AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL FOR BEGINNERS - TRAINING NOTE

FORM NO: AFM/FTN/01

REV: Initial
AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME
ISSUE: Jan 2021
INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION
PAGES: 04

1.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

1.1 History

Witness from our own history about king RAWANA and his flying machine DADUMONARAYA in
Sri Lankan legend story. Kite invented by china and observed how birds can fly in the sky.

Figure 01

1.2 Man’s Desire to Fly

Daedalus was shut up in a tower to prevent his knowledge of his Labyrinth from spreading to the public.
He could not leave Crete by sea, as the king kept strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without
being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land and sea routes, Daedalus set to work to fabricate
wings for himself and his young son Icarus. He tied feathers together, from smallest to largest so as to form an
increasing surface. He secured the feathers at their midpoints with string and at their bases with wax, and gave
the whole a gentle curvature like the wings of a bird. When the work was done, the artist, waving his wings,
found him buoyed upward and hung suspended, poising himself on the beaten air. He next equipped his son in
the same manner, and taught him how to fly. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to
fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the
feathers.
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 1.3 Initial Drawings Related To Aviation

Leonardo da Vinci made the first real studies of flight in the 1480's. He had over 100 drawings that
illustrated his theories on flight. The ORNITHOPTER flying machine was never actually created. It was a
design that Leonardo da Vinci created to show how man could fly. The modern day helicopter is based on this
concept.

Figure 02

2.0 VARIOUS EFFORTS BY HUMAN

2.1 Hot Air Balloons

The brothers, Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier, were inventors of the first hot air balloon.
They used the smoke from a fire to blow hot air into a silk bag. The silk bag was attached to a basket. The hot
air then rose and allowed the balloon to be lighter-than-air.
In 1783, the first passengers in the colorful balloon were a sheep, rooster and duck. It climbed to a
height of about 6,000 feet and traveled more than 1 mile. After this first success, the brothers began to send men
up in balloons. The first manned flight was on November 21, 1783, the passengers were Jean-Francois Pilatre
de Rozier and Francois Laurent.
2.2 Gliders

George Cayley worked to discover a way that man could fly. He designed many different versions of
gliders that used the movements of the body to control. A young boy, whose name is not known, was the first to
fly one of his gliders.
Over 50 years he made improvements to the gliders. He changed the shape of the wings so that the air
would flow over the wings correctly. He designed a tail for the gliders to help with the stability. He tried a
biplane design to add strength to the glider. He also recognized that there would be a need for power if the flight
was to be in the air for a long time.
German engineer, Otto Lilienthal, studied aerodynamics and worked to design a glider that would fly.
He was the first person to design a glider that could fly a person and was able to fly long distances. He was
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fascinated by the idea of flight. Based on his studies of birds and how they fly, he wrote a book on
aerodynamics that was published in 1889 and this text was used by the Wright Brothers as the basis for their
designs. After more than 2500 flights, he was killed when he lost control because of a sudden strong wind and
crashed into the ground.

Figure 03

3.0 THE WRIGHT BROTHERS

1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright and the First Flight Orville and Wilbur Wright were very deliberate in
their quest for flight. First, they spent many years learning about all the early developments of flight. They
completed detailed research of what other early inventors had done. They read all the literature that was
published up to that time. Then, they began to test the early theories with balloons and kites. They learned about
how the wind would help with the flight and how it could affect the surfaces once up in the air.

Figure 03

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4.0 SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENTS

The first heavier-than-air flight traveled one hundred twenty feet in twelve seconds. The two brothers
took turns during the test flights. It was Orville's turn to test the plane, so he is the brother that is credited with
the first flight.

5.0 TYPES OF AIRCRAFT

5.1 Rotor Wing Aircraft –Helicopters

On September 14th 1939, the VS-300, the world’s first practical helicopter, took flight at Stratford,
Connecticut. It was designed by Igor Sikorsky. This helicopter was the first to incorporate a single main rotor
and tail rotor design.

5.2 Fixed Wing Aircraft – Transport and Cargo aircraft

Passenger Transport helicopters, Airbus cargo transport aircraft

5.3 Fighter Aircraft - Jet aircraft

Two engineers, Frank Whittle in the United Kingdom and Hans von Ohain in Germany, developed the
concept independently during the late 1930s. The Heinkel He 178 (German) is the world's first aircraft to fly
purely on turbojet power

5.4 Spacecraft

The first human spaceflight took place on 12th April 1961, when cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made one
orbit around the Earth aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft.

Figure 04

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 AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL FOR BEGINNERS - TRAINING NOTE

FORM NO: AFM/FTN/02

REV: Initial
AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME
ISSUE: Jan 2021
INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF FLIGHT
PAGES: 05

1.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

1.1 Basic Aerodynamics

Atmosphere

As an aircraft s operates in the air. The properties of air that affect aircraft control and
performance must be understood. Air is a mixture of gases composed principally of nitrogen and
oxygen. Since air is a combination of gases, it follows the laws of gases. Air is considered a fluid
because it answers the definition of a fluid, namely, a substance which may be made to flow or change
its shape by the application of moderate pressure. Air has weight, since something lighter than air, such
as a balloon filled with helium, will rise in the air. Air is made up of approximately 21% oxygen (O2)
and 78% nitrogen (N) by volume, with the remaining 1% being made up from other gases. The ratios of
the gases (21%, 78% and 1%) vary little with height although the moisture content drops with increase
in altitude

Figure 01

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 Aerodynamics

It is a branch of dynamics which deals with the motion of air and other gases, with the forces acting
upon an object in motion through the air, or with an object which is stationary in a current of air. In effect, in
aviation aerodynamics is concerned with three distinct parts. These parts may be defined as the aircraft, the
relative wind, and the atmosphere. Airfoils an airfoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from
the air through which it moves. Thus, we can say that any part of the aircraft which converts air resistance into a
force useful for flight is an airfoil. The blades of a propeller are so designed that when they rotate, their shape
and position cause a higher pressure to be built up behind them than in front of them so that they will pull the
aircraft forward. The model of a wing gives an excellent example of streamlines around airfoil. Streamlines
around airfoil although the top surface of the conventional wing profile has greater curvature than the lower
surface, the principal thing is the larger density of streamlines above the wing. The larger density of streamlines
means the greater velocity of air. According to Bernoulli’s principle increase in the speed of the fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. This is equivalent to the
principle of conservation of energy. This states that in a steady flow the sum of all forms of mechanical energy
in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline.

½mv2 + hρg + P = K

According Bernoulli’s principle the product PV = Constant

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 1.2 Forces applied by air

Temperature, Pressure and Altitude

Physically atmosphere is considered as a fluid of changing density, pressure and temperature. According
to temperature changes with the height above the sea level atmosphere is divided into troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere and thermosphere. As altitude increase up to 30,000 feet (about 10 000 m), the temperature,
pressure and density of the air decrease. This region is known as the TROPOSPHERE and the upper boundary
is the Exosphere.

1.3 Four forces acting on an aircraft

Theory of Flight

Aviation mechanic must understand the relationships between the atmosphere, the aircraft, and the
forces acting on it in flight, in order to make intelligent decisions affecting the flight safety of both airplanes and
helicopters. Understanding why the aircraft is designed with a particular type of primary and secondary control
system, and why the surfaces must be aerodynamically smooth, becomes essential when maintaining today’s
complex aircraft The Forces Acting in Flight As the air flows over the upper surface of an airfoil, its speed or
velocity increases and its pressure decreases. An area of low pressure is thus formed. There is an area of greater
pressure on the lower surface of the airfoil, and this greater pressure tends to move the wing upward. This
difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing is called lift. Three-fourths of the total
lift of an airfoil is the result of the decrease in pressure over the upper surface.

The impact of air on the under surface of an airfoil produces the other one-fourth of the total lift. An
aircraft in flight is acted upon by four forces

1. Gravity, or weight, the force that pulls the aircraft toward the earth;

2. Lift, the force that pushes the aircraft upward;

3. Thrust, the force that moves the aircraft forward;

4. Drag, the force that exerts a braking action.

Arrangement of the Four Forces

The aircraft is designed so the four forces are arranged to make it reasonably stable. In straight and level
flight at constant speed with no turning moments the aircraft is said to be in equilibrium. This means;

THRUST = DRAG and WEIGHT = LIFT

Each pair is equal and opposite in direction. Nevertheless they are not usually opposite in position. For
straight and level flight the AA is adjusted by the pilot to make the lift equal to the weight, if it is greater the
aircraft will climb. If lift is less than weight the aircraft will descend. The engine thrust is adjusted by the
throttles to make it equal to the drag, if it is greater the aircraft will increase airspeed; if it is less the aircraft's
airspeed will decrease.
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 Figure 02

2.0 Bernoulli’s Theorem

2.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem

The Bernoulli principle states that a region of fast flowing fluid exerts lower pressure on its
surroundings than a region of slow flowing fluid. The principle applies to the motion of air over an airplane
wing, to air flow through a carburetor, to a flag flapping in the breeze, and to the low pressure systems in
hurricanes. This lesson describes Bernoulli's principle from several different perspectives appropriate for a
range of age groups and lists a number of activities and demonstrations that use Bernoulli's principle.

Figure 03
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 2.2 Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem

Figure 04

3.0 The Control Surfaces

3.1 How does an aircraft fly?

Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and secondary systems. The ailerons, elevator (or
stabilizer), and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required to control an aircraft safely during
flight. Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary control system and
improve the performance characteristics of the airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.

3.2 Primary Flight Controls

Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide adequate responsiveness to control inputs
while allowing a natural feel. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft and sluggish, and the aircraft
responds slowly to control applications. At higher airspeeds, the controls become increasingly firm and aircraft
response is more rapid.

Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces (ailerons, elevator or stabilizer, rudder),
changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These changes affect the lift and drag
produced by the airfoil/ control surface combination, and allows a pilot to control the aircraft about its three
axes of rotation.

3.3 Rudder

The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of the empennage.
When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right pedal causes the rudder to deflect
right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the
rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops the yaw.

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 3.4 Ailerons

Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in opposite
directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise, the left aileron goes up
and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a lowered one increases lift, so
moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the
left and begin to turn to the left. Centering the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle.
The aircraft will continue to turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.
3.5 Elevators

The elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the fixed part of the
horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the elevators
go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and
cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack, which generates more lift and
more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the change of pitch. Some aircraft, use
a servo tab within the elevator surface to aerodynamically move the main surface into position. The direction of
travel of the control tab will thus be in a direction opposite to the main control surface.
In the canard arrangement, the elevators are hinged to the rear of a fore-plane and move in the opposite
sense, for example when the pilot pulls the stick back the elevators go down to increase the lift at the front and
lift the nose up.

4.0 Propeller Theory

4.1 Introduction to Propellers

 Consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which the blades are attached.

 Propeller blades produce forces that create thrust to pull or push the airplane through the air.

 The propeller blades are made in the shape of a wing of an aircraft.

 When the engine rotates the propeller blades, the blades produce lift. This lift is called thrust and
moves the aircraft forward.

 Most aircraft have propellers that pull the aircraft through the air. These are called tractor propellers.
Some aircraft have propellers that push the aircraft. These are called pusher propellers.

Figure 05 Figure 06
6
 4.2 Cross-section of Propeller

Figure 03

4.3 Propeller Blade Design

 The blade shank is the thick, rounded portion of the propeller blade near the hub and is designed to give
strength to the blade.

 The blade butt, also called the blade base or root, is the end of the blade that fits in the propeller hub.

 Leading edge – The edge where the airflow first meets the propeller blade.

 Trailing edge – The edge behind the leading edge.

 Chord line – The imaginary straight line connecting the leading edge and the trailing edge.

 Blade Face – The half of the blade below the chord line.

 Blade Back – The curved half of the blade above the chord line.

 Angle of Attack – Angle between the chord line and the relative airflow.

Figure 07 Figure 08

7
 The blade tip is that part of the propeller blade farthest from the hub, generally defined as the last 6
inches of the blade.

 The typical propeller blade is twisted from blade root to the blade tip. The cross-sectional area of the
blade when moving from root to tip decreases as depicted in the figure below.

4.4 Forces Acting on Propeller

Figure 09

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4.5 Various types of propellers

a) Fixed-pitch Propeller

A fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch, or blade angle, built into the propeller. The
blade angle cannot be changed after the propeller is built. This type of propeller is one piece and
is constructed of wood or aluminium alloy.

b) Controllable-pitch Propeller

This type of propeller permits a change of blade angle, while the propeller is rotating.
The number of pitch positions may be limited, as with a two-position controllable
propeller. With the controllable-pitch type, the blade angle can be changed in flight, but the pilot
must change the propeller blade angle directly. The blade angle will not change again until the
pilot changes it. These types of propeller are not in wide use today.

c) Constant-speed Propeller

This type of propeller increases and decreases the blade angle of the propeller
automatically through a propeller blade angle controlling mechanism called a propeller governor,
which assists to keep the propeller speed (RPM) at a constant value. As engine RPM tries to
increases, the blade angle increases through the propeller governor which again decreases the
RPM. As engine RPM tries to decreases, the blade angle decreases through the propeller governor
which again increases the RPM.

d) Feathering Propeller

This type of propellers must be used on multi-engine aircraft to reduce propeller drag to a
minimum if one or more engines fail. A feathering propeller is used on multi-engine aircraft that
has a mechanism to change the pitch to an angle of approximately 90°. A propeller is usually
feathered when the engine fails to develop power to turn the propeller. By rotating the propeller
blade angle parallel to the line of flight, the drag on the propeller and aircraft is greatly reduced.

4.7 Propeller Arrangements

Tractor Propeller – They are mounted on the front side of the aircraft and provide thrust
in the forward direction pulling the aircraft forward.

Figure 10

9
  Pusher Propeller – They are mounted on the back (rear) side of the aircraft and provide thrust in the
forward direction pushing the aircraft forward.

Figure 11

5.0 Helicopters

5.1 What is a helicopter?

Unlike an airplane, which flies by using wings that don't move, a helicopter flies using blades,
called rotors that spin around, causing the helicopter to lift off the ground.
Aircraft needs to go straight down a runway until it gets enough speed so it can lift up into the air.
Helicopters are completely different! They can take off vertically, which means they just lift up off the ground.
Unlike planes, helicopters can also fly straight up and down, and they can hover, or stay in the same spot, while
in the air.

Figure 12

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 5.2 How does a helicopter work?

In order to fly, an object must have "lift," a force moving it upward. Lift is usually made by wings.
Wings create lift because of a relationship called the Bernoulli Principle. The Bernoulli Principle describes how
the speed of air and the pressure in the air are related. When the speed goes up, the pressure goes down and the
opposite is also true.

Wings are curved on top and flatter on the bottom. This shape is called an airfoil. That shape makes air
flow over the top faster than under the bottom. As a result, there is less air pressure on top of the wing; this
causes suction and makes the wing move up. A helicopter's rotor blades are wings and create lift. An airplane
must fly fast to move enough air over its wings to provide lift. A helicopter moves air over its rotor by spinning
its blades.

Figure 13

Figure 14

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 AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL FOR BEGINNERS - TRAINING NOTE

FORM NO: AFM/FTN/03

REV: Initial
AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME
ISSUE: Jan 2021
INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT ENGINES
PAGES: 07

1.0 History

The name GAS TURBINE means exactly what it says. A turbine type engine that is operated by gas
rather than one operated, for instance, by steam or water. The gas which operates the turbine is the product of
the combustion that takes place when a suitable fuel is mixed and burned with the air passing through the
engine.

Leonado Da Vinci
Da Vinci described the chimney jack, as the hot air from the fire rose, it was made to pass through a series of
fan blades and through a series of gears, turn a roasting.

Figure 01

Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton formulated the laws of MOTION on which all devices utilizing the jet propulsion theory are
based. The vehicle illustrated in the picture below, called Newton's Wagon, applied the principle of jet
1
 propulsion. It is though that Jacob Graves and, a Dutchman, actually designed this “horseless carriage", and
that Isaac Newton may have only supplied the idea. The wagon consisted of a large boiler mounted on four
wheels. Steam generated by fire built below the boiler was allowed to escape through a nozzle facing
rearward. The speed of vehicle was controlled by a steam cock located in the nozzle.

Figure 02

1.1 What is an engine?

Converts chemical energy (fuel) into heat energy. Heat energy is then converted into mechanical
energy. The mechanical energy is then used for work. (i.e. drive the crankshaft of an engine, rotate
propeller of an aircraft, etc)

1.2 Main types of Aircraft Engines

o Piston (reciprocating) engines

o Gas turbine engines
o Other/special types of engines
◦ Ram Jet
◦ Pulse jet
◦ Rockets

2.0 Piston engine

2.1 Operation of Piston engine

Four Strokes

1. Inlet (Intake)

2. Compression

3. Combustion

4. Exhaust Figure 03

2
2.2 Classification of Piston Engines

According to the cylinder arrangement

- Inline - ‘V’ type - Horizontally opposed - Radial

2.2.1 In-line Engines

- Generally has even number of cylinders

- Liquid or air cooled
- Has only one crankshaft

Figure 04 Figure 05

Aircraft that have in-line piston engines have a small frontal area. In-line engine provides
high amount of power compared with other piston engines.

Figure 04 shows ‘The Ranger’ which is an American six-cylinder, in-line air cooled engine
offering 200 hp. Its applications included the Fairchild PT19 “Cornell” and the PT 26 trainers
which were used at Patricia Bay during the Second World War.

2.2.2 ‘V’ Type Engines

The cylinders are arranged in two banks, set at an angle to one another depicting the
Letter ‘V’

Figure 06 Figure 07

3
 Figure 06 shows a liquid cooled V-12 of the late 1930s which became a major US combat engine
of the Second World War. The Allison V-1710 had a typical rating of 1,475 hp and weighed 1,595 lb. It
was rugged and reliable but its high altitude performance suffered for the lack of a good super-charger.
It was fitted in the Lockheed P-38 “Lightning”, the Bell P-39 “Airacobra”, and the Curtis P-40
“Kittyhawk”.

2.2.3 Horizontally Opposed type

The cylinders are placed opposing each other with the crankshaft in the middle.

Figure 08 Figure 09

These are also called as flat/boxer engines, these piston engines have two banks of cylinders on
opposite sides of a central crankcase. These engines can be air or liquid-cooled but are most often air-
cooled. They are found most popular in modern general aviation aircraft because of their reliability,
simplicity, and easy maintenance. The engines are also found very efficient to operate with different
types of aviation fuels. One of the big advantages of these aircraft engines is to produce streamline
airflow because of the better aerodynamic shape of the aircraft.

Figure 08 shows the Franklin Model 4AC with aircooled Motors which created a series of small
air-cooled “flat fours” offering 90 hp. It was used in the Stinson “Voyager”, but the Franklin was also
used in the Bell 47 light helicopter and the Republic Seabee amphibian

2.2.4 Radial Type

Consists of a row of cylinders are arranged around a center crank case. The number of cylinders
in the row may be three, five, seven, or [Link] radial engine is very durable and dependable. Gives a
higher amount of horse power compared to other piston engine types.

4
 Figure 10

Figure 11

Figure 11 shows the Jacobs L4 MB is USA seven cylinder radial which was first run in 1934,
and remained in production for 40 years. It offered between 200 and 350 hp in its various versions, with
a typical weight of 465 lbs. It proved to be a rugged and reliable engine for trainers and light transports.
It is best known for powering the ”Ansons” and Cessna “Cranes”.

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3.0 Gas Turbine Engines

The jet engines are essentially a machine designed for the purpose of producing high velocity gasses at
the jet nozzle. The engine is started by rotating the compressor with the starter, the outside air enters to the
engine. The compressor works on this incoming air and delivery it to the combustion or burner section with as
much as 12 times or more pressure the air had at the front. At the burner or combustion section, the ignition is
igniting the mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber with one or more igniters which somewhat likes
automobile spark plugs. When the engine has started and its compressor is rotating at sufficient speed, the
starter and igniters are turn off. The engine will then run without further assistance as long as fuel and air in the
proper proportions continue to enter the combustion chamber. Only 25% of the air is taking part in the actual
combustion process. The rest of the air is mixed with the products of combustion for cooling before the gases
enter the turbine wheel. The turbine extracts a major portion of energy in the gas stream and uses this energy to
turn the compressor and accessories. The engine's thrust comes from taking a large mass of air in at the front
and expelling it at a much higher speed than it had when it entered the compressor. Thrust, then, is equal to
mass flow rate times change in velocity.

Figure 12

3.1 Types of Gas Turbine Engines

1) Turbo Jet Engines

2) Turbo prop Engines

3) Turbo Shaft Engines

4) Turbo Fan Engines

6
3.1.1 Turbo Jet Engines

Figure 13 Figure 14

3.1.2 Turbo prop Engines

Figure 15 Figure 16

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3.1.3 Turbo Shaft Engines

Figure 17 Figure 18

3.1.4 Turbo Fan Engines

Figure 19 Figure 20

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4.0 Special types of engines

4.1 Ram Jet

Figure 21 Figure 22

4.2 Pulse Jet

Figure 23 Figure 24

Figure 25

9
4.3 Rockets

Figure 26

Figure 27

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 AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL FOR BEGINNERS - TRAINING NOTE

FORM NO: AFM/FTN/04

REV: Initial
AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME
ISSUE: Jan 2021
INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT CONTROLS &
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
PAGES: 05

1.0 General description

1.1 Aircraft Structures

1.2 Types of structure

1.2.1 Truss Type

A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams, struts, and bars. The
truss-type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded together to carry both
tension and compression loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric (See
Figure 01).

1.2.2 Monocoque Type

The monocoque (single shell) fuselage uses strength of the skin to carry the loads. This type of
construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the
fuselage(See Figure 02).

1.2.3 Semi-Monocoque Type

Semi-monocoque type also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used
in the monocoque type design but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by members called
longerons. Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help the skin support the
loads. They are made of aluminium alloys.

Stringers are also used in the Semi - monocoque fuselage. Stringers have some rigidity but are
mainly used for giving shape and for attachment of the skin (See Figure 03).
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Figure 01 Figure 02

2
 Figure 03

2.0 Main Parts of an Aircraft

Figure 04

o Fuselage
o Wing
o Empennage
o Flight Controls
o Landing gear system

3.0 Types of Stresses on an Aircraft

o Tension and torsion

o Compression
o Bending
o Shear

4.0 Material used for Aircraft construction

o Wood
o Aluminium Alloys
o Magnesium Alloys
o Stainless steel
o Honeycomb structure

5.0 Aircraft Wing structure

The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. These are reinforced
by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin. The wing ribs determine the
shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil).
3
 Figure 05

5.1 Designs of Aircraft Wings

Figure 06
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 5.2 Aircraft Wing angels and attachment points

Figure 07

6.0 Flight controls and Aircraft axis

6.1 Aircraft axis - Lateral, Longitudinal and Vertical axis

Movement of any of the three primaries flight control surfaces (ailerons, elevator or stabilizer, or
rudder), changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These changes affect
the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/ control surface combination, and allows a pilot to control the
aircraft about its three axes of rotation

Figure 08

5
6.2 Aircraft Primary Control Surfaces and Its Movements

6.2.1 Aileron - Rolling Movement

Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise,
the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing
and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the
right wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the left. Centering
the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft will continue to
turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.
6.2.2 Elevator - Pitching Movement

The elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the
fixed part of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together. When the pilot pulls
the stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go
down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the
wings fly at a higher angle of attack, which generates more lift and more drag. Centering the
stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the change of pitch. Some aircraft, such as an MD-
80, use a servo tab within the elevator surface to aerodynamically move the main surface into
position. The direction of travel of the control tab will thus be in a direction opposite to the main
control surface. It is for this reason that an MD-80 tail looks like it has a 'split' elevator system.
6.2.3 Rudder - Yawing Movement

The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of
the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right
pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and
causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and
stops the yaw.

Figure 09

6
 AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL FOR BEGINNERS - TRAINING NOTE

FORM NO: AFM/FTN/05

REV: Initial
AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME
ISSUE: Jan 2021
INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
PAGES: 06

1.0 General description

1.1 Introduction

Instrument systems exist to provide information on the condition of the aircraft, engine, components,
the aircraft’s attitude in the sky, weather, cabin environment, navigation, and communication.

1.2 How to instrument system work

Figure 01

Figure 02

2.0 Classification of Aircraft Instruments

 Flight Instruments - The instruments used to measure and control the height, speed and movements
of the aircraft.

Engine Instruments - The instruments used to measure and control the operating limits of the engine.

 Navigation Instruments - The instruments which provide information used by the pilot to guide the
aircraft along a certain route.

 Miscellaneous/Other Instruments – The instruments indicating other useful information to the pilot.

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 2.1 Flight Instruments

 Altimeter

 Air Speed Indicator (ASI)

 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

 Artificial Horizon (Attitude Indicator)

 Turn Coordinator

Inputs to the Flight Instruments are acquired through the differences in pressure in the atmosphere.
For this, two types of pressures are sensed from pressure sensing equipment on the aircraft.

Static Pressure – This is the pressure existing in the still air at different altitudes. Static pressure decreases with
the increase in height. (i.e. the higher the aircraft travels the static pressure felt by the aircraft is lesser.)

Dynamic (Pitot) Pressure – This is the pressure sensed by the aircraft at different speeds. At low speeds, the
dynamic pressure is lesser. Vice versa

The static pressure is sensed by static ports at the side of the fuselage of the aircraft

The dynamic (pitot) pressure is sensed by pitot heads at the front (nose) or anywhere the airflow is not disturbed
on the aircraft. (i.e. under the wing, on top and side of the fuselage)

Figure 03 Figure 04

2
 Pitot-Static system

 The pressure collected by the static ports and the pitot head are used to measure quantities for flight
instruments of the aircraft.

 The comparisons of the two pressures are done from the Pitot-Static system which then provide
quantities for the flight instruments which the Pilot can read and help to control the aircraft.

Figure 05

3.0 Flight Instruments

3.1 Altimeter

This instrument is used to indicate the height (altitude) of the aircraft. It receives its inputs from
the static ports which measure the different static pressures at different heights in the atmosphere.

Figure 06

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 3.2 Air Speed Indicator

(ASI) – This instrument is used to indicate the speed of the aircraft. The simplest of Airspeed
Indicators have a diaphragm inside which expands and contracts depending on the difference between
the static pressure and the dynamic (pitot) pressure. The expansion of the diaphragm is calibrated to
indicate the airspeed of the aircraft.

Figure 07 Figure 08

3.3 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

This instrument is used to indicate the vertical speed of the aircraft. (i.e. the amount of
feet/meters the aircraft climbs or drops per second/minute). The vertical speed of the aircraft is indicated
through the rate of change of static pressure in the atmosphere.

If the VSI senses the static pressure is increasing rapidly it indicates the aircraft is dropping
(descending) rapidly. If the static pressure is decreasing rapidly it indicates the aircraft is climbing
(ascending) rapidly.

Figure 09 Figure 10
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3.4 Artificial Horizon

This instrument indicates the pitch of the aircraft (weather the aircraft is pointing upwards or
downwards).
If the aircraft symbol on the attitude indicator is on the blue section, it indicates the aircraft is
climbing. On the black section indicates the aircraft is dropping (going down). The aircraft symbol in
the middle and levelled indicates the aircraft is flying straight with wings level.

Figure 11

3.5 Turn Coordinator

This instrument indicates the angle the aircraft is turning as well as the movement of the aircraft
around the vertical axis (Yaw). If the aircraft symbol is banking left on the instrument, it indicates the
aircraft is turning left; Vice versa. If the ball in the centre is shifting to the left on the instrument, it
indicates the aircraft is yawing left. Vice versa.

Figure 12

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4.0 Engine Instruments

 RPM Indicator – Indicates the rotation of the propeller in revolutions per minute.

 Fuel Quantity Indicator – Indicates the quantity of fuel left in the fuel tanks.

 Fuel Pressure Indicator – Indicates the pressure of the fuel when fuel is
supplied to the engine.

 Fuel Flow Indicator – Indicates the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine per each second.

 Oil Pressure Indicator – Indicates the pressure of the oil used to lubricate and cool the engine.

 Oil Temperature Indicator – Indicates the temperature of the oil use to lubricate and cool the engine.

 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Indicator – Indicates the temperature of the exhaust gases at the
turbine section of the engine.

Figure 13

Figure 13 shows a Bell 412 helicopter cockpit with the instrument panel including all instruments and gauges.

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 AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL FOR BEGINNERS - TRAINING NOTE

FORM NO: AFM/FTN/06

REV: Initial
AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME
ISSUE:
INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
PAGES: 03

1.0 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)

1.1 Introduction

VOR is a navigation system that uses radio transmissions between a beacon on the ground
and an instrument on an aeroplane. A photograph of a VOR ground station is shown below an
accident. VORs provide azimuth information (the heading of the aircraft) and are generally used
during the en‑route phase of flight or on non-precision approaches to a runway. VOR stations are
used all over the world. Issues caused by VORs to wind developments have already be experienced
in France and Germany amongst other countries.

Figure 01

1.2 basic working principal of VOR

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 The ground station transmits two radio signals, the first – master signal – is transmitted in all
directions and the second is a directional signal transmitted in sequence from a series of antenna that
are spaced out in a circle.

The phase and the timing of the second signal is carefully designed. Both signals are received
by the aircraft, and by comparing the two, it is possible to calculate the angle between the aircraft
and the beacon. This is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 02

2.0 Instrument Landing system (ILS)

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2.1 General Introduction

Figure 03

An Instrument Landing System is a precision runway approach aid employing two radio
beams to provide pilots with vertical and horizontal guidance during the landing approach. The
localizer (LOC) provides azimuth guidance, while the glideslope (GS) defines the correct vertical
descent profile. Marker beacons and high intensity runways lights may also be provided as aids to
the use of an ILS, although the former are more likely nowadays to have been replaced by a DME
integral to the ILS or one otherwise located on the aerodrome, for example with a VOR.

2.2 Glideslope

The glide slope (or glide path) is an imaginary line that travels from the approach end of the
runway upwards to the aircraft that is about to land. For better airports, there is usually a visual
approach glide slope indicator.

When an aircraft is above the glide slope, the touchdown speed will be higher and there is a
chance that it may land too far down the runway, forcing a go-around. This is because a higher
altitude is exchanged for more speed as the aircraft descends at a higher rate of descent.

When an aircraft is below the glide slope, there is a chance that he may land short of the
runway and is more prone to stalls. This is because the rate of descent has to be reduce and an
inexperienced pilot may instinctively pull up, causing a loss of speed.

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 Figure 04

When an aircraft is on the glide slope, the aircraft will land at the correct touchdown point
and at the best speed. This is because altitude is reduced at an optimum rate such that speed is neither
increased nor decreased.

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3.0 Air Traffic control radar surveillance system

The air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS) is a system used in air traffic control
(ATC) to enhance surveillance radar monitoring and separation of air traffic. It consists of a rotating
ground antenna and transponders in aircraft. The ground antenna sweeps a narrow vertical beam of
microwaves around the airspace. When the beam strikes an aircraft, the transponder transmits a
return signal back giving information such as altitude and the Squawk Code, a four digit code
assigned to each aircraft that enters a region. Information about this aircraft is then entered into the
system and subsequently added to the controller's screen to display this information when queried.
This information can include flight number designation and altitude of the aircraft. ATCRBS assists
air traffic control (ATC) surveillance radars by acquiring information about the aircraft being
monitored, and providing this information to the radar controllers. The controllers can use the
information to identify radar returns from aircraft (known as targets) and to distinguish those returns
from ground clutter.

Figure 05

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4.0 Radio Altimeter

A radar altimeter (RA), radio altimeter (RALT), electronic altimeter, or reflection

altimeter measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft by timing
how long it takes a beam of radio waves to travel to ground, reflect, and return to the craft. This type
of altimeter provides the distance between the antenna and the ground directly below it, in contrast to
a barometric altimeter which provides the distance above a defined vertical datum, usually mean sea
level. When used on aircraft, it may be known as low-range radio altimeter (LRRA).

Figure 06

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 AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL FOR BEGINNERS - TRAINING NOTE

FORM NO: AFM/FTN/07

REV: Initial
AVIATION FUNDAMENTAL TRAINING PROGRAMME
ISSUE:
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
PAGES: 03

1.0 General description

1.1 Introduction

Aviation communication is the means by which aircraft crews connect with other aircraft and people on
the ground to relay information. Aviation communication is a crucial component pertaining to the successful
functionality of aircraft movement both on the ground and in the air. Increased communication reduces the risk
of an accident.

Figure 01

1.2 Frequency

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time it is also referred to
as temporal frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency and angular frequency.
Frequency is measured in units of hertz (Hz) which is equal to one occurrence of a repeating event per
second. The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is
the reciprocal of the frequency. HF
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 An audio frequency or audible frequency (AF) is a periodic vibration whose frequency is in the
band audible to the average human, the human hearing range. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
It is the property of sound that most determines pitch.
The generally accepted standard hearing range for humans is 20 to 20,000 Hz in air at
atmospheric pressure; these represent sound waves with wavelengths of 17 meters (56 ft.) to 1.7
centimeters (0.67 in). Frequencies below 20 Hz are generally felt rather than heard, assuming
the amplitude of the vibration is great enough. High frequencies are the first to be affected by hearing
loss due to age or prolonged exposure to very loud noises.
1.3 Antenna

In radio engineering, an antenna or aerial is the interface between radio waves propagating
through space and electric currents moving in metal conductors, used with
a transmitter or receiver.[1] In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current to the
antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of a radio wave in order to
produce an electric current at its terminals that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. Antennas are
essential components of all radio equipment.

Figure 02

2.0 Intercommunication

2.1 Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

ELTs are emergency transmitters that are carried aboard most general aviation aircraft in the U.S. In
the event of an aircraft accident, these devices are designed to transmit a distress signal on 121.5 and 243.0
MHz frequencies, and for newer ELTs, on 406 MHz

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 Figure 03

2.2 Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR)

Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) - a device used to record the audio environment in the flight deck for
accidents and incident investigation purposes. The CVR records and stores the audio signals of the microphones
and earphones of the pilots' headsets and of an area microphone installed in the cockpit.

Figure 04

2.3 Flight helmet

A flight helmet, sometimes referred to as a "bone dome" or "foam dome", is a special type
of helmet primarily worn by military aircrew. A flight helmet can provide: ... A helmet mounted display,
mounting for night vision goggles and/or a helmet tracking system (so the aircraft knows where the pilot is
looking).
3
 Figure 05

2.4 Radar System

Figure 06