Cell Structure and Cell Organelles

Introduction to Cells
• Definition: The cell is the smallest unit of life, fundamental to all living organisms.
Cells can exist independently, like in single-celled organisms, or as part of a
multicellular organism where cells work together.
• Types of Cells:
o Prokaryotic Cells: These are simple cells without a true nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles (e.g., bacteria).
o Eukaryotic Cells: These are more complex cells with a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles (e.g., plant and animal cells).
Structure of a Bacterial Cell
Bacterial cells are prokaryotic, meaning they lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. Despite their simplicity, bacterial cells are highly organized and capable of
performing all the functions necessary for life. Here’s a detailed look at the structure of a
typical bacterial cell:
1. Cell Envelope:
The cell envelope of bacteria consists of three layers: the cell wall, plasma membrane, and
sometimes an outer membrane (in Gram-negative bacteria).
a. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)
• Structure:
o A phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, similar to that of eukaryotes.
o May contain special proteins for nutrient transport and metabolic functions.
• Function:
o Acts as a selective barrier, controlling the movement of substances into and
out of the cell.
o Involved in energy generation through processes like respiration and
photosynthesis (in photosynthetic bacteria).
b. Cell Wall
• Structure:
o Composed of peptidoglycan, a polymer of sugars and amino acids.
o In Gram-positive bacteria, the cell wall is thick and multilayered.
o In Gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall is thin and surrounded by an outer
membrane.
• Function:
o Provides shape and structural support.
o Protects against mechanical stress and prevents osmotic lysis (bursting due
to water intake).
c. Outer Membrane (in Gram-negative bacteria)
• Structure:
o An additional lipid bilayer that contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS).
 o Contains porins, which allow certain molecules to pass.
• Function:
o Provides an extra layer of protection and contributes to the bacteria’s ability to
resist antibiotics.
o LPS in the outer membrane can act as an endotoxin, triggering immune
responses in the host.
d. Capsule (Glycocalyx)
• Structure:
o A thick, gelatinous layer of polysaccharides that surrounds the cell wall in
some bacteria.
o Exists as a capsule (well-defined) or slime layer (looser and unorganized).
• Function:
o Helps bacteria adhere to surfaces.
o Provides protection against desiccation (drying out) and phagocytosis by
host immune cells.
2. Cytoplasm
• Structure:
o A gel-like substance that fills the interior of the cell.
o Contains enzymes, nutrients, wastes, ribosomes, and the cell’s genetic
material.
• Function:
o Site of most metabolic reactions.
o Holds the cell’s internal components and supports biochemical processes.
3. Nucleoid
• Structure:
o The nucleoid is a region within the cytoplasm where the bacterial chromosome
(circular, double-stranded DNA) is located.
o Not membrane-bound like the eukaryotic nucleus.
• Function:
o Contains the bacterial genetic material (DNA) that codes for essential cellular
functions.
o Controls cell growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
4. Plasmids
• Structure:
o Small, circular pieces of extrachromosomal DNA found in the cytoplasm.
o Plasmids are separate from the bacterial chromosome and can replicate
independently.
• Function:
 o Often carry genes that provide advantages, such as antibiotic resistance,
toxin production, or the ability to metabolize unusual substances.
o Plasmids can be transferred between bacteria through a process called
conjugation, aiding in the spread of resistance genes.
5. Ribosomes
• Structure:
o Small complexes made of rRNA and proteins.
o Bacterial ribosomes are 70S in size, smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes (80S).
• Function:
o Responsible for protein synthesis by translating mRNA into proteins.
o Bacterial ribosomes are a common target for antibiotics (like tetracycline and
erythromycin) that inhibit protein synthesis.
6. Flagella
• Structure:
o Long, whip-like appendages made of the protein flagellin.
o Anchored in the cell membrane and wall by a basal body.
• Function:
o Provides motility, allowing bacteria to move toward or away from stimuli
(chemotaxis).
o Flagella can be arranged in different ways: monotrichous (single flagellum),
lophotrichous (cluster of flagella at one pole), amphitrichous (flagella at
both poles), or peritrichous (flagella all around the cell).
7. Pili (Fimbriae)
• Structure:
o Short, hair-like structures on the surface of the cell.
o Made of the protein pilin.
• Function:
o Help bacteria adhere to surfaces and other cells, which is crucial for
colonization and forming biofilms.
o Specialized sex pili are used in conjugation, where genetic material is
transferred between bacterial cells.
8. Endospores (in some bacteria)
• Structure:
o Highly resistant, dormant structures formed inside certain bacterial cells (e.g.,
Bacillus and Clostridium species).
o Contains the bacterial DNA, a small amount of cytoplasm, and is surrounded by
several layers of protective material.
• Function:
 o Allows bacteria to survive extreme conditions, such as high temperatures,
desiccation, radiation, and chemicals.
o Germinates back into a vegetative cell when favorable conditions return.
9. Inclusions
• Structure:
o Storage granules within the cytoplasm that contain nutrients or other
substances like glycogen, phosphate (volutin), or sulfur.
• Function:
o Act as storage depots for nutrients that the bacteria can use when needed.
o Some inclusions store magnetosomes, allowing bacteria to orient themselves
along the Earth’s magnetic field.

Summary of Bacterial Cell Structures and Functions

Structure Function

Plasma Membrane Selective barrier, energy generation, nutrient transport

Cell Wall Structural support, protection from osmotic pressure

Capsule Protection, adhesion to surfaces

Cytoplasm Site for metabolic activities and enzyme function

Nucleoid Contains genetic material (DNA), controls cell function

Plasmids Extra DNA, provides advantages (e.g., antibiotic resistance)

Ribosomes Protein synthesis

Flagella Motility (movement)

Pili (Fimbriae) Attachment to surfaces, conjugation (gene transfer)

Endospores Survival in extreme conditions

Inclusions Storage of nutrients or substances

Eukaryotic cell structure and function
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
• Structure:
o Composed of a phospholipid bilayer, where hydrophobic tails face inward and
hydrophilic heads face outward.
o Embedded within this bilayer are various proteins, cholesterol molecules,
and carbohydrate chains.
o Proteins can be integral (spanning the membrane) or peripheral (attached to
the surface).
• Fluid Mosaic Model:
This model describes the plasma membrane
as a dynamic structure where lipids and
proteins move laterally, allowing for
flexibility and a self-sealing property.
• Function:
o Selective permeability: Controls
the movement of substances in and
out of the cell (small nonpolar
molecules pass easily, while ions and
large molecules require transport proteins).
o Cell signalling: Receptors on the membrane receive signals from other cells.
o Structural support: Provides a boundary for the cell, maintaining its integrity.
Cell Wall (in Plant Cells, Fungi, and Bacteria)
• Structure:
o In plants, the cell wall is primarily made of cellulose.
o In fungi, it is composed of chitin.
o In bacteria, the wall is made of peptidoglycan.
o The plant cell wall has layers: the primary cell wall (flexible), secondary cell
wall (thicker, more rigid), and middle lamella (cements adjacent plant cells
together).
• Function:
o Provides structural support and defines the shape of the cell.
o Protects the cell from mechanical damage and prevents over-expansion when
water enters the cell.
o Allows plants to stand upright and grow taller.
Nucleus
• Structure:
o Surrounded by a nuclear envelope, a double membrane
with pores that regulate transport.
 o Inside the nucleus is chromatin, a mix of DNA and proteins.
o Contains a nucleolus, the site where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized.
• Function:
o Stores genetic material (DNA) and controls gene expression.
o The nucleolus produces ribosomes, which are essential for protein synthesis.
o The nuclear pores control the exchange of materials (like mRNA) between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Cell Organelles: Structure and Function
1. Mitochondria
• Structure:
o Double-membraned: an outer membrane and an
inner membrane that folds into cristae to
increase surface area.
o Contains its own DNA, suggesting evolutionary
origins from bacteria.
• Function:
o Known as the "powerhouse of the cell," it generates ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) through the process of cellular respiration.
o Plays a key role in energy metabolism and apoptosis (programmed cell death).
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Structure:
o A network of membrane-bound tubules and
sacs called cisternae.
o There are two types: Rough ER (with ribosomes)
and Smooth ER (without ribosomes).
• Function:
o Rough ER: Involved in protein synthesis.
Proteins synthesized on the ribosomes are modified
and folded inside the ER lumen.
o Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs
and toxins, and stores calcium ions.
3. Ribosomes
• Structure: Composed of rRNA and proteins. Ribosomes can be either free-floating in
the cytoplasm or bound to the Rough ER.
• Function:
o Ribosomes are the sites of protein
synthesis, where mRNA is translated into
a polypeptide chain (protein).
o Free ribosomes typically synthesize proteins
that function in the cytosol, while those
attached to the ER synthesize proteins for membranes or secretion.
4. Golgi Apparatus
• Structure: Consists of flattened membrane-bound
sacs called cisternae.
• Function:
o Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and
lipids received from the ER.
o Proteins are tagged and sent to their final
destinations (e.g., lysosomes, plasma
membrane, or secretion).
5. Lysosomes
• Structure: Membrane-bound vesicles filled
with digestive enzymes (hydrolytic enzymes).
• Function:
o Involved in breaking down worn-out
organelles, macromolecules, and
pathogens.
o Play a role in autophagy, where
damaged cellular components are
recycled.
6. Peroxisomes
• Structure: Small, membrane-bound organelles
containing oxidative enzymes like catalase.
• Function:
o Break down long-chain fatty acids through
beta-oxidation.
o Detoxify harmful substances like hydrogen
peroxide (H₂O₂) by converting it into water and
oxygen.
7. Cytoskeleton
• Structure: A network of protein fibers,
including microtubules, actin filaments,
and intermediate filaments.
• Function:
o Provides structural support for the
cell and maintains its shape.
o Facilitates movement of organelles
within the cell and plays a role in cell
division.
o Involved in cellular movements (e.g.,
during cell division or amoeboid
movement).
8. Centrioles (Animal Cells)
• Structure: A cylindrical
structure made up of
microtubules arranged in a
specific pattern (9+0).
• Function:
o Organize microtubules
during cell division,
forming the mitotic spindle.
o Important for the formation of cilia and
flagella.
9. Vacuoles
• Structure: Large membrane-bound sacs, particularly
prominent in plant cells.
• Function:
o In plant cells, the central vacuole maintains
turgor pressure, which helps keep the plant
rigid.
o In both plant and animal cells, vacuoles store
nutrients, water, and waste products.

10. Chloroplasts (Plant Cells)

• Structure: Double-membraned organelles
containing thylakoids (membrane sacs)
arranged in stacks called grana. The fluid
surrounding the grana is called the stroma.
• Function:
o Conduct photosynthesis, converting
light energy into chemical energy
(glucose).
o Like mitochondria, chloroplasts
contain their own DNA, supporting the
theory of their origin from
endosymbiosis.

11. Plasmodesmata (Plant Cells)

• Structure: Microscopic channels that traverse the cell walls
of plant cells.
• Function:
o Allow communication and transport of materials
between plant cells, facilitating the exchange of ions,
small molecules, and even some proteins.
Functions of Key Organelles
Organelle Function

Nucleus Stores genetic material and controls cell activities.

Mitochondria Produces ATP via cellular respiration.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Synthesizes proteins.
(Rough)

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.
(Smooth)

Ribosomes Protein synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

Lysosomes Digests and recycles cellular waste.

Breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies harmful

Peroxisomes
substances.

Chloroplasts Photosynthesis (in plant cells).

Stores nutrients and maintains turgor pressure in

Vacuoles
plants.

Detailed Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Characteristic Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Size Small (1-10 µm) Larger (10-100 µm)

No true nucleus; DNA is located True, membrane-bound

Nucleus
in a region called the nucleoid nucleus with nuclear envelope

Single, circular chromosome, Multiple, linear chromosomes

DNA Structure
not enclosed in a membrane enclosed in the nucleus

Not associated with histones Associated with histones

DNA Packaging
(except in some archaea) (proteins) forming chromatin

Contains membrane-bound
No membrane-bound organelles
Organelles organelles (e.g.,
(e.g., no mitochondria, ER)
mitochondria, ER)

Ribosomes Small (70S) Larger (80S)

Present in plants (cellulose)

Present in most, made of
Cell Wall and fungi (chitin); absent in
peptidoglycan (in bacteria)
animal cells

Asexual reproduction (binary Sexual or asexual

Reproduction
fission) reproduction (mitosis, meiosis)
Characteristic Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Mitosis (and meiosis for

Simple binary fission, no
Cell Division gametes), with a mitotic
mitotic spindle
spindle

Lacks a complex cytoskeleton Well-developed cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton (simple protein filaments may be with microtubules,
present) microfilaments

Simple, made of a single fiber of Complex, 9+2 arrangement

Flagella Structure
flagellin of microtubules (when present)

Present, allowing for

Endocytosis/Exocytosis Absent ingestion and expulsion of
substances

Located in the plasma

Respiratory Enzymes Located in mitochondria
membrane

Example Organisms Bacteria, Archaea Animals, plants, fungi, protists

Key Points of Differentiation:

• Nucleus: Prokaryotes lack a true nucleus, while eukaryotes have a defined, membrane-
bound nucleus.
• Organelles: Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles (like mitochondria, ER,
Golgi apparatus), while prokaryotes do not.
• Size: Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells.
• Cell Wall: Most prokaryotes have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, while eukaryotic
cell walls (if present) are made of different substances like cellulose (plants) or chitin
(fungi).
• Cell Division: Prokaryotes divide through binary fission, a simpler process, while
eukaryotes undergo mitosis and meiosis.