330 Chapter 9 Meshing

Chapter 9
Meshing

So far, we haven't discussed much on meshing because, for linear static problems, we usually can obtain solutions which
are acceptable both in computing time and accuracy with global mesh controls (such as Relevance Center, Relevance, and
Element Size) and some simple local mesh controls (such as Sizing). For the rest of the book, we will be dealing
with dynamic and nonlinear problems, of which the solutions are sensitive to meshing quality. With poor mesh quality, a
simulation may end up with solutions of poor accuracy or even run into convergence problems. Dynamic and nonlinear
problems require many computational resources, and poor mesh quality may aggravate the situation and result in a
lengthy computing time. For nonlinear problems, it is possible to reduce the runtime by improving the mesh quality
(because they converge easier). In contrast, it is possible that a nonlinear solution fails to converge just because of the
poor mesh quality.

Purpose ofThis Chapter

This chapter introduces meshing methods provided by Workbench and demonstrates how to use them. One of the
mesh quality metrics, called skewness, is also introduced and used as a measure of mesh quality in this chapter.

About Each Section

Using the pneumatic finger example, Section 9.1 provides a step-by-step exercise to introduce some important concepts
of meshing technologies. Section 9.2 uses a more involved model, the cover of pressure cylinder, to provide more
exercises on meshing technologies. Section 9.3, a sequel of Section 3.5, studies 3D elements convergence behaviors. We
postponed the study of 3D elements convergence until now because we need more meshing techniques to control the
meshing density.

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 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 33 I

Section 9.1 A: St at к Structural

Dwecbonel Deformation
Type Directional Deformet»on(Y An*)
Global Coordinate System

Pneumatic Fingers[Refl1

9.1.1 About the Pneumatic Fingers

[I] Simulation of the pneumatic finger was previewed in Section 1.1. In this section, we will walkthrough each step.
Besides the information in I. I. I (pages 10-11), geometric details are given in the figure below. Due to the symmetry of
the cross section [2], we model only half of the finger. The mm-kg-N-s unit system is used in this section. |

[2] The plane of

symmetry. #

80

9.1.2 Start Up and Prepare Material Properties

Д Finger - Workbench

[3] Double-click
Engineering Data.

U Modal
Static Structural
u Modal Acoustics
ш Random Vibration
QB Response Spectrum
Й Rigid Dynamics
u Static Acoustics [2] Double-click to create a
|P Static Structural
О Steady-State Thermal Static Structural system. f
tl) Thermal-Bectric
0 Topology Optimization
E? Transient Structural
C Transient Thermal
Q Turbomachinery Fluid Flow
Ш Component Systems
S Custom Systems
0 Design Explorabon

v Double-click component to edit 5J Job Monitor... Show Progress ° Show 0 Messages

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332 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.1.3 Create Geometry

[2] In XYPIane, draw
a rectangle like this. |
[I] Start up DesignModeler. Select
Millimeter as the length unit and
create a geometric model as shown
in [2-7].

Details View
Details of Extrade 1
Extrude Extrude 1
Geometry Shetchl О
Operation Add Material
Direction Vector None (Normal)
Direction Reversed О
Extent Type Fixed
FD1, Depth (>Q) 5.1 mm C
As ThinZSurface? No
Merge Topology? Yes
Geometry Selection: 1
Sketch Ishetehi [3] Extrude to
create a 3D
block. ।

©SeismicisolaHon
 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 333

[4] On XYPIane, create a new sketch (Sketch!).

Draw a rectangle and a vertical line like this. |

[5] Replicate 13 times, selecting all segments in the sketch except the
leftmost vertical segment, using the upper-left corner as the paste handle.
You may need to turn on Selection Filter: Points. |

[6] Trim away unwanted

Details View segments. I
Б Details of Extride2
Extrude Extrude 2
Geometry Sketch2
Operation Cut Material
Direction Vector None (Normal)
Direction Reversed
Extent Type Fixed
FD1, Depth (>Q) 4mm
As ThinZSurface? No
Target Bodies AH Bodies
Merge Topology ? Yes

s Geonmetxy Selectm: 1
[7] Extrude-cut to create
Sketch |Sketch2
air chambers. Close
DesignModeler. #

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334 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.1.4 Assign Material

Project
Ф1 Model (A4)
S Geometry
[2] Highlight
v ® Solid
Й • Coordinate Systems Solid. |
$11 Mesh
S of—] Static Structural (A5)
у/Л Analysis Settings
H ?ф| Solution (A6)
Tl Solution Information

[I] Start up Mechanical.

Select mm-kg-N-s unit Details of "Solid'
system. a Gxapkics Properties
a Defiaitina
Suppressed No

Stiffness Behavior Flexible

Coordinate System Default Coordinate System

Reference Temperature By Environment

Behavior None

S Material
Assignment PDMS

Nonlinear ESects Yes

Thermal Strain Effects Yes

Rot

a Properties
Statistics
[3] Select PDMS. #

9.1.5 Set Up Environment Conditions

Details of "Fixed Support"

a
Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry 1 Face
О
a Definition
Type Fixed Support

Suppressed No

Details of "Frictionless Support"

a
Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry 1 Face
О
a Definition
Type Fnctianless Support

Suppressed No

@Seismicisolation
 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 335

[3] Apply a pressure of 0.18 MPa on the

Scoping Method Geometcy Selection inner faces of the air chambers (70 faces
Geometry 70 Faces 22] Pressure: 0.18 MPa in total). To efficiently select the 70 faces,
Defiaitira you may select all faces (i.e., right-click­
Type Ftesswe
select Select All) and then deselect
Define By Normal To
(using control-click) unwanted faces. /
Applied By Surface Effect

| Magnitude 0.18 MPa Cramped) Q

| Suppressed | No

0 Q Static Structural (A5)

_____ <\ Analysis Settings_______
Fixed Support [4] The environment
Frictionless Support "= conditions should
_____ Pressure_________________ look like this. #
0 ф| Solution (A6)
Tl Solution Information

9.1.6 Mesh with Default Settings

Generate

[2] Select
Skewness 1for
Mesh Metric. |

[3]The default
settings result
in a poor
mesh quality
(see [4]). 1

Skewness[Refe2,3l
[4] Skewness, a measure of mesh quality, can be calculated for each element according to its geometry. Definition of
skewness can be found in the on-line documentation^5 2 3L For now, all you need to know is that it is a value ranging
from 0 to I, the smaller the better, and, as a guideline, element skewness should not be larger than 0.95. #

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336 Chapter 9 Meshing

Generate
Details of "Mesh" 9 x
s[Display

Display Style Use Geometry Setting

В Defaults

Physics Preference Mechanical

Element Order Program Controlled
[2,5,8] Generate
Element Size Default
s Sizing
Use Adaptive Sizing Yes
[ I ] Select 4 for
Resolution
Mesh Defeatunng Yes
Resolution. ->
Defeature Size Default
Transition Fast
Span Angle Center Coarse
initial Size Seed Assembly
Bounding Box Diagonal 80.318 mm
Average Surface Area 29.597 mm»
[4] Select 6 for
Minimum Edge Length 2 0 mm
- Quality Resolution. /
Check Mesh Quality Yes. Errors
[3] The mesh quality is
Error Limits Aggressive Mechanical
Target Quality Default (0 050000)
still poor. Let's try
Smoothing Medium finer mesh. 7
Mesh Metric Skewness
[П Min 3.7402e-002
Max 0.97122
Average 0.61125
Standard Deviation 0 20437
♦ Inflation
♦ Advanced
- Statistics
Nodes 2454
Elements 1197

Physics Preference
Element Order Program Controlled
Element Size Default
S Sizing
Use Adaptive Sizing
Resolution
Mesh Defeatunng Yes
Defeature Size Default
Transition Fast
Span Angle Center Coarse [7] Select 7 for
initial Size Seed Assembly
Resolution. This is the
Bounding Box Diagonal 80.318 mm
Average Surface Area 29 597 mm» finest mesh we can have by
Minimum Edge Length 2 0 mm adjusting Resolution. /
Quality
Check Mesh Quality Yes. Errors
Error Limits Aggressive Mechanical
Target Quality Default (0.050000)
Smoothing Medium
Mesh Metric Skewness
|D Min 5.0302e-003
Max 0 89406
Average 0 34415
Standard Deviation 0.15781
Inflation
Advanced
Statistics [6] In many cases, it is true
[□ Nodes
that the finer the mesh, the
Elements
better the quality, but this
may not always be true

[9] A bar chart (see [10], next page) shows the distribution of
the skewness. We'll use this mesh to obtain a solution. Note
that the number of nodes here is 16573. ।

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 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 337

9.1.8 Set Up Solution Branch Details of "Directional Deformatio]

Scope
В
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry All Bodies

S e| Solution (A6) В Definition

Solution Information
Type Directional Deformation [2] In this study, we focus
Orientation
•tj] Directional Deformation on theY-directional
By____________________ Time
deformation. #
Display Time Last

Coordinate System Global Coordinate System

Calculate Time History

[I] Insert a Directional Identifier

Suppressed No
Deformation.

9.1.9 Obtain a Linear Solution

[I] Solve. It takes only a few

9 seconds to complete the
[2] Select True Scale. |

Solve linear solution.

1.0 (True Scale)

Scoped Bodies
A: Static Structural
Directional Deformation
Type: Directional Deformation(Y Axis)
Unit: mm
Global Coordinate System
Time: 1

1.0271 Max
П-I -073279
-2.4927
- -4 2526
- -6 0126
- -7 7725
- -9 5324
- -11.292 [3]The maximum vertical deflection is 14.812 mm
-13.052
5 -14.812 Min
downward (at the finger tip). This value may not be
accurate, since we didn't consider nonlinear effect. |

Obtain a Linear Solution before Nonlinear Simulations

[4] It is a good practice to make sure a linear solution can be obtained before a nonlinear simulation is performed. A
linear simulation takes much less computational time than a nonlinear one. Nonlinearity should be considered in this
case, since the deflection is large. The linear solution, however, provides a way of model checking. #

@Seismicisolation
338 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.1.10 Obtain a Nonlinear Solution

IBI Project
S- el Model (A4)
[- Geometry
ф Solid
Й Coordinate Systems
Mesh [6] Highlight
В . A Static Structural (A5)
Solution
Analysis Settings
ЯI Project ^*5^, Fixed Support Information. |
□ el Model (A4)
Frictionless Support
0

В
Geometry
ф Solid
Coordinate Systems
vrixi Mesh
-
Pressure
el Solution (A6)
♦ | Solution Information
V
Q
f

Directional Deformation
0 A Static Structural (A5)
Analysis Settings
[I] Highlight Analysis (Details of "Solution Information"
Fixed Support Settings. | 0 Solution Information
Fnctionless Support Solution Output Displacement Convergence Q ▼ |
i==i
\.... Pressure Newton-Raphson Residuals
Й- Ф| Solution (A6) Identify Element Violations
■4T| Solution Information
Update Interval
Directional Deformation AU Л
Display Points
В FE Connection Visibility [7] And select
[2] Turn on Auto
Details of "Analysis Settings" Activate Visibility Yes Displacement
Time Stepping. | Display All FE Connectors
Number Of Steps Convergence. |
Draw Connections Attached To AU Nodes
Current Step Number
Line Color Connection Type
Step End Time
Visible on Results No
Auto Time Stepping On
Line Thickness Single
Define By Time Select Time. Display Type Lines
Initial Time Step 5.e-00Qs

Minimum Time Step l.e-002s

Maximum Time Step 5e-OO2s

0 Solver Controls
Solver Type Program Controlled

Weak Springs Off [4] Type 0.05 (s) for Initial Time Step,
Solver Pivot Checking Program Controlled 0.01 (s) for Minimum Time Step, and
Large Deflection
0.05 (s) for Maximum Time Step. |
Inertia Relief | Off

s Restart Controls
a Noaliaear Controls
Output Controls Solve
a Analysis Data Management [5] Turn on Large Deflection. The
s Visibility simulation will include geometric
nonlinearity. We will explain these
settings further in Chapter 13. /

[8] Solve the model. It

takes a while to complete
the nonlinear solution,
depending on your
hardware capability. |

Displacement Convergence
[9] Each substep of a nonlinear simulation involves an iterative process. Force and displacement values are used as
convergence criteria. These concepts will be further explained in 13.1.5 (page 473). ।

@Seismicisolation
 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 339

Cumulative Iteration

A: Static Structural
Directional Deformation
[10] The solution
Type: Directional Deformation(Y Axis)
Unit: mm converges in 25
Global Coordinate System iterations. |
Time: 1

1.0406 Max
-1 4941
-4.0289
-6 5637
-9.0984
-11.633
-14.168
-16.703
[12]The maximum vertical deflection is
•19.238____
-21.772 Min
21.772 mm downward, much larger than
the linear solution (9.1.9[3], page 337).
This justifies the inclusion of Large
Deflection (9.1.10[5], last page). |

Element Shapes
[13] In many cases, nonlinear simulations can be challenging. Meshing quality plays an important role in the
convergence of nonlinear solution. The mesh metric (e.g., skewness; see 9.1.7[9], page 336) is a measure of mesh
quality. Skewness often can be improved by refining elements. It sometimes needs a large number of elements to
achieve a mesh quality that is good enough to make the solution converge. In other cases, it may never achieve an
acceptable mesh quality by simply refining elements.
Another factor affecting convergence is the shapes of elements. In general, hexahedra are more efficient than
tetrahedra (see 9.3.13 and 9.3.14, page 361). In the following exercises, let's try to mesh the model with hexahedra. #

@Seismicisolation
340 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.1.11 Mesh with Hex Dominant Method

Details of "Hex Dominant Method" - Method

Б Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry 1 Body
[2] Select the solid
В Definition body. |
Method Sizing Face Suppressed No
Meshing
Method Hex Dominant

Element Midside Nodes Use Global Setting [3] Select Hex

Free Face Mesh Type Quad/Td
Dominant for
Control Messages Yes, Click To Display
Method. |

[I] With Mesh highlighted,

click Method to insert a [4] It is a warning. Click to read the message. It says
mesh method. that this geometry may not be suitable for Hex
Dominant method. Ignore the message. /

[5] Generate
mesh. |
Generate

| » TetW~ » ■ Hex20 ♦ Wed15 ------- •— Pyr13 О Quade

Number o f Elements

Element Metrics

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 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 341

9.1.12 Mesh with Sweep Method

[I] Right-click Mesh and select Show/Sweepable Bodies.

Any "sweepable bodies" would be highlighted. The result shows
Bl Project that, not surprisingly, the body is not sweepable. |
В ф| Model (A4)
0 уф Geometry
0 Coordinate

;.... уф Hex Dominant Method

0 4^1 Static Structural (A5)
:Analysis Settings
Fixed Support
Frictionless Support
i... y*Sk Pressure
0 Ф| Solution (A6)
h 4~F] Solution Information
Ф Directional Deformation

Sweepable Bodies
[2] As mentioned in 5.3.2[2] (page 228), a simple idea for generating hexahedral elements is to mesh a face (or faces) of
a body with quadrilaterals and then "sweep" along its depth direction to the other end face (or faces) of the body. The
starting faces are called the source faces and the ending faces are called the target faces. The source or target faces can
be either manually or automatically selected.
Not all bodies are sweepable. In our case, there is only one body, and it is not sweepable.

Mesh with MultiZone Method

For non-sweepable bodies, Workbench provides a sophisticated method of generating hexahedral elements, called
MultiZone method. The idea of MultiZone method is to divide a non-sweepable body into several sweepable
bodies, and then apply Sweep method on each of the bodies. Actually, we already applied this method to mesh the
beam bracket model in 5.1.13[l -5] (page 217). #

9.1.13 Mesh with MultiZone Method

Project [I] Highlight Hex

Ф1 Model (A4) Dominant Method,
5 Geometry
0 Coordinate Systems
й уФ Mesh____________
Hex Dominant Method
0 Q Static Structural (A5)
i- y/?. Analysis Settings
! y^L Fixed Support
p Frictionless Support
y^k Pressure
В Ф| Solution (A6)
_ jj Solution Information
Ф Directional Deformation

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342 Chapter 9 Meshing

Details of "MultiZone" - Method

a Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection

Geometry 1 Body

н Definition [3] Generate

Suppressed No
[2] Select mesh. /
Generate
Method MultiZone o- MultiZone.
Mapped Mesh Type Hexa

Suitace Mesh Method Program Controlled

Fiee Mesh Type Not Allowed

Element Midside Nodes Use Global Setting Details of "Mesh" 9 X

Src/Trg Selectron Automatic
s Display
Source Scoping Method Program Controlled Display Style Use Geometry Setting
Source S Defaults

Sweep Size Behavior Sweep Element Size Physics Preference Mechanical

Element Order Program Controlled
Sweep Element Size Default
Element Size Default
S Advanced
Sizing
Preserve Boundaries Protected
Use Adaptive Sizing Yes
Mesh Based Defeaturing Off Resolution
Minimum Edge Length 2. mm Mesh Defeatunng Yes
Write ICEMCFD Files No Defeature Size Default
Transition Fast
Span Angle Center Coarse
initial Size Seed Assembly
Bounding Box Diagonal 80.318 mm
Average Surface Area 29.597 mm*
Minimum Edge Length 2.0 mm
Quality

[4] Workbench successfully Check Mesh Quality Yes, Errors

Error Limits Aggressive Mechanical
meshes the body with
Target Quality Default (0.050000)
hexahedral elements. \ Smoothing Medium
Mesh Metric Skewness
,□ Min 1.3058e-010
|D Max 0.61747
Average 0.12717
Standard Deviation 010271
Inflation
Advanced
Statistics
Nodes 19201
Elements 3395

[5] The mesh

quality is good.
[6] With Mesh highlighted, a bar We'll use this mesh
chart shows the distribution of to obtain a solution.
skewness. Note that the mesh Note that the
contains hexahedral elements only. # number of nodes is
about 19,000. ч-

959.00
Number of Elements

750.00

500.00

250.00

0.00
0.20 0.30 0.40 050 062
Element Metrics

@Seismicisolation
 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 343

9.1.14 Examine Mesh Using Section View

j [ I ] With Mesh highlighted, select

CJ Comment tjSection Plane O-==Z Home/lnsert/Section Plane in

.-I.i'chart ©Annotation I the toolbar to create a section plane. |

Insert '

[2] Draw a line (it is called a

section plane) like this. |

[5] Rotate the view to see

the internal mesh. |

@Seismicisolation
344 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.1.15 Obtain a Nonlinear Solution

Project
Ф1 Model (A4)
B~ Geometry
tjj Solid
E Coordinate Systems [2] Highlight
B- Mesh
MultiZone
Solution
Details of "Analysis Settings" S L~l Static Structural (A5) Information. /
Analysts Settings
s Step Controls
Fixed Support
Number Of Steps
Frictionless Support
Current Step Number
Pressure
Step End Time В . ф| Solution (A6)
Auto Time Stepping On О ?l------------------
Solution Information ,
Define By Time Directorial Deformation
Initial Time Step 5.e-OO2s о
Minimum Time Step l.e-002s О [ I ] We're using the
Maximum Time Step 5.e-OQ2s О same analysis 3 Solution Information
Solver Controls
settings. -> Solution Output Displacement Convergence Q
Solver Type Program Controlled
Newtan-Raphsea Residuals 0
Weak Springs Off
Identify Element Violations 0
Solver Pivot Checking Program Controlled 2П
Update Interval
Large Deflection On О Display Points АП
Inertia Relief Off
3 FE Connection Visibility
S Restart Controls Activate Visibility Yes
s Nonlinear Controls Display_________________ АП FE Connectors
s Output Controls Draw Connections Attached To All Nodes
s Analysis Data Management T iie Color Connection Type
Visibility Visible on Results No
Line Thickness Single
Display Type
Displacement (mm)
Time (s)

@Seismicisolation
 Section 9.1 Pneumatic Fingers 345

A: Static Structural
Directional Deformation
Type: Directional Deformation(Y Axis)
Unit: mm
Global Coordinate System
Time: 1

H 1.1116 Max
I -1.4041
-3.9198
-64355
-8 9512
-11 4«;
-13.983
-16.498
-19.014
-21.53 Min

Z
Wrap Up
[6] Save the project and exit Workbench. |

Remark
[7] As mentioned in 1. 1.8[8] (page 19), when assuming a linear material, we are also assuming the compressive behavior
is the same as tensile behavior, but this is usually not true for an elastomer under such a large deformation. (Note that
the upper portion of the finger is subject to tension, while the lower portion is subject to compression.)
Hyperelasticity, a more accurate material model for elastomer under large deformation, will be introduced in PART C
of Section 14.1 (pages 532-535). #

References
I. This exercise is adapted from an unpublished work led by Prof. Chao-Chieh Lan of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, NCKU.
2. All Help>Meshing>Meshing User's Guide>Global Mesh Controls>Quality Group>Mesh Metric
3. All Help>Mechanical APDL>Theory Reference> 12.1. Element Shape Testing

@Seismicisolation
346 Chapter 9 Meshing

Section 9.2
Cover of Pressure Cylinder

9.2.1 About the Cylinder Cover

[I] In this section, we will use the cylinder cover (Sections 4.2 and 5.2)
to demonstrate some additional meshing techniques.
The geometry of the cover is relatively complicated. It seems that a
tetrahedral mesh is the only feasible method. There is nothing wrong
with a tetrahedral mesh as long as the mesh quality is good enough.
Examining the mesh generated in 5.2.5[3-5] (page 221), we see that the
mesh quality is bad (9.2.3[I -3], next page). The mesh quality needs to be
improved. The simplest way is to adjust the relevance values. That
sometimes works, although increasing the problem size, but sometimes
fails. For a linear static simulation, problem size seems no big deal, but
for a nonlinear or dynamic simulation, the problem size should be kept
as small as possible, to maintain an acceptable computing time.
Note also that the purpose of this section is to demonstrate
meshing techniques, rather than finding the best mesh for the cylinder
cover. #

9.2.2 Open the Project Cover

[2] Double-click Model to
start up Mechanical.
Make sure the unit system is
mm-kg-N-s. #

Static Structural

@Seismicisolation
 Section 92 Cover of Pressure Cylinder 347

9.2.3 Increase Mesh Density Using Global Mesh Controls [7] With a mesh of
more than 360,000
nodes, some
Display
Display Style Use Geometry Setting
elements still have
[I] Highlight Mesh and bad quality. |
Physics Preference Mechanical
Element Order Program Controlled
select 4 for
Element Size Default Resolution.
Suing
Use Adaptive Sizing
Generate the mesh.
This is the mesh used in
Mesh Defeaturing
5.2.5[3-5], page 221. |

Span Angle Center

Assembly
Bounding Box Diagonal
Average Surface Area
Minimum Edge Length 1.5377 mm
[2] Select
Quafty_________
Check Mesh Quality Skewness for
Error Limits Aggressive Mechanical
Mesh Metric. |
Target Quality Default (0 050000)
Smoothing Medium
Mesh Metnc

Average
[3] Some elements have
Standard Deviation large skewness. /
Inflation

Elements

[4] As we increase the mesh [5] Even when the number of [6] In this case, increasing
density by setting new relevance nodes increases to more than mesh density has little effect
values, the Max remains high. 100,000, the Max remains high. on Max value. T

Increasing Mesh Density Is Not a Panacea

[8] The lesson we learned here is that increasing mesh density, although often reducing average skewness, is not a
universal remedy for eliminating large skewness. We need to learn other meshing techniques. #

@Seismicisolation
348 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.2.4 Mesh with Patch Conforming Method

[5] Highlight Mesh and select
4 for Resolution and
generate the mesh. For the
rest of this section, we always
use 4 for Resolution.

Method Generate

[6] Generate
[I] With Mesh highlighted, mesh. |
select Method to insert a
mesh metod. |

[7j I he mesh is the same as that in [Link][4|

(last page). In fact, Patch Conforming
method is the default mesh method for a
complicated geometry. |

Patch Conforming and Patch Independent Methods

[8] The faces of a solid body are also called the patches. The basic idea of Patch Conforming is to mesh all the faces
of the body with triangles and then "grow" inward to create tetrahedra. In this way, the exterior shape of the body (i.e.,
shapes of its faces) is respected (preserved), thus the name Patch Conforming. For complicated geometry, this is
the default method.
On the other hand, Patch Independent creates tetrahedra from inside out. The outermost nodes are then
projected onto the boundary faces and the element edges are created. In this way, the mesh's exterior shape may
deviate from the original geometry, thus the name Patch Independent.
In some cases, when too many details exist that cause meshing difficulty, we may resort to Patch Independent
algorithm and ignore these details. However, it is your responsibility to make sure that ignoring those details wouldn't
distort the geometry too much. #

@Seismicisolation
 Section 92 Cover of Pressure Cylinder 349

92.5 Mesh with Patch Independent Method

[I] Highlight Patch

Scoping Method Geometiy Selection
Conforming
Geometry 1 Body

DefieiticMi
Method.
Suppoessed No

Method Tetrahedrons
Algorithm Patch Independent
[2] Select Patch
Element Order Use Global Setting Independent. / 0 Mesh
jPatch Conforming Method
Advanced
Defined By Max Element Size

Max Element Size Default

Feature Angle 30.0"

Mesh Based Defeaturing Off

Refinement Pioodmity and Curvatuae [4] We decide to use

Min Size Limit 2.5 rrrm
Num Cells Across Gap Default
2.5 (mm) for Min
Curvature Normal Angle Default Size Limit. \
Smooth Transiticm Off

Growth Rate Default

Minimum Edge Length 1.5377 mm

Write ICEMCFD Files Details of "Mesh” V X

Display
Display Style Use Geometry Setting
Defaults
Physics Preference Mechanical
[3] Since the minimum Element Order Program Controlled
edge length is Element Size Default

reportedly 1.5377... | Sizing

Use Adaptive Sizing Yes
Resolution
Mesh Defeatunng Yes
Defeature Size Default
[5] Generate
Transition Fast
Mesh. It may
Span Angle Center Coarse
Initial Size Seed Assembly take a while.
Bounding Box Diagonal 94.261 mm The mesh
Average Surface Area 454.04 mm1 quality is okay...
Minimum Edge Length 1.5377 mm
S Quality
Check Mesh Quality Yes. Errors
Error Limits Aggressive Mechani
Target Quality Default (0.050000)
Smoothing Medium /
Mesh Metric Skewness
Min 1.2452e-003
Max 0 68501
Average 0.23975
Standard Deviation 0.15097
5 Inflation
♦ Advanced
SI Statistics
Nodes 365787
Elements 240206

[6] But the mesh

size becomes large.

@Seismicisolation
350 Chapter 9 Meshing

Details of "Patch Independent" - Method - Quality

Check Mesh Quality Yes, Errors
s
Error Limits Aggressive Mechanical
Scoping Method Geometiy Selection
Target Quality Default (0.050000)
Geometry IBody
[7] If we use a Smoothing Medium
□ Definition
Skewness
Suppressed No
coarser element Mesh Metnc
Min 5 2229e-003
Method Tetrahedxcms size. Max 090092 О
(
Algorithm Patch Independent Average 042696
Element Older Use Globed Setting Standard Deviation 019004
S Advanced Inflation
Defined By Max Element Size Advanced

Max Element Size Default - Statistics

Feature Angle 30.0“ Modes 37756

Elements 21895
Mesh Based Defeaturing Off
Refinement Proximity and Curvature
В Min Size Limit 3.5 mm
Num Cells Across Gap Default
Curvature Normal Angle Default
Smooth Transition Off [8] The mesh size does
Growth Rate Default reduce substantially. /
Minimum Edge Length 1.5377 mm
Write ICEMCFD Files No

[10] It may worsen

Details of "Patch Independent" - Method the mesh quality... |
s Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry IBody

0 Definition Quality
Suppressed No Check Mesh Quality Yes. Errors
[9] If we further
Method Tetrahedrons Error Limits Aggressive Mechanical
increase the Target Quality Default (0 050000)
Algorithm Patch Independent
Element Midside Nodes Use Global Setting element size... Smoothing Medium
Mesh Metnc Skewness
Б Advanced
Min 2.0704e-002
Defined By Max Element Size Max 0 95501
Max Element Size Default Average 0.57351
Feature Angle 30.0“ Standard Deviation 0.

Mesh Based Defeaturing ОТ

Refinement Proximity and C
В Min Size Limit 6 mm
Num Cells Across Gap Default
Curvature Normal Angle Default
Smooth Transition ОТ
Growth Rate Default
Minimum Edge Length 1.5377 mm
Write ICEMCFD Files No
[II] And may generate
a distorted "patch,"
not conforming to the
geometry (i.e., "patch"
is independent of the
geometry). #

@Seismicisolation
 Section 92 Cover of Pressure Cylinder 351

92.6 Mesh with Hex Dominant Method

Details of "Hex Dominant Method" - Method

В Mesh
В Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
I J%| patch Independent^ [I] Highlight Patch
Independent. <-
Geometry 1 Body

в Defieitin»
Suppressed No
Method Hex Dominant Q [2] Select Hex
Element Midside Nodes Use Globed Setting Dominant method. |
Free Face Mesh Type Quad/Tri
Control Messages Yes, Click To Display...

Generate

[3] Ignore the warning. The warning says

that Hex Dominant method for this case, [4] Generate Mesh.
where the ratio of volume to surface area is It may take a while. /
low, may result in poor mesh quality.

[6] But the quality is

poor... |

[7] And the mesh

count is high. |

Hex Dominant Method

[8] An idea of Hex Dominant is to mesh the body with Patch Conforming first and then combine tetrahedra to
form hexahedra:two tetrahedra form a hexahedron. It usually leaves some tetrahedra that cannot be combined to
form hexahedra, thus the name Hex Dominant. After forming hexahedra, the algorithm tries to adjust the nodes to
improve the mesh quality further.
Note that, Hex Dominant method, by its nature, is a method of patch conforming; that is, the faces are not
distorted. In fact, all methods except Patch Independent are patch conforming. #

@Seismicisolation
352 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.2.7 Mesh with MultiZone Method

Details of "MultiZone" - Method В Mesh [I] Highlight Hex

✓’fe IHex Dominant Method i Dominant Method.
Scoping Method Geometcy Selection
Geometry IBody
В Definition
Suppressed No
Method MultiZane
[2] Select MultiZone
Mapped Mesh Type Hexa method. [3] Generate Mesh.
Surface Mesh Method Program Cantidled It may take a while. /
Free Mesh Type Hexa Dominant О Generate
Element Midside Nodes Use Global Setting
SrcZTxg Selection Automatic
Source Scoping Method
Source Program Controlled
Sweep Size Behavior Sweep Element Size
Sweep Element Size Default
в
Pieseive Boundaries Protected
Mesh Based Defeaturing Off
Minimum Edge Length 1.5377 mm
Write ICEMCFD Files No

- Quality
Check Mesh Quality Yes. Errors
[4] The mesh appears
Error Limits Aggressive Mechanical
Target Quality Default (0.050000) perfect... \
Smoothing Medium
Mesh Metric Skewness
Min 1 3058e-010
Max
Average 0 52958
Standard Deviation 025395

MultiZone Method
[6] As mentioned, the idea of MultiZone method is to decompose a non-sweepable body into several sweepable
bodies, and then apply Sweep method on each body. The selection of source faces can be automatic or manual. In
this case, you may try to select source faces manually.
Workbench is often smart enough to decompose the body into sweepable bodies. But, since these bodies are an
integral part, the boundaries between the decomposed bodies must be conformal (i.e,the boundaries must have the
same surface mesh); these constraints may complicate the meshing task. |

z
Wrap Up
[7] Save the project and exit Workbench. #

@Seismicisolation
 Section 93 Convergence Study of 3D Elements 353

Section 9.3
Convergence Study of 3D Solid
Elements Number of Nodes

The main purpose of this section is to study 3D solid elements convergence behavior. A secondary purpose is to serve
as an exercise for mesh controls techniques. A cantilever beam of rectangular cross section is used for these purposes.
The conclusions drawn from the convergence study are crucial for CAE engineers. This section can be viewed as a
sequel of PART C of Section 3.5 (pages 161 -163).

9.3.1 About the Cantilever Beam

[I] The cantilever beam is made of steel and of size 100 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm; a uniform load of I MPa is applied on
the upper face of the beam [2-4]. Convergence of three solid element shapes will be compared, namely hexahedron,
prism, and tetrahedron (1.3.3[2-3,5], page 38). \

9.3.2 Start Up a New Project

[I] Launch Workbench. Create a Static

Structural system. Save the project as
Cantilever. Start up DesignModeler. Select
Millimeter as the length unit. #

@Seismicisolation
354 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.3.3 Create a 3D Model in DesignModeler

[I] On XYPIane,create a rectangle [2].

Extrude the sketch to create a 3D model [3].
Close DesignModeler.

9.3.4 Set Up Support, Load, and Solution Objects

[I] Start up Mechanical and select the mm-kg-N-s

unit system. Specify a Fixed Support on the left face [2].
Apply a pressure of I MPa on the upper face [3]. Insert a
Directional Deformation under the solution branch
and select Y Axis for Orientation [4]. /

[3] Apply a pressure of

A: Static Structural
Static Structural I MPa on this face.
[2] Specify a Time: 1. s
fixed support Ц Pressure: 1. MPa
on this face. - [BJ Fixed Support

@Seismicisolation
 Section 93 Convergence Study of 3D Elements 355

93.5 Lower-Order Hexahedra

[I] For a model of such a regular geometry, the default

mesh control settings will generate an all-hexahedra
mesh of higher-order elements [2]. To generate lower-
order hexahedra, select Linear for Element Order
[3]. For each run, change the element size [4]. Resulting
tip deflections are recorded in the table below. The
convergence curve is shown in [5].

Element Number Tip Deflection

Size (mm) of Nodes (mm)

5 189 0.74571

4 4I6 0.74693

3 875 0.74850

2 1836 0.74980

1.5 4352 0.75048 [3] Select Linear for Element

Order. |
I.3 63I8 0.75072

1.2 8500 0.75086

I 12221 0.75106
Display
0.9 19097 0.75120
•ng
0.8 24696 0.75129 Defaults
Physics Preference Mechanical ]
Element Order Linear О
■ Element Size 5.0 mm
Sizing
Quality
Inflation
Advanced
s Statistics
□ Nodes 189 О
Elements 80

E
E
[4] Change
о Element Size
Ъ
ф
for each run. <-

@Seismicisolation
356 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.3.6 Lower-Order Tetrahedra

Details of "Patch Conforming Method" - Meth

Scoping Method Geometry Selection

[I] Highlight Mesh in the project tree and click
Geometry 1 Body О
Method to insert a mesh control method. Select s De tuition
Tetrahedrons method [2]. Now, change element size Suppressed No

Method Tetrahedrons
for each run [3]. Resulting tip deflections are recorded
Algorithm Patch C
in the table below. The convergence curve is shown in Element Midside Nodes Use Globed S

[4]. -

Element Number Tip Deflection

Size (mm) of Nodes (mm) [2] Select Tetrahedrons
method. |
5 101 0.29182

4 188 0.50308

2.5 341 0.53437

2 520 0.58585

1.5 743 0.58876

1.2 1584 0.64860

1 2005 0.65522

0.8 2690 0.67128

0.7 4028 0.68313

0.6 5154 0.68960

0.55 6466 0.69452

0.5 7916 0.69807

Change
Element Size for
each run. <-
T ip D eflection (m m )

@Seismicisolation
 Section 93 Convergence Study of 3D Elements 357

9.3.7 Lower-Order Prisms (Parallel to Loading Direction)

[I] Highlight Patch Conforming Method. In the

details view, change to Sweep method [2]. Set up the
source face [3-4]. For each run, change both sweep
element size [5] and global element size [6]. Resulting tip Details of "Sweep I
________
[2] Change to
Bl Scope Sweep method. |
deflections are recorded in the table below. The
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
convergence curve is shown in [7]. Geometry 1 Body
Note that the prisms are oriented such that their - Definition
Suppressed No
heights are parallel to the loading (bending) direction. We Method Sweep
will refer to the elements oriented in this way as "parallel Algorithm Program Controlled
Element Order Use Global Setting [3] Select
prisms" for the rest of this section. We will show in 9.3.8
SrcArg Selection Manual Source Manual
(next page) that the convergence curve will be different if Source 1 Face Source. |
the prisms are oriented differently. Target Program Controlled
Free Face Mesh Type Ail Tri
ТУР* Element Size
Element Number Tip Deflection ■ Sweep Element Size 5.0 mm
Element Option Solid
[4] Select the
Size (mm) of Nodes (mm) top face and
- Advanced
Sweep Bias Type No Bias click Apply. |
5 186 0.65779

4 324 0.69584

3 875 0.71844 [5] Change Sweep Element

Size for each run. |
2.4 1326 0.72969

2 2112 0.73344

1.5 4864 0.74156

1.2 9300 0.74510

1 13288 0.74671

[7] Convergence curve for

lower-order parallel prisms. #

0.75

0.72
E
E
о
0.70

0.67

[6] Also change Elemeni

0.64
ize (using the same value as
3000 6000 9000 12000 15000
each run. *
Number of Nodes

@Seismicisolation
358 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.3.8 Lower-Order Prisms (Perpendicular to Loading Direction)

[I] In the details view of Sweep Method, re-select the

source face [2]. For each run, change both sweep element
size [3] and global element size [4]. Resulting tip I Details of"
deflections are recorded in the table below. The В Scope
[2] Re-select a
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
convergence curve is shown in [5]. side face and click
[Geometry 1 Body
Note that the prisms are oriented such that their S Definition Apply. 1
heights are perpendicular to the loading (bending) direction. Suppressed No
Method Sweep
We will refer to the elements oriented in this way as Algorithm Program Controlled
"perpendicular prisms" for the rest of this section. Element Order Use Global Setting
Src/Trg Selection Manual Source
Source 1 Face О
Element Number T'P Target Program Controlled
Size of Deflection Free Face Mesh Type All Tri

(mm) Nodes (mm) I

Type Element Size
■ Sweep Element Size 5.0 mm
Element Option Solid
5 186 0.45546
В Advanced
4 324 0.47229 Sweep Bias Type No Bias

3 875 0.65078 [3] Change Sweep

Element Size for
2.4 1326 0.65622
each run. |
2 2II2 0.70027

1.5 4864 0.72260

1.2 9300 0.73279

I 13288 0.73582

[5] Convergence curve for lower-

order perpendicular prisms. #

‘tails of "Mesh" 9
0.75 Display
Display Style Use Geometry Setting
Defaults
0.70
Physics Preference Mechanical
Element Order Linear о
T ip D eflection (m m )

Element Size i 5.0 mm

0.65
Sizing
Quality
Inflation
0.60
Advanced
Statistics
0.55 Nodes 186 О
Elements 156

0.50

[4] Also change Element

0.45 Size (using the same value as
3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 that in [3]) for each run. <-
Number of Nodes

@Seismicisolation
 Section 93 Convergence Study of 3D Elements 359

9.3.9 Higher-Order Hexahedra

...............................................................

S Display
[I] Delete Sweep Method. Repeat all the Display Style Use Geometry Setting
В Defaults
steps in 9.3.5 (page 355), using quadratic
Physics Preference Mechanical
elements [2] and change the element sizes as Element Order Quadratic
shown below.

[ZJ select quadratic for

Element Number Tip Deflection
Element Order. «-
Size (mm) of Nodes (mm) [3] Convergence curve for
higher-order hexahedra. #
5 621 0.74899

4 1440 0.75011 0.752

3 3125 0.75071
| 0.751
2 6696 0.75108
c
О
1.5 16256 0.75136 Ъ 0.750
ф

1.3 23787 0.75145

О
.9- 0.749

0.748 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

Number of Nodes
9.3.10 Higher-OrderTetrahedra

[I] Repeat all the steps in 9.3.6 (page 356),

using quadratic elements (9.3.9[2], this page)
and change the element sizes as shown below.

[2] Convergence curve for

Element Number Tip Deflection higher-order tetrahedra. #
Size (mm) of Nodes (mm)

5 493 0.74546 0.752

4 971 0.74897
0.751
3 1371 0.74977 "I 0.750
2.5 1883 0.75016
.2 0 749
2 2880 0.75055
I 0.748
1.5 4127 0.75106 Ф
Q
1.2 9508 0.75110 Q- 0.747

1 11905 0.75124 0.746

0.8 16102 0.75142
0.745
0.7 24607 0.75151 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

Number of Nodes

@Seismicisolation
360 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.3.11 Higher-Order Parallel Prisms

[I] Repeat all the steps in 9.3.7 (page 357),

using quadratic elements (9.3.9[2J, last page)
and change the element sizes as shown
below.

Element Number Tip Deflection

Size of Nodes (mm)
(mm)

5 727 0.74815

4 1303 0.74958

3.3 2803 0.75038

3 3805 0.75049

2.4 5827 0.75084

2 9530 0.75096

1.8 12779 0.751 13

1.6 18902 0.75126

1.4 27529 0.75137

9.3.12 Higher-Order Perpendicular Prisms

[I] Repeat all the steps in 9.3.8 (page 358),

using quadratic elements (9.3.9[2], last page)
and change the element sizes as shown
below. ->

Element Number Tip Deflection

Size of Nodes (mm)
(mm)

5 727 0.74767

4 1303 0.74914

3.3 2803 0.75001

3 3805 0.75018

2.4 5827 0.75062

2 9530 0.75082

1.8 12779 0.75100

1.6 18902 0.75115

1.4 27573 0.75128

@Seismicisolation
 Section 93 Convergence Study of 3D Elements 361

9.3.13 Comparison: Lower-Order Elements

0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

Number of Nodes

9.3.14 Comparison: Higher-Order Elements

[I] The chart below is made from a collection of the convergence curves in 9.3.9 to 9.3.12 (pages 359-360) to compare
the convergence behaviors of the higher-order elements. The differences among them are not obvious but still
distinguishable. In contrast to the lower-order tetrahedron, the higher-order tetrahedron is still practically useful as
long as the mesh is fine enough. |

@Seismicisolation
362 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.3.15 Comparison: Hexahedra

[I] The chart below is made by a collection of the convergence curves in 9.3.5 (page 355) and 9.3.9 (page 359) to
compare the convergence behaviors between the lower- and higher-order hexahedra. It is obvious that the higher-
order hexahedral element is better than the lower-order hexahedral, but the difference is not so dramatic as the
tetrahedral element (see 9.3.16, this page). |

0.752

0.751

T 0.750
£
§ 0.749
4-J
| 0.748

О
0.747

0.746

0.745
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

Number of Nodes

9.3.16 Comparison:Tetrahedra

[I] The chart below is made from a collection of the convergence curves in 9.3.6 (page 356) and 9.3.10 (page 359) to
compare the convergence behaviors between the lower- and higher-order tetrahedra. It is obvious that higher-order
element is much better than the lower-order one. Remember: NEVER use lower-order tetrahedral elements. |

@Seismicisolation
 Section 93 Convergence Study of 3D Elements 363

9.3.17 Comparison: Parallel Prisms

[I] The chart below is made by a collection of the convergence curves in 9.3.7 (page 357) and 9.3.11 (page 360) to
compare the convergence behaviors between the lower- and higher-order parallel prisms. It is obvious that higher-
order element is much better than the lower-order one. Like lower-order tetrahedral, lower-order prismatic elements
are not recommended. |

0.76

0.74

0.72

0.70

0.68

0.66

0.64
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000

Number of Nodes

9.3.18 Comparison: Perpendicular Prisms

[I] The chart below is made by a collection of the convergence curves in 9.3.8 (page 358) and 9.3.12 (page 360) to
compare the convergence behaviors between the lower- and higher-order perpendicular prisms. It is obvious that the
higher-order element is much better than the lower-order one. Like lower-order tetrahedral, lower-order prismatic
elements are not recommended, |

@Seismicisolation
364 Chapter 9 Meshing

9.3.19 Summary and Guidelines

Summary and Guidelines

[I] Combining the observations in Section 3.5 and this section, we may summarize the conclusions as follows: (a)
Never use lower-order tetrahedra or triangles, (b) Higher-order tetrahedra or triangles are as good as other elements
as long as the mesh is fine enough. In cases of coarse mesh, however, they perform poorly and are not recommended,
(c) Lower-order prisms are not recommended, (d) Lower-order hexahedra and quadrilaterals can be used, but they are
not as efficient as their higher-order counterparts, (e) Higher-order hexahedra, parallel-prisms, and quadrilaterals are
among the most efficient elements we have discussed so far. Mesh your models with these elements whenever
possible. If that is not possible, then at least try to achieve a higher-order hexahedra-dominant or quadrilateral­
dominant mesh. |

Remark: CPU Time

[2] In Section 3.5 and this section, comparisons among elements are made under the same number of nodes. More
reasonable comparisons should be made under the same CPU time. For a simulation task, the CPU time consists of
three parts. First, the time required to establish Eq. 1.3.1 (I) (page 35). It may involve numerical integrations for each
element. This part of CPU time depends on the total number of elements as well as the number of integration points
of each element. Second, the time required to solve the equation. This part of CPU time is determined solely by the
number of degrees of freedom, which is in turn determined by the number of nodes and the dimensionality (2D or 3D).
Third, the others (housekeeping, overhead, etc).
For small problems, the overall CPU time is dominated by the third part. That is why we didn't use CPU time for
comparison, since all cases are small when coarsely meshed. For large problems, the third part is negligible and the
CPU time is essentially the sum of the first two parts.
Therefore, strictly speaking, our comparison was not perfectly accurate. Nevertheless, the discussions and
conclusions in this section pretty much reflect the reality. These guidelines should be useful. |

z
Wrap Up
[3] Save the project and exit Workbench. #

@Seismicisolation
 Section 9.4 Review 365

Section 9.4
Review

9.4.1 Keywords
Choose a letter for each keyword, from the list of descriptions

I. ( ) Convergence Criteria 6. ( ) Patch Conforming Method

2. ( ) Displacement Convergence Criterion 7. ( ) Patch Independent Method

3. ( ) Force Convergence Criterion 8. ( ) Perpendicular Prisms

4. ( ) Hex Dominant Method 9. ( ) Skewness

5. ( ) Parallel Prisms 10. ( ) Sweep Thin Method

Answers:
I. ( В ) 1(C) 3. ( D ) 4. ( H ) 5. ( I ) 6. ( F 7. ( G ) 8. (J ) 9. ( A ) IO.( E )

List of Descriptions

( A ) A measure of mesh quality, calculated for each element according to its geometry. Its value ranges from 0 to I,
the smaller the better. Elements of skewness of more than 0.95 are considered unacceptable.

( В ) In nonlinear simulation, the loading is divided into substeps and applied substep by substep. By default, a substep is
said to be complete when both displacement convergence criterion and force convergence criterion are met during the
iterations.

( C ) During the iterations of a substep of a nonlinear simulation, the displacement convergence criterion is met when
the increment of displacement is less than a criterion, which is, by default, 0.5% of maximum displacement.

( D ) During the iterations of a substep of a nonlinear simulation, the force convergence criterion is met when the
unbalanced force is less than a criterion, which is, by default, 0.5% of applied force.

( E ) Sweep mesh control method can be classified into Sweep and Sweep Thin. Sweep allows a more complex
sweeping path while Sweep Thin allows only a simple sweeping path. The advantage of Sweep Thin is that it allows
multiple faces as source or target while Sweep allows only one face for both source and target.

@Seismicisolation
366 Chapter 9 Meshing

( F ) A mesh control method. It meshes all the faces of the body with triangles; the triangles then "grow" inward to
create tetrahedra. In this way, the shapes of the faces are respected (preserved).

( G ) A mesh control method. It creates tetrahedra from inside out. The outermost nodes are then projected onto the
boundary faces and the element edges are created. In this way, the mesh's outline may be different from the original
geometry.

( H ) A mesh control method. It meshes a body with Patch Conforming method first and then combines tetrahedra to
form hexahedra. It usually leaves some tetrahedra that cannot be combined to form hexahedra.

( I ) When a body is meshed with prismatic elements and the prisms are oriented such that their heights are parallel
to the bending direction, the prismatic elements oriented in this way are referred to as parallel prisms. (Note: this term
is used only in this book.)

( J ) When a body is meshed with prismatic elements and the prisms are oriented such that their heights are
perpendicular to the bending direction, the prismatic elements oriented in this way are referred to as perpendicular
prisms. (Note: this term is used only in this book.)

9.4.2 Additional Workbench Exercises

Convergence Study for Higher-Order 2D Elements

In Section 9.3, we study the convergence of 3D elements, both higher-order and lower-order elements. In Section 3.5,
we study the convergence of 2D elements only for the lower-order elements. We haven't studied the higher-order 2D
elements yet. Conduct a study of the higher-order 2D elements.

@Seismicisolation