengths in a specified spectral region
2.3.2
measurement optical bandwidth
Bλ0
range of wavelengths of light used to measure a surface
Note 1 to entry: Instruments may be constructed with light sources with a limited optical bandwidth and/or with
additional filter elements to further limit the optical bandwidth.

2.3.3
measurement optical wavelength
λ0
effective value of the wavelength of the light used to measure a surface
Note 1 to entry: The measurement optical wavelength is affected by conditions such as the light source spectrum,
spectral transmission of the optical components, and spectral response of the image sensor array.

2.3.4
angular aperture
angle of the cone of light entering an optical system from a point on the surface being measured
[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑602:2010, 3.3.3]
2.3.5
half aperture angle
α
one half of the angular aperture
Note 1 to entry: This angle is sometimes called the “half cone angle” (see Figure 2).

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Key
L lens or optical system
P focal point
α half aperture angle

Figure 2 — Half aperture angle

2.3.6
numerical aperture
AN
sine of the half aperture angle multiplied by the refractive index n of the surrounding medium
AN= n sinα

Note 1 to entry: In air for visible light, n ≅ 1.

Note 2 to entry: The numerical aperture is dependent on the wavelength of light. Typically, the numerical aperture
is specified for the wavelength that is in the middle of the measurement optical bandwidth.

2.3.7
Rayleigh criterion
quantity characterizing the spatial resolution of an optical system given by the separation of two point
sources at which the first diffraction minimum of the image of one point source coincides with the
maximum of the other
Note 1 to entry: For a theoretically perfect, incoherent optical system with a filled objective pupil, the Rayleigh
criterion of the optical system is equal to 0,61 λ0/AN.

Note 2 to entry: This parameter is useful for characterizing the instrument response to features with heights
much less than λ0 for optical 3D metrology instruments.

2.3.8
Sparrow criterion
quantity characterizing the spatial resolution of an optical system given by the separation of two point
sources at which the second derivative of the intensity distribution vanishes between the two imaged points
Note 1 to entry: For a theoretically perfect, incoherent optical system with filled objective pupil, the Sparrow
criterion of the optical system is equal to 0,47 λ0/AN, approximately 0,77 times the Rayleigh criterion (2.3.7).

Note 2 to entry: This parameter is useful for characterizing the instrument response to features with heights
much less than λ0 for optical 3D metrology instruments.

Note 3 to entry: Under the same measurement conditions as the notes above, the Sparrow criterion is nearly equal
to the spatial period of 0,50 λ0/AN, for which the theoretical instrument response falls to zero.

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2.4 Terms and definitions related to optical properties of the workpiece

2.4.1
surface film
material deposited onto another surface whose optical properties are different from that surface
Note 1 to entry: This concept may also be called “surface layer”.

2.4.2
thin film
film whose thickness is such that the top and bottom surfaces cannot be readily separated by the optical
measuring system
Note 1 to entry: For some measurement systems with special properties and algorithms, the thicknesses of thin
films may be derived.

2.4.3
thick film
film whose thickness is such that the top and bottom surfaces can be readily separated by the optical
measuring system
2.4.4
optically smooth surface
surface from which the reflected light is primarily specular and scattered light is not significant
Note 1 to entry: An optically smooth surface behaves locally like a mirror.

Note 2 to entry: A surface that acts as optically smooth under certain conditions, such as wavelength range,
numerical aperture, pixel resolution, etc. can act as optically rough when one or more of these conditions change.

2.4.5
optically rough surface
surface that does not behave as an optically smooth surface, i.e. where scattered light is significant
Note 1 to entry: A surface that acts as optically rough under certain conditions, such as wavelength range,
numerical aperture, pixel resolution, etc. can act as optically smooth when one or more of these conditions change.

2.4.6
optically non-uniform material
sample with different optical properties in different regions
Note 1 to entry: An optically non-uniform material may result in measured phase differences across the field of
view that can be erroneously interpreted as differences in surface height.

2.5 Terms and definitions specific to coherence scanning interferometric microscopy

2.5.1
coherence scanning interferometry
CSI
surface topography measurement method wherein the localization of interference fringes during a scan
of optical path length provides a means to determine a surface topography map
Note 1 to entry: CSI encompasses but is not limited to instruments that use spectrally broadband, visible sources
(white light) to achieve interference fringe localization.

Note 2 to entry: CSI uses either fringe localization alone or in combination with interference phase evaluation,
depending on the surface type, desired surface topography repeatability and software capabilities.

Note 3 to entry: Table 3 compiles alternative terms that conform at least in part to the above definition.

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Table 3 — Summary of recognized terms for CSI

Acronym Term Bibliography reference
CSI Coherence scanning interferometry [3]
CPM Coherence probe microscope [4]
CSM Coherence scanning microscope [5]
CR Coherence radar [6]
CCI Coherence correlation interferometry [7]
MCM Mirau correlation microscope [8]
WLI White light interferometry [9]
WLSI White light scanning interferometry [10]
SWLI Scanning white light interferometry [11]
WLPSI White light phase shifting interferometry [12]
VSI Vertical scanning interferometry [10]
EVSI Enhanced VSI [10]
HDVSI High-definition Vertical Scanning Interferometry [13]
RSP Rough surface profiler [14]
RST Rough surface tester [15]
HIS Height scanning interferometer [16]
IRS Infrared scanning [17]

[SOURCE: ISO 25178‑6:2010, 3.3.5]

2.5.2
optical path length
physical distance a light beam travels multiplied by the index of refraction of the traversed medium
Note 1 to entry: The optical path difference in a two-beam interferometer is the difference in optical path length
between the reference path and measurement path.

2.5.3
coherence scanning interferometry signal
CSI signal
intensity data recorded for an individual image point or camera pixel as a function of scan position
Note 1 to entry: See Figure 3 and A.1.

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1 2

Key
1 modulation envelope (calculated)
2 CSI signal
3 intensity
4 scan position

Figure 3 — Typical CSI signal

2.5.4
interference fringes
rapidly modulating portion of the CSI signal, related to the interference effect and generated by the
variation of optical path length during the CSI scan
Note 1 to entry: The interference fringes are approximately sinusoidal as a function of scan position.

Note 2 to entry: The distance between interference-fringe peaks corresponds to scan position differences that
are approximately one-half the effective mean wavelength of the light source (see 2.3.1).

SEE: Figure 3.
2.5.5
interference phase
argument of the sine function used to approximate the form of interference fringes
Note 1 to entry: A complete fringe oscillation or period is equal to a 2π change in phase.

2.5.6
amplitude modulation
peak-to-valley or equivalent measure of the CSI signal
Note 1 to entry: Amplitude modulation depends mainly on radiance of the light source, camera sensitivity, and
reflectivities of object and reference mirror.

Note 2 to entry: Amplitude modulation is also often termed “signal strength”.

SEE: Figure 3.

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2.5.7
modulation envelope
overall variation in amplitude modulation of a CSI signal as a function of scan position
Note 1 to entry: The modulation envelope (Figure 3) is not necessarily a rigorously-defined aspect of the signal.
The quantitative shape of the envelope is related closely to the means by which it is calculated.

Note 2 to entry: The modulation envelope is most closely associated with the idea of fringe localization, which is
a basic characteristic of CSI signals.

Note 3 to entry: The modulation envelope is a consequence of limited optical coherence, which follows from using
a spectrally-broadband light source (white light), a spatially extended light source, or both.

2.5.8
analysis mode
signal processing option
processing selection that determines whether the software makes use of the modulation envelope alone
to measure surface heights or both the envelope and the interference fringe phase
2.5.9
modulation threshold
minimum modulation
DMOD
lowest amplitude modulation deemed usable by the software for further evaluation of surface height
Note 1 to entry: The minimum modulation level typically provides a selection for valid data points. Those points
with amplitude modulation falling below this level are considered invalid.

2.5.10
coherence scanning interferometry scan
CSI scan
mechanical or optical scan which varies the optical length of either the reference path or measurement
path to generate a signal that exhibits interference fringes
Note 1 to entry: In CSI microscopes, the most common (but not exclusive) scanning means is a physical translation
of an interference objective, which is pre-adjusted such that the peak CSI signal intensity coincides with the
position of best focus.

2.5.11
scan length
z TOT
total range of physical path length traversed by the CSI scan
Note 1 to entry: The scan length is usually synonymous with the total displacement of a moving component of
the interferometer mechanically translated along its optical axis during data acquisition. The moving component
could be, for example, an interference objective or a mirror in the reference arm or the complete interferometer
moving with respect to the surface.

SEE: A.5.
2.5.12
scan increment
Δz
distance travelled by the CSI scan between individual images captured by the camera (camera frames)
or individual data acquisition points
Note 1 to entry: The scan increment is commonly equivalent to 4 frames per interference fringe, but can be any
number of frames.

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2.5.13
scan speed
vz
velocity of the CSI scan
Note 1 to entry: This can be expressed e.g. in micrometres per second.

2.5.14
effective mean wavelength
twice the period of the interference fringe closest to the modulation envelope peak
Note 1 to entry: The period of an interference fringe is the scan distance separating two neighbouring peaks in
the CSI signal.

Note 2 to entry: The effective mean wavelength is a function of the measurement optical wavelength (2.3.3), the
optical geometry and the data acquisition method, see Reference [18].

2.5.15
fringe-order error
error in the identification of the correct fringe when calculating relative heights using interference
phase for surface topography calculations
Note 1 to entry: Fringe-order errors in CSI can be the result of errors in the analysis of the modulation envelope.

Note 2 to entry: Fringe-order errors are integer multiples of one-half the equivalent wavelength in height.

Note 3 to entry: Fringe-order errors are sometimes termed 2π errors.

2.5.16
environmental vibration
NVIB
mechanical motions that disturb the CSI scan in an unpredictable and unwanted way, leading to
measurement errors
Note 1 to entry: Environmental vibration may be caused by various sources (e.g. seismic, sonic and external
electro-magnetic disturbances), see B.6.

3 Descriptions of the influence quantities

3.1 General
CSI instruments provide a measurement of lateral (x, y) and height (z) values from which surface shape
and texture parameters are calculated.

3.2 Influence quantities

Influence quantities for CSI instruments are given in Table 4, which also indicates the metrological
characteristics (see 2.1.21, Table 1) that are affected by deviations of the influence quantities.
NOTE For a theoretically perfect, incoherent optical system with a filled objective pupil and when measuring
features with heights much smaller than λ0, the lateral period limit DLIM (2.1.17) of CSI systems is at least twice
the Rayleigh criterion (2.3.7).

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Table 4 — Influence quantities for coherence scanning interferometry

Metrological
Compo-
Element Influence quantities characteristic
nent
affected …
λ0 Measurement optical wavelength (See 2.3.3.) αz
B λ0 Measurement optical bandwidth (See 2.3.2.) αz
Light source S, P, C, The state of polarization of the light impinging on α x, α y, α z
E, U the measured surface. The polarization is typically
described as S, P, circular (C), elliptical (E), or unpolar-
ized (U).
AN Microscope numerical aperture (2.3.6) α x, α y, α z, DLIM
MIMG Magnification between object sizes on the surface and α x, α y
image sizes on the sensor
ΔPATH Wavefront distortion, a function describing net devia- αz
tions in the measured optical path of the system,
derived from deviations in both the reference and
measurement arms
Interferometer imaging
system QOPT General quality of the optical components used, α x, α y, α z, zFLT,
including aberrations, transmission, alignment errors, lx, ly, lz, DLIM,
etc. ΔPERxy
PDISxy Lateral distortion of the magnified image on the cam- α x, α y, zFLT, lx, ly,
era DLIM, ΔPERxy
UI(x, y) Illumination uniformity – Distribution of illumination α x, α y, α z, zFLT,
across the field of view of the object (a highly uniform, lx, ly, lz
constant distribution is desired)
Δx x-pixel spacing of the imaging camera DLIM
Camera
Δy y-pixel spacing of the imaging camera DLIM
Vz Scan speed (See 2.5.13, A.5 and B.4.) α z , lz
z TOT Scan length (See 2.5.11, A.5 and B.4.) α z , lz
Δz Scan Increment (See 2.5.12, A.5 and B.4.) αz
Acquisition
Software Δz-LIN Scan linearity (See A.5 and B.4.) α z , lz
TI Integration time required to complete a single scan in
NM
z
Controller Dz Height digitization step NM
AALG Measurement algorithm – Method for interpreting the α z , lz
CSI signal, including the option of using phase infor-
mation (See B.3.)
Profile Analy-
DMOD Fringe intensity modulation threshold - the minimum α z , lz
sis Software
peak-valley intensity variation that the controller
recognizes to be an interference fringe
Cz z-Cal factor, height adjustment coefficient α z , lz
Lateral sampling interval, equal to the lateral pixel DLIM
Dx or Dy spacing of the camera (Δx, Δy) divided by the magnifi-
cation
NI Instrument noise (2.1.9) NM
Instrument Overall
NVIB Environmental vibration (See B.6.) NM
xHYS,
yHYS, Hysteresis (2.1.19) lx, ly, lz
zHYS

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Table 4 (continued)
Metrological
Compo-
Element Influence quantities characteristic
nent
affected …
θTLT * Tilt – Relative angle between the optical axis of the α x, α y, α z
system and the sample normal. Object surface slopes
that cause light to reflect at or near to the edge or out-
side of the numerical aperture of the objective AN are
also likely to cause significant signal loss.
ΦDIS* The relative phase shift upon reflection of dissimilar αz
materials.
T FLM* Thickness of transparent or semi-transparent films. αz
These films typically have thickness comparable to
the illumination wavelength. Note that thinner con-
Sample tamination or native oxide films do not necessarily
affect the CSI measurement process.
T MED* Thick transparent media - transparent media (such αz
as cover glass or liquid) between the sample and the
instrument.
URF* Under resolved features - Object features having αz
dimensions on the order of or smaller than the lateral
resolution. (See Annex C.)
*NOTE     These influence quantities arise from the interaction between the
instrument and the sample being measured.

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Annex A
(informative)

Overview and components of a coherence scanning interferometry

(CSI) microscope

A.1 Overview
CSI instruments use the following measurement process.
— The instrument is focused on the surface as indicated by the appearance of interference fringes.
— For measurement of randomly rough surfaces, the sample tilt relative to the optical axis of the
system is adjusted to minimize the number of fringes across the field of view. For measurement of
step features on smooth surfaces, a sample tilt adjusted to provide one or more fringes across the
field of view and perpendicular to the step may be useful.
— The instrument executes a data acquisition during a CSI scan.
— Data analysis using either the modulation envelope, the interference fringes, or both, results in a
surface topography map.
Deviations of shape from a flat surface such as a residual tilt, curvature and cylinder are numerically
removed from the areal measurement producing a surface topography map. Further filtering may be
applied to the surface topography map as required.

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Key
1 light source 7 scanner
2 aperture stop 8 pupil plane
3 field stop 9 reference mirror
4 illumination beamsplitter 10 interferometer beamsplitter
5 camera 11 object surface
6 tube or zoom lens 12 Mirau interference objective

NOTE Other configurations are listed in A.4.

Figure A.1 — Schematic diagram of a typical Mirau-configuration CSI microscope

A.2 Typical configuration

Figure A.1 illustrates the basic features of a CSI microscope. The object has height features h which vary
over the object surface. A mechanical scanner provides a smooth, continuous scan ζ of the interference
objective in the z direction. During the scan, a computer records intensity data, I(ζ), for each image
point or camera pixel x, y in successive camera frames.

A.3 Light source

A distinctive feature of CSI is that the light source is generally incoherent. Thus, typical light sources
either have a broadband spectrum (white light) or are extended (many independent point sources), or
both. A classic example is an incandescent lamp such as a tungsten halogen bulb. Solid state sources,
such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) are increasingly common. They may emit white, green, blue, or
infrared light.

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The illumination optics as shown in Figure A.1 typically images the light source into the pupil of an
interference objective (Köhler illumination). The aperture stop controls the illumination AN (numerical
aperture, see 2.3.6), while the field stop controls the size of the object surface that is illuminated. For
dynamically-moving objects such as oscillating micro structures, the light source may be flashed at high
speed to stroboscopically freeze the object motion, see References [19] and [20].

A.4 Interference objective

CSI instruments, like phase-shifting interferometry microscopes, are most often configured in a manner
similar to a conventional microscope with the normal objective replaced by a two-beam interference
objective. Interference objectives are most commonly of the Michelson, Mirau, or Linnik type, see
Reference [21]. Some systems for larger fields of view use the Twyman Green geometry (Figure A.2), see
References [6] and [22].

Key
1 light source 6 reference flat
2 aperture 7 condenser
3 z-positioning 8 object lens
4 specimen 9 camera lens
5 beamsplitter 10 camera

Figure A.2 — Optical principle of a Twyman-Green-interferometer with camera sensor

Because the objective is scanned, the objective is preferably optimized to operate as an infinite conjugate
lens, meaning that a point on the object is imaged at infinity. The system magnification is the ratio of
the tube lens focal length (Figure A.1) to the focal length of the objective. The objective magnification

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is defined in terms of a nominal unity-magnification tube lens focal length, which varies between 160
and 200 mm, depending on the manufacturer. Thus, a 10X objective for a defined 200 mm tube lens has
a focal length of 20 mm.
Microscope objectives generally have a larger AN with increasing magnification, which influences
the interferometer design. As defined in 2.3.6 and shown in Figure 2, the AN is equal to n sin α. The
environment in a CSI instrument is usually air; therefore, the index n is close to 1. The sine of the angle
α is equal to the pupil radius divided by the objective focal length.
Another important characteristic of an interference objective is the working distance, which as
illustrated in Figure A.3, is the distance from the objective housing to the object. The working distance
is a function of the design of the objective, and relates to factors such as interferometer geometry,
focal length, mechanical structure and lens design. A large working distance is generally preferred
and can be a deciding factor in the choice of interferometer geometry. For magnifications of 10X and
smaller, for example, the Michelson interferometer using a prism beamsplitter is widely used because
it is easy to manufacture, has no obscurations and provides adequate working distance. The Twyman
Green interferometer, e.g. allows for a large working distance and a large scanning range. At higher
magnifications, the Mirau geometry is more prevalent because it provides a greater working distance.
For the highest magnifications, the Linnik is sometimes chosen because it has the largest working
distance for a given lens design than all other geometries.

Key
1 working distance
2 objective housing

Figure A.3 — Illustration of working distance

In all cases, the interference objective for a CSI instrument must be compatible with a low-coherence
light source, meaning in part that the position of best focus should be coincident with the position of
zero optical path difference, and the two interferometer paths should be balanced for dispersion of
refractive index with wavelength. In some cases, where the object surface may be underneath glass
or a layer of liquid, it is beneficial to introduce a dispersion compensation element into the reference
path, see Reference [23]. In addition, the amplitude modulation (see 2.5.6) and signal to noise ratio are
optimized when the backreflected intensities from the reference arm and the object arm are almost
equal. This can be achieved either by using an objective with reference surface reflectivity matched to
the surface or by inserting neutral density filter in one of the arms.
For some applications, a nonflat reference surface may be used that better matches the sample shape.
For example, measurement of the surface topography of a curved surface may be optimized with a
spherically-shaped reference surface, see Reference [24].

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A.5 Scanner
The scanner shown in Figure A.1 moves the interference objective or the objective turret; in other cases
the object moves. Generally, the scan motion is along the optical axis of the objective perpendicular to
the sample surface, i.e. in the z -direction, as shown in Figure A.1. The scan length of the CSI scanner is
typically between 10 µm and 200 µm for piezoelectric scanners. For motorized scanners, the scan length
may be up to 70 mm, see Reference [25]. A constant scanner motion or accurate knowledge of the scanner
position obtained by a position feedback system is important to the overall accuracy of the CSI
instrument, as discussed in B.4. Although less common, it is feasible to move the reference mirror, beam
splitter or some combination of optical elements within the objective in place of translating the entire
interference objective.

A.6 Camera
Most CSI systems generate 3D surface topography maps using an electronic detector comprised of a
2D array of pixels. However, 2D profiles made using 1D linear detectors also are feasible but are less
common in modern commercial instruments.

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Annex B
(informative)

Coherence scanning interferometry (CSI) theory of operation

B.1 Concept
Figure B.1 shows the image as viewed by the camera in Figure B.2 for three successive scan positions.
The concentric-ring interference patterns for this convex curved object progress from the outside to the
inside as the interference objective scans upward. The localization of the interference fringes allows one
to determine the height of the object surface by e.g. identification of the scan position corresponding to
the passage of the highest-contrast fringe at each pixel in the field of view.

Key
1 images
2 interference objective

Figure B.1 — Conceptual drawing of the operation of a CSI instrument, showing the interference
fringe pattern on a curved object for three different successive scan positions (a), (b), (c)

B.2 Signal generation

B.2.1 Incoherent superposition
A simplified model of signal generation assumes a randomly-polarized, spatially incoherent illumination
and a smooth surface perpendicular to the incident light beam that does not scatter or diffract incident
light, see References [2], [6] and [26]. The total signal is the sum of all the incoherent interference
contributions of the ray bundles passing through the pupil plane of the objective and reflecting from the
object and reference surfaces.

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Key
1 light source 5 ray incident at incident angle Ψ
2 camera 6 interferometer beamsplitter
3 scanner 7 object surface
4 pupil plane 8 reference path

Figure B.2 — CSI microscope showing the path of a single ray bundle for a specific source point
and image point, incident on the object surface at an angle Ψ

For example, the ray bundle at an incident angle Ψ shown in Figure B.2 corresponds both to a specific
image point (x′, y’) and to a specific position in the pupil. This ray bundle is divided at the beam splitter
into a bundle following the measurement path to the object surface at a particular point (x, y) and a
bundle following a reference path to the reference mirror. ζ is the scan position of the surface with
respect to the microscope, and the interference fringe spatial frequency is
β
K = 4π (B.1)
λ

for a directional cosine β = cos (Ψ ) and a wavelength λ .

The summation over a range of frequencies results in a peak signal strength where all of the individual
contributions are mutually in phase. This position is sometimes referred to as the stationary phase
point and corresponds to the peak of the envelope shown in Figure B.3. The incoherent superposition
model allows for mathematical prediction of signal shape and is useful for evaluating software means
for determining surface heights from the CSI signal, see References [27] and [28].

B.2.2 Limit case: white light and low AN

Certain simplifying limit cases are of practical and conceptual value. A familiar configuration is low
AN with broadband or “white” light, for which Figure B.3 is a typical interference signal. The spectral

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distribution for this shape is shown in Figure B.4 and is directly proportional to the source spectral
distribution. Therefore, there is a Fourier transform relationship between the interference signal and
the emission spectrum of the white light source.

Key
X scan position ζ (μm)
Y intensity

NOTE The broad spectral bandwidth of the light source results in a modulation envelope that localizes the
interference fringes about the zero scan position (see Figure 3).

Figure B.3 — White light interference signal simulation

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Y
2k0

2 3 4 5 6 X

Key
X interference signal spatial frequency (cycles/μm)
Y Fourier magnitude

NOTE Here, k0 = 2π/500 nm and one cycle = 2π. The range of frequencies is the result of the spectral
bandwidth of the light source.

Figure B.4 — Fourier magnitude of the interference signal (Figure B.3) for a low AN system of
0,2 illuminated by a 100 nm bandwidth white light source centred at 500 nm

B.2.3 Limit case: Narrow bandwidth and high AN

A somewhat less familiar but no less relevant case is narrow bandwidth at high AN. Now the frequency
spectrum (Figure B.6) and interference signal (Figure B.5) are shaped by the light distribution in the
pupil plane, rather than by the spectrum of the light source, which is assumed to be monochromatic with
a single wavenumber k0 = 2π λ0 . Although not strictly speaking a white light interferometer, a high-AN
monochromatic system nonetheless creates similar signals and functions in much the same way as a
white light instrument.

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Key
X scan position (μm)
Y intensity

NOTE The modulation envelope is the result of the high AN and spatially incoherent illumination.

Figure B.5 — High AN monochromatic interference signal simulation

2k0

2 3 4 5 6 X

Key
X interference signal frequency (cycles/μm)
Y Fourier magnitude
1 normal incidence limit

NOTE The high AN results in multiple angles of incidence having varying frequencies for contributions to the
interference signal. Here, k0 = 2π/500 nm and one cycle = 2π.

Figure B.6 — Fourier magnitude of the interference signal (Figure B.5) for a narrow 20 nm
bandwidth source uniformly filling a wide, 0,6-AN pupil (approximately 50X magnification)

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In practice, CSI microscopes operate in a compromise regime, wherein both spatial coherence and spectral
bandwidth contribute to the signal shape. Typically, the low-AN, white light condition is approximately
satisfied when using objectives with magnification of 5X or lower; while for a magnification of 50X or
higher focus effects contribute strongly to signal shape.

B.3 Signal processing

CSI signals are qualitatively characterized by rapidly-oscillating interference fringes and an overall
variation in signal strength, which localizes the interference effect to a specific value of ζ. In some
specific cases, such as an unstructured surface, hx,y, a symmetric white light spectrum and low AN, the
interference signal Ix,y(ζ) (Figure B.3) is mathematically separable into a constant offset I 0 and a co-
sinusoidal carrier signal at a spatial frequency K0 modulated by a slowly-varying I AC modulation
envelope, approximately as

I x , y (ζ ) = I 0 (ζ ) + I AC (ζ − hx , y ) cos Κ 0 (ζ − hx , y )  (B.2)

For systems with higher AN, as a result of spatial coherence effects, the shape of the envelope is a function
of both the optical path difference and focus effects.
Real CSI signals are generally more complicated than an envelope-modulated carrier; nonetheless, the
basic concept of a signal envelope has practical utility in the development of signal processing strategies.
For this reason, the development of automated techniques for three-dimensional measurement of surface
topography using CSI began in the 1980s with various techniques for electronic envelope detection, see
References [29] and [30].
Many CSI microscopes offer an enhanced analysis mode that couples envelope detection of the fringe
order with the much finer resolution of estimating the interference phase to improve the precision of CSI
on surfaces that are smooth (e.g. < λ/10 rms surface roughness). An approach to simultaneous envelope
detection and phase analysis is to correlate the measured intensity data at each pixel with a complex
kernel function designed to be sensitive to the CSI signal, see Reference [31]. Alternatively, one can
analyse the CSI signal by directly examining its frequency content in the Fourier transform domain, see
Reference [32].
The various detection methods are effective for measuring surface topography maps on both smooth
and rough surfaces but may suffer from sensitivity to error sources to a much greater degree than
conventional interference phase techniques such as phase shifting interferometry, see Reference [33].
Some errors in the evaluation are evident as errors in the fringe order evaluation and are sometimes
called 2π errors. These are most common with surfaces having differing optical properties across the field
of view, film structures, sharp edges, or high surface roughness. Considerable effort has been dedicated
to a proper treatment of the fringe-order and it remains a central point of software development for CSI,
see References [10], [34] and [35].

B.4 Determination of vertical displacement for CSI

In CSI, unlike other interferometric techniques, the wavelength of light does not define the height
scale. Because the interferometric pattern is used as a surface sensor only, the basic unit of measure is
defined by the scan increment, rather than the wavelength of light, see Reference [36]. Conceptually, a
CSI instrument behaves like a highly parallel, optical contact probe. The software records the location
of the CSI signal at each pixel with respect to a scan position, resulting in a surface topography map, the
scale and linearity of which are directly tied to knowledge of the scan motion.
The metrology remains tied to the scan increment even when incorporating interference phase to
improve the precision of CSI measurements. This is a consequence of requiring that the envelope detection
and phase estimation measurements agree in scale in order to combine them into a final result, see
Reference [37], which is complicated by such effects as the objective AN, which influences the effective
wavelength, see Reference [26]. A frequency domain analysis, see Reference [32], post-processing of

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the CSI signals, see Reference [12] or a setup calibration procedure may be used to calibrate the phase
measurement with respect to the scan increment.
Given that CSI measurement relies on knowledge of the scan motion, some instruments equip the scanner
with electronic sensors such as capacitance sensors, linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs),
displacement interferometers, see References [20] and [38], optical encoders, or other methods used in
feedback systems to improve scan linearity.

B.5 Dissimilar materials

The optical properties of the materials that make up the object surface are integral to the measurement
process. In particular, assuming that the material has an index of refraction with at most a linear
dispersion in wavenumber ( 2π λ ), one can identify, see References [35] and [39]:
— a phase change on reflection (PCOR) that influences the measured interference fringe phase, and
— a rate of change of PCOR or PCOR dispersion, which influences the position of the modulation envelope.
If the object surface material is uniform, there is generally no resulting identifiable error in the final
surface topography map, assuming that an overall DC offset is irrelevant. For surfaces composed of
a mixture of materials having different optical properties, errors in topography measurement can be
introduced because of the differences in the phase shift upon reflection. Even thin non-uniform oxides
can cause significant variations in the phase change upon reflection across the surface. These errors
may in principle be corrected using a priori knowledge of the PCOR and rate of change of PCOR, see
Reference [16].
Table B.1 quantifies the metrology effects of PCOR and PCOR dispersion for a few common materials.
Note that there is no simple correlation between the envelope shift and the phase shift, which in
practice means that it is difficult to develop a strategy for determining the PCOR in situ without further
information. The observed height shifts depend as well on the AN of the objective, in a manner which can
be determined by detailed signal modelling, see Reference [16].

Table B.1 — Change in apparent surface height resulting from PCOR (phase shift) and the rate
of change of PCOR (envelope shift), for a 570 nm light source with a 100 nm bandwidth, at low AN
Envelope shift Phase shift
Material
nm nm
Bare glass 0 0
Silicon −3 0
Aluminium −9 −13
Chrome −15 −13
Platinum −11 −18
Copper −1 −31
Cobalt −11 −18

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Y Y
60 8

6
40

20
2

0 0
0 1 2 3 X 0 1 2 3 X

Key
X vibrational frequency/fringe rate
Y rms error (nm)

NOTE Left-hand graph is for envelope detection, right-hand graph is for interference phase. For these
simulated data, the 560 nm light source has a 120 nm bandwidth.

Figure B.7 — Sensitivity of CSI to a 10 nm amplitude sinusoidal mechanical vibration as a

function of vibrational frequency, see Reference [28]

B.6 Vibrations
CSI measurements acquire data over time, which means that other time-dependent phenomena, such
as mechanical vibrations, tend to be convolved into the data. The environment can therefore be an
important contributor to measurement error.
Figure B.7 shows the sensitivity of CSI to vibration as a function of frequency, normalized to the
interference fringe scan rate, see Reference [28] (for example, 10 Hz vibration at a scan rate such that 5
interference fringes pass per second would be a normalized frequency of 2). The very high sensitivity of
envelope detection to vibration, approximately 10 times greater than for phase measurement, mandates
that the CSI tool be situated in an environment isolated from sources of vibration, particularly at a
normalized frequency of 2.
In some cases of practical interest, high measurement errors related to stable, single-frequency
vibrations can be reduced by altering the scan rate to avoid the peak sensitivities evident in Figure B.7.

B.7 Films
One of the unique benefits of CSI recognized early in its development is the ability to separate multiple
reflections from semi-transparent film structures on surfaces, see References [4], [5] and[40]. From
Figure B.8, it is apparent that for a sufficiently thick single-layer film, there are two clearly identifiable
modulation envelopes corresponding to surface reflections from the film boundaries. Therefore, an
approach to generating surface topography maps over films is to identify the right-most signal as the
top surface signal, as shown in Figure B.8. Further, if the refracting properties of the film are known,
the substrate or other secondary surfaces below the top surface can be mapped for height by analysis of
the signals that follow the top-surface signal, yielding additional information such as 3D film thickness

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maps. Alternatively, if the physical thickness of a film layer is known, the refracting properties of the
film material may be determined by analysis of the CSI signal.

Y 1 2

Key
X scan position 1 substrate signal
Y intensity 2 top surface signal

Figure B.8 — CSI signal in the presence of a single-layer transparent film a few micrometres in
thickness

A caution when analysing film thickness maps is that the location of the substrate or secondary-surface
signal is influenced by two competing effects: the axial group-velocity optical path length, which is
longer in a film than in air, and the position of best focus, which is shorter in a film than in air. These two
competing effects strongly influence the shape and position of CSI signals resulting from reflections
within a film, see Reference [16].
If the film is too thin, the separate signals shown in Figure B.8 coalesce and it is difficult to clearly
separate them. The film thickness at which separation becomes difficult depends on the coherence
length of the measurement light in the thin film and is roughly several μm. Depending on the instrument
configuration, there is a lower limit to an analysis based entirely on signal separation, below which some
level of modelling becomes necessary to interpret the CSI signal.

B.8 Missing data and bad data

Some places on the surface may not be measurable because of a low signal to noise ratio. These may be
regions of high slope or places where surface irregularities are present. If the measurement algorithm
identifies these places, they may be classified as missing data or dropouts. Alternatively, measurement of
such regions may result in bad data or outliers, which fail to be identified but which can lead to erroneous
results when the surface is analysed for parameters. Supplementary statistical algorithms can be used
to identify these bad data points. Surfaces can then be analysed for parameters by excluding the bad and
missing points or by interpolating through the bad and missing data points.

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Annex C
(informative)

Spatial resolution

C.1 Instrument transfer function

An informative method of describing the spatial (lateral) resolving power of CSI microscopes is by the
instrument transfer function [ITF or fITF(ν)], see References [41] and [42]. The ITF is the equivalent for
topography measuring instruments of the optical transfer function (OTF) [ISO 9334:2012, 3.8] for
conventional microscopes. The ITF describes how the instrument would respond to an object surface
having a specific spatial frequency. Ideally, the ITF tells us what the measured amplitude of a sinusoidal
grating of a specified spatial frequency ν (e.g. in lines/mm) would be relative to the true amplitude of
the grating. The ITF also affects the value of the S-filter, which has to be applied in order to avoid data
artefacts, such as that due to high frequency noise (see ISO 25178-3:2012, 4.2.3). It is assumed for
simplicity here that the surface is rough along the x-direction and is described by the function h(x).
Because the surface structure may be represented as a sum of spatial frequency components by a Fourier
transform (F), the surface will have a measured height profile h’(x) given by
h’(x) = F−1G’(ν),
(C.1)

where F−1 is the inverse Fourier transform,

G’(ν) = fITF(ν) G(ν),
(C.2)

and
G(ν) = F h(x)
(C.3)

In the limit of very small surface heights, the ITF of a CSI instrument having an incoherent light source
that fills the objective pupil is given by

f ITF (ν ) = π2 φ − cos (φ ) sin (φ )  (C.4)

where

 λν 
φ = arccos   (C.5)
 2AN 
To fully characterize the instrument, this ITF [Formula (C.4)] must be multiplied by the modulation transfer
function (MTF) of the camera, whose resolution is limited by the pixel size. Figure C.1 shows theoretical
ITFs for CSI microscopes with several objectives and also including the MTF of a certain camera.

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Setting aside the contribution of the camera resolution, the ITF reaches zero for a spatial frequency
given by ϕ = 0 or
2 AN
ν 0% = ,
λ
(C.6)

which is nearly equal to the Sparrow criterion for optical resolution. The 50 % point is at
AN
ν 50% = (C.7)
1, 22λ
which is half the spatial frequency (twice the spatial period) of the Rayleigh criterion, see References [43]
and [44]. Table C.1 summarizes the optical lateral resolution for common CSI objectives in terms of these
two criteria.
Y
1,2

1,0

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

0,0
1 10 100 1 000 10 000 X

Key
X spatial frequency (cycles/mm)
Y instrument transfer function

Figure C.1 — Magnitude of the theoretical ITF for 2,5X, 5X, 20X and 100X microscope objectives
(AN equal to 0,075, 0,13, 0,3, 0,8, respectively), with higher magnifications to the right, including
the effect of a 640 × 480 pixel camera with a 1X tube lens

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Table C.1 — Topographic spatial resolution of common CSI objectives, assuming perfect optics
and excluding the effects of the camera, calculated for a wavelength of 550 nm
Topographic spatial resolution
Rayleigh Sparrow
Magnification AN
μm μm
1× 0,03 11,18 8,62
2,5× 0,08 4,19 3,23
5× 0,13 2,58 1,99
10× 0,30 1,12 0,86
20× 0,40 0,84 0,65
50× 0,55 0,61 0,47
100× 0,80 0,42 0,32

It is essential to realize that simply having a particular AN does not mean that the objective will perform
as tabulated in Table C.1. Aberrations or variations in the illumination can strongly influence the actual
performance of the instrument.
Between the two criteria, only the Rayleigh criterion (2.3.7) can be validated directly by an experimental
measurement of instrument response to the 50 % level. Therefore, it is the preferred specification. If the
Sparrow value (2.3.8) is cited, it can be validated by determining first the Rayleigh criterion value and
then multiplying by 0,77.
Camera resolution is usually matched to the optical resolution up to approximately 10X, meaning that
the pixel size in object space has the same lateral dimensions as listed in Table C.1. Above 20X, the
camera resolution exceeds the optical resolution, becoming a negligible limit on the net ITF at 100X, as
is apparent from Figure C.1.
A caution regarding the ITF is that it is theoretically valid only in the regime of surface heights much
smaller than the wavelength. In addition, higher spatial frequencies can cause artefacts in the results,
see Reference [45].
Features with larger height variations can have unexpected results, including sensitivity to spatial
frequencies beyond the Sparrow criterion, because of nonlinear coupling, see References [41] and [46].
A further caution is that the ITF calculation is based on a scalar Abbe theory, whereas a more rigorous
vector solution of Maxwell’s equations may lead to different results, particularly at high AN. These
cautions noted, in general practice the ITF curves such as those in Figure C.1 are useful predictors of
instrument function.

C.2 ITF measurement

Procedurally, the ITF may be calculated directly by comparison of the spatial frequency content of a
measured surface topography map divided by the theoretical spatial frequency content of the object
surface. A convenient object for this comparison is a step height of no more than one-eighth the mean
source wavelength in height, see Reference [41]. Figure C.2 shows one such profile for a nominally 40 nm
step. The ratio of the Fourier transform of these two plots yields the ITF, as illustrated in Figure C.3.

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Y
30
20 2
10
0 1
-10
-20
-30
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 X

Key
X lateral coordinate (pixel) 1 output data
Y height (nm) 2 perfect step

Figure C.2 — Comparison of the measured profile of a step with a theoretically perfect step

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Y1

Y1

Y2

0,001 0,01 0,1 1 X

Key
X spatial frequency (Nyquist = 1) 1 Fourier transform of measured step
Y1 Fourier magnitude 2 Fourier transform of perfect step
Y2 relative magnitude 3 ratio C/D

NOTE The spatial frequency in this graph is normalized to the Nyquist sampling frequency, which is half the
spatial frequency (twice the spacing) of the camera pixels.

Figure C.3 — Illustration of a process for experimentally determining the ITF using step-profile
data

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ISO 25178-604:2013(E)


Annex D
(informative)

Example procedure for estimating surface topography

repeatability

CSI instruments report various measurands such as peak-to-valley, rms roughness, step height and so on,
all of which are derived from a topography image of surface heights. Surface topography repeatability,
defined in 2.1.11, provides the likely agreement between repeated measurements. For instrument
benchmarking and performance validation, surface topography repeatability is usually performed on
an optically smooth surface. The conditions and parameters for the surface topography repeatability
measurement must be described.
The following procedure has been used for estimating the surface topography repeatability.
a) Acquire a number n of measurement maps (for example, 10) without averaging or lateral smoothing
and remove from each individual map a least-squares plane such that each resulting map (hx,y)1,2,..n
has zero mean height and zero tilt.
b) Create an average map. 〈hx,y〉
c) Subtract the average map 〈hx,y〉 from each individual map (hx,y)1,2,..n and record the root-mean-
square value ε1,2,…n for each difference map over all pixels.
d) The surface topography repeatability is the arithmetic mean value of the population of values ε1,2,…n.
The scan increment (often 4 camera frames per interference fringe for CSI) and any relevant
environmental conditions should be clearly noted.

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Annex E
(informative)

Relation to the GPS matrix model

E.1 General
For full details about the GPS matrix model, see ISO/TR 14638.
The ISO/GPS Masterplan given in ISO/TR 14638 gives an overview of the ISO/GPS system of which this
document is a part. The fundamental rules of ISO/GPS given in ISO 8015 apply to this document and
the default decision rules given in ISO 14253-1 apply to specifications made in accordance with this
document, unless otherwise indicated.

E.2 Information about this part of ISO 25178 and its use
This part of ISO 25178 defines the basic terminology and metrological characteristics for non-contact
(coherence scanning interferometric microscopy) instruments.

E.3 Position in the GPS matrix model

This part of ISO 25178 is a general GPS standard, which influences chain link 5 of the chains of standards
on roughness profile, waviness profile, primary profile and areal surface texture in the general GPS
matrix, as illustrated in Table E.1.

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Table E.1 — Fundamental and general ISO GPS standards matrix

Global GPS standards

General GPS standards

Chain link number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Size
Distance
Radius
Angle
Form of line independent of datum
Form of line dependent on datum
Fundamental
GPS Orientation
standards
Location
Circular run-out
Total run-out
Datums
Roughness profile •
Waviness profile •
Primary profile •
Surface defects
Edges
Areal surface texture •

E.4 Related International Standards

The related International Standards are those of the chains of standards indicated in Table E.1.

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2006, pp. 30-37

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[42] CHU. J, Wang, Q, Lehan, JP, Gao, G and Griesmann, U. Spatially resolved height response of phase-
shifting interferometers measured using a patterned mirror with varying spatial frequency.
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Calibration. Proc. SPIE. 1993, 1995 pp. 65–74
[47] ISO 4287:1997, Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile method —
Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters
[48] ISO 8015, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Fundamentals — Concepts, principles and rules
[49] ISO 10934-2:2007, Optics and optical instruments — Vocabulary for microscopy — Part 2: Advanced
techniques in light microscopy
[50] ISO 14253-1, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Inspection by measurement of workpieces
and measuring equipment — Part 1: Decision rules for proving conformity or nonconformity with
specifications
[51] ISO/TR 14638, Geometrical product specification (GPS) — Masterplan
[52] ISO 14978:2006, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — General concepts and requirements
for GPS measuring equipment
[53] ISO 25178-2:2012, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Areal — Part 2:
Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters
[54] ISO 25178-3:2012, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Areal — Part 3:
Specification operators
[55] ISO 25178-6:2010, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Areal — Part 6:
Classification of methods for measuring surface texture
[56] ISO 25178-601:2010, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Areal — Part 601:
Nominal characteristics of contact (stylus) instruments
[57] ISO 25178-602:2010, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Areal — Part 602:
Nominal characteristics of non-contact (confocal chromatic probe) instruments
[58] ISO 3274:1996, Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile method —
Nominal characteristics of contact (stylus) instruments
[59] ISO 9334:2012, Optics and photonics — Optical transfer function — Definitions and mathematical
relationships

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