To find the shortest distance between the line y = 10 -2x and the ellipse x^2/4 + y^2/9 = 1, the problem can be approached by parametrizing the ellipse with a variable θ: x = 2cos(θ) and y = 3sin(θ). For any point (x, y) on the ellipse, the perpendicular distance to the line is given by the line distance formula. This creates a function of θ representing this distance. Finding the minimum of this function involves computing its derivative with respect to θ and solving for θ where the derivative equals zero. The corresponding ellipse point from this θ minimizes the distance from the line, yielding the shortest distance upon substitution into the line's distance equation.

The second order Taylor expansion of f(x, y) = √(1 + 4x^2 + y^2) around (1, 2) allows computation of derivatives at (1, 2) to construct a polynomial that approximates f(x, y) near this point. Calculating the necessary partial derivatives up to the second order, and using these to form the polynomial, we approximate values of f at nearby points, such as (1.1, 2.05). The approximation involves evaluating this polynomial at (1.1, 2.05), significantly simplifying calculations compared to direct computation of √(1 + 4(1.1)^2 + (2.05)^2), and yielding an approximate value through known smaller perturbations from the base point (1,2).

To determine that (0, 0) is a local minimum using the second degree Taylor's polynomial of f(x, y) = (1 − x^3/2 − y^3/3)e^(0.75x^2 + y^2), we should first compute the second partial derivatives of f at (0, 0) and construct the Hessian matrix H. The second degree Taylor's polynomial is constructed from f(0,0), the gradient of f at (0,0), and terms involving the Hessian matrix. For (0,0) to be a local minimum, the Hessian must be positive definite, meaning all its leading principal minors must be positive. Calculating these derivatives and evaluating them at (0,0), we check the definiteness of the Hessian. If the criteria for positive definiteness are met, (0,0) is confirmed as a local minimum.

The error of a second order Taylor expansion f(x, y) = e^(x + 2y) about (0, 0) can be estimated using the remainder term of Taylor's Theorem. The Lagrange form of the remainder for the multivariate Taylor expansion for this function will involve third partial derivatives. Given |x| ≤ 0.1 and |y| ≤ 0.1, the maximum of these derivatives over the region can be calculated, and the error is bounded by a term O(x^3 + y^3). Specifically, given the exponential nature of e^(x + 2y), maximum derivative values like e^0.3 will dominate at most. The actual computations involve bounding terms influenced by 3rd derivatives evaluated within |x|, |y| ≤ 0.1.

To find points on the sphere x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 4 closest and farthest from (3, 1, -1), one problem solves by finding where the gradient of the distance function subjected to the sphere constraint becomes zero using Lagrange multipliers. The distance squared from (3,1,-1) to (x,y,z) is a function D(x, y, z) = (x-3)^2 + (y-1)^2 + (z+1)^2; the points of interest must satisfy both the sphere equation and satisfy the condition ∇D = λ∇g, where g = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 - 4 = 0. Solving these leads to critical points that are directly linked via D to closeness or remoteness maximally from (3,1,-1) once assessed.

To find the extreme values of f(x, y, z) = 2x + 3y + z with constraints x^2 + y^2 = 5 and x + z = 1, the method of Lagrange multipliers is applied. Define Lagrangian L(x, y, z, λ, μ) = 2x + 3y + z + λ(x^2 + y^2 - 5) + μ(x + z - 1). Compute partial derivatives of L with respect to x, y, z, λ, and μ, and set these derivatives to zero to form a system of equations. Solving this system alongside the original constraints, potential extremal points are obtained. Evaluating f at these points and comparing their values identifies extreme values.

To find the extreme values of f(x, y) = 2(x^2 − y^2) − x^4 + y^4, critical points must be determined by setting the first partial derivatives equal to zero. This yields a system of equations. Solving these equations gives potential extreme points. The nature of these points (maximum, minimum, or saddle) is determined by analyzing the second derivatives and the determinant of the Hessian matrix at these points. For this quartic polynomial, further analysis using higher-order conditions or examining boundary behavior in specific regions might be necessary to fully characterize potential extrema, especially due to the presence of multiple critical points.

To determine the directional derivative of f(x, y) = xy + y^2 in the direction of the unit vector u = √3/2 i + 1/2 j, first calculate the gradient of f, ∇f = (y, x + 2y). The directional derivative at any point (x, y) is given by the dot product of ∇f and the unit vector u. That is, D_uf(x, y) = ∇f · u = y√3/2 + (x + 2y)/2. Substitute the coordinates of the specific point (x, y) into this expression to find the directional derivative in this direction at that point.

Finding the local maximum and minimum of f(x, y) = 2(x^2 - y^2) - x^4 + y^4 involves locating critical points by solving the set of equations derived from the first partial derivatives equal to zero (∂f/∂x = ∂f/∂y = 0). These give a system solvable for x and y. For each critical point, the Hessian matrix is constructed using second partial derivatives; analyzing the determinant and eigenvalues of the Hessian helps determine whether each point is a local maximum, minimum, or saddle point, based on its definiteness. Further, considering the behavior of f at the boundary or infinity provides comprehensive insight into global extreme values.

To prove that a degree 2 polynomial f(x, y) equals its Taylor polynomial of degree 2 at (0, 0), consider f(x, y) = ax^2 + bxy + cy^2 + dx + ey + f. The Taylor polynomial of degree 2 includes all terms of the original polynomial, determined by evaluating the function and its derivatives at the point (0,0). As each term in f(x, y) is of degree less than or equal to 2, the Taylor series expansion captures every term without needing higher-order terms. Thus, f(x, y) and its Taylor polynomial of degree 2 are identical at (0, 0) due to the completeness of the expansion in covering all polynomial terms.