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IB Physics DP
4.3 Wave Characteristics
CONTENTS
4.3.1 Wavefronts
4.3.2 Amplitude & Intensity
4.3.3 Superposition
4.3.4 Polarisation
4.3.5 Malus’s Law
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4.3.1 Wavefronts YOUR NOTES
Wavefronts
Waves can be represented graphically in two different ways:
Wavefronts - lines joining all the points that oscillate in phase and are perpendicular to
the direction of motion (and energy transfer)
Rays - lines showing the direction of motion (and energy transfer) of the wave that are
perpendicular to the wavefront
Wavefronts and rays for transverse waves travelling in a horizontal plane
The distance between successive wavefronts is equal to the wavelength of the waves
Ripple tanks are used a common experiment to demonstrate diffraction of water waves
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Wave effects may all be demonstrated using a ripple tank
The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple tank
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength
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Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration
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4.3.2 Amplitude & Intensity YOUR NOTES
Amplitude & Intensity
Intensity
The intensity of a wave is defined as follows:
Power per unit area
Intensity is measured in W m–2
Power is defined as:
The rate of energy transfer
Therefore, intensity can also be defined as:
The rate of energy transfer per unit area
For spherical waves being emitted by a point source equally in all directions, the intensity
follows an inverse square law with distance from the point source
1
I∝
r2
Where:
I = intensity of the wave in watts per metre squared (W m–2)
r = distance from the point source in metres (m)
For spherical waves being emitted by a point source equally in all directions, the intensity at
the surface of a sphere is calculated using:
P
I=
4π r2
Where:
P = power in watts (W)
r = radius of sphere in metres (m)
For spherical waves being emitted by a point source equally in all directions, the power is a
constant, therefore the relationship can be expressed as:
1
I∝
r2
This is an example of an inverse square law relationship
I ∝ x−2
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Intensity decreases by the inverse square law
Intensity Variation with Amplitude
By definition, the intensity of a wave (its power per unit area) is proportional to the energy
transferred by the wave
The intensity of a wave at a particular point is related to the amplitude of the wave at that
point
The energy transferred by a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude
Therefore, the intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude
I ∝ A2
Where:
I = intensity of the wave in W m–2
A = amplitude of the wave in metres (m)
Worked Example
A person stands 10 m away from a loudspeaker. The sound produced by the
loudspeaker is very loud, so the person moves 20 m away from it.
State the effect of this change on the intensity and the amplitude of the sound
waves heard by the person.
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Original distance, r1 = 10 m
New distance, r2 = 20 m
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Step 2: Write down the relationship between the intensity of a wave and the distance YOUR NOTES
from the point source producing the wave
Step 2: State the new intensity
Since the distance doubles (r2 = 2r1), the intensity is reduced by a factor four
Step 3: Write down the relationship between the intensity of a wave and its amplitude
Step 4: State the new amplitude
Since the intensity is reduced by a factor four, the amplitude decreases by half
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4.3.3 Superposition YOUR NOTES
Superposition
The principle of superposition states that:
When two or more waves meet, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the
displacements of the individual waves
The principle of superposition applies to both transverse and longitudinal waves
Interference occurs whenever two or more waves superpose
For a clear stationary interference pattern, the waves must be of the same:
Type
Amplitude
Frequency
They must also have a constant phase difference
Constructive & Destructive Interference
Constructive interference occurs when the waves superpose and have displacements in
the same direction (both positive or both negative)
Destructive interference occurs when the waves superimpose and have displacements
in opposite directions (one positive and one negative)
When two waves with the same amplitude meet at a point, they can:
Be in phase and interfere constructively, so that the displacement of the resultant
wave is double the displacement of each individual wave
Be in anti-phase and interfere destructively, so that the displacement of the resultant
wave is equal to zero
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Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference
Superposition occurs for any two waves or pulses that overlap, and can result in a mix of
constructive and destructive interference
For example, the peak of one wave superposes with the peak of another wave with a
smaller displacement
The resultant peak will have a displacement that is in the middle of the displacement of
both waves
Superposition can also be demonstrated with two pulses
When the pulses meet, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum of the
displacement of the individual pulses
After the pulses have interacted, they then carry on as normal
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Worked Example
Two overlapping waves of the same types travel in the same direction. The variation
with x and y displacement of the wave is shown in the figure below.
Use the principle of superposition to sketch the resultant wave.
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4.3.4 Polarisation YOUR NOTES
Polarisation
Transverse waves can oscillate in any plane perpendicular to the direction of motion (and
energy transfer) of the wave
Such waves are said to be unpolarised
When a transverse wave is polarised, its electric field is only allowed to oscillate in one
fixed plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave
A transverse wave can be vertically polarised, horizontally polarised, or polarised in any
direction in between
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Diagram showing the displacement of unpolarised and polarised transverse waves YOUR NOTES
Since longitudinal waves oscillate in the same direction as the direction of motion of the
wave, polarisation of longitudinal waves cannot occur
Methods of polarisation include polarising filters and reflection from a non-metallic plane
surface
Polarising Filters
Light waves can be polarised by making them pass through a polarising filter called a
polariser
The filter imposes its plane of polarisation on the incident light wave
A polariser with a vertical transmission axis only allows vertical oscillations to be
transmitted through the filter (A)
If vertically polarised light is incident on a filter with a horizontal transmission axis, no
transmission occurs (B), and the wave is blocked completely
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Diagram showing an unpolarised and polarised wave travelling through polarisers YOUR NOTES
Polarisation via Reflection
When unpolarised light reflects from a smooth non-metallic surface, partial plane
polarisation always occurs
Reflected light is polarised in a plane parallel to the reflecting surface
This means if the surface is horizontal, a proportion of the reflected light will oscillate
more in the horizontal plane than the vertical plane
Polarising sunglasses use this property of reflection in order to reduce the glare coming
from a reflective surface (e.g. water)
Polaroid sunglasses contain vertically oriented polarising filters which block out any
horizontally polarised light
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When sunlight reflects off a horizontal reflective surface (e.g. water) the light becomes YOUR NOTES
horizontally polarised. This is where polaroid sunglasses come in useful with their vertically
aligned filter
As a result, objects under the surface of the water can be viewed more clearly
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Polarised, Reflected & Transmitted Beams YOUR NOTES
Beams can be polarised, reflected or transmitted
When beams are polarised, the oscillations of the waves are made to oscillate only in one
plane
This affects the intensity of the waves
Diagrams demonstrating polarisation will include a double-headed arrow showing the
plane of polarisation of the wave
When beams are reflected, they bounce back in the direction that they have come in by the
same angle
When beams are transmitted, they travel straight through the medium
In both these cases, the light can still be polarised
Plane polarisation is when the direction of the vibrations stays constant over time, and the
vibrations are 100 % restricted in that direction
Partial polarisation is when there is some restriction to the direction of the vibrations but
not 100 %
This can be seen when an unpolarised light beam travels from air to glass
The light is initially unpolarised when incident on the glass
Some of the beam is reflected, partially polarising it
Some of the beam is transmitted and refracted, also partially polarising it
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4.3.5 Malus’s Law YOUR NOTES
Malus's Law
Intensity of Polarised Light
The intensity of unpolarised light is reduced as a result of polarisation
If unpolarised light of intensity I0 passes through a polariser, the intensity of the
transmitted polarised light falls by a half
The intensity of polarised light transmitted by a polariser is half the intensity of the
unpolarised light incident on it
Intensity of Analysed Light
The first filter that the unpolarised light goes through is the polariser
A second polarising filter placed after the first one is known as an analyser
If the analyser has the same orientation as the polariser, the light transmitted by the
analyser has the same intensity as the light incident on it
If they have a different orientation, we must use Malus's Law to determine the intensity
of the transmitted light
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When the polariser and the analyser have the same orientation (i.e. parallel transmission
axes), the intensity of analysed light is the same as the intensity of polarised light
Malus's Law states that if the analyser is rotated by an angle θ with respect to the
polariser, the intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser is
If the polariser and the analyser have the same orientation, light transmitted by the
analyser has the same intensity as light that is incident upon it, since cos(0) = 1
I0
If vertically polarised light with intensity is incident on an analyser with a vertical
2
transmission axis, all of the light will be transmitted through the analyser
The intensity will not decrease between the polariser and the analyser
If the analyser is rotated by 90° with respect to the polariser (θ = 90°), the intensity of the
light transmitted by the analyser will be zero, since cos(90°) = 0
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If vertically polarised light is incident on an analyser with a horizontal transmission axis, YOUR NOTES
none of the light will be transmitted through the analyser
In this instance, all the light will be absorbed
Table of transmitted intensity when vertically polarised light is incident upon an analyser
If the analyser has any other orientation with respect to the polarised light incident upon it,
then Malus's Law is used to determine the intensity of the analysed light
I0
The polarised light incident on the analyser will have an intensity
2
I0
The analysed light will have an intensity cos2θ
2
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When the analyser is rotated with respect to the polariser by an angle, the intensity of
analysed light variates with cos2θ
The resulting graph of the light intensity with angle, as the analyser is rotated through 360°,
looks as follows:
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Graph showing how the intensity of the analysed light beam varies with the angle between
the transmission axes of the polariser and analyser
The maximum light intensity I of the graph is still half of the intensity from the unpolarised
light (I0)
1
Ipolarised = I
2 unpolarised
The two extremes of maximum light intensity and minimum light intensity depend on the
orientations of just one of the polarisers
If an unpolarised light source is placed in front of two identical polarising filters, A and B,
with their transmission axes parallel:
Filter A will polarise the light in a certain axis
All of the polarised light will pass through filter B unaffected
In this case, the maximum intensity of light is transmitted
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When both polarisers have the same transmission axis, the intensity of the transmitted light
is at its maximum
As the polarising filter B is rotated anticlockwise, the intensity of the light observed
changes periodically depending on the angle B is rotated through
When A and B have their transmission axes perpendicular to each other:
Filter A will polarise the light in a certain axis
This time none of the polarised light will pass through filter B
In this case, the minimum intensity of light is transmitted
When one of the polarisers is rotated through 90°, the intensity of the transmitted light
drops to zero
Worked Example
Unpolarised light of intensity I0 is incident on a polariser. The transmitted polarised
light is then incident on an analyser. The transmission axis of the analyser makes an
angle of 45° with the transmission axis of the polariser.
Determine the intensity of light transmitted by the analyser.
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Step 1: Write down the known quantities YOUR NOTES
Intensity of unpolarised light = I0
Angle of rotation of analyser with respect to polariser, θ = 45°
Step 2: Write down Malus's law
Step 3: Substitute the value of the angle θ = 45°
The intensity of light transmitted by the analyser is a quarter the intensity of
unpolarised light
(and one half the intensity of light transmitted by the polariser)
Exam Tip
Remember that the unpolarised light coming through will always halve in intensity
when it becomes polarised through an polariser. Only then should you use Malus'
law to find the intensity of the light after it has passed through the analyser.
Therefore, the I and I0 in Malus' law are the intensities of light that are already
polarised.
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