CHAPTER 9
THE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS
International Medical School (IMS)
COURSE OUTCOME
At the of the lesson, students should be able to:
• distinguish between various parts/structures of
plants and human reproductive organs.
• explain the formation of male and female gametes
• discuss the menstrual cycle
• explain the life cycle of angiosperms.
• elaborate the process after the double fertilization.
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Organs: testes, ducts, glands & supporting structures
Ducts: epdidymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory ducts &
urethra
Glands: seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands
Supporting structures: scrotum & penis
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
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SCROTUM
• Pouch that supports the testes
• Septum separates into separate sections for each testis
• Sperm requires temperatures 2-3°C below body
temperature
• Allows raising and lowering testes to adjust temperature
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TESTES
• Paired oval glands
• Develop on embryo’s posterior wall and descend into scrotum
Starts in 7th month
• 200-300 lobules containing seminiferous tubules
• Lined with spermatogenic cells: spermatagonia & sertoli cells
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TESTES
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SPERMATOGENESIS
• Stages: meiosis I, meiosis II, spermiogenesis
• Occurs in seminiferous tubules
• Cell types involved: spermatagonia, sertoli cells &
interstitial cells (leydig cells)
• Move through rete testes → epididymis
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TESTES
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MEIOSIS
• Cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Diploid = paired homologous chromosomes
• Gametes are Haploid
Unpaired chromosomes
• Meiosis is the process by which this can happen
• Required for gamete production
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
SPERMATOGENESIS STAGES
• Takes ~65–75 days from first division to release
• Spermatogonium divides: mitosis
One cell is stem cell other differentiates into primary (1o)
spermatocyte
• Meiosis I: chromosomes replicate
▪ Line up as pairs of homologous chromosomes
▪ Chromosomes twist and some exchange of material between
chromosomes can occur
▪ Each homologous pair separates and a member moves to opposite
end of cell →
▪ After cell division each cell is haploid
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
SPERMATOGENESIS STAGES
• The cells from meiosis I are: secondary
spermatocytes
Each cell is haploid- has two copies of each
chromatid
• Meiosis II: divide again
One copy of each chromatid in each new cell
• Cells are: spermatids
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SPERMATOGENESIS
STAGES
• Spermiogenesis- each spermatid develops into a
sperm cell
• Process requires support of Sertoli cell
Often called “nurse cell”
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SPERMATOGENESIS
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SPERMATOZOA STRUCTURE
• ~300 million /day
Life time ~ 48 hrs in female tract
• Structure: Head, middle, tail
• Tail- flagellum = motility
• Middle: mitochondria = energy
• Head-chromosomes + acrosomal cap
• Acrosome-enzymes- → penetrating egg
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SPERMATOZOA
STRUCTURE
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HORMONAL CONTROL
• At puberty- hypothalamus → GnRH →
• Pituitary→ LH & FSH
• LH →Leydig cells → testosterone →
• Negative feedback to suppress LH & GnRH
• FSH + testosterone stimulate spermatogenesis
• Sertoli cells → inhibin → inhibits FSH release →
optimum sperm production
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HORMONAL
CONTROL
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ANDROGEN EFFECTS
• Prenatal: male pattern of development:
Male ducts, descent of testes, external genitals and
brain regions
• Puberty: enlargement of organs, secondary
characteristics
Muscular and skeletal growth, hair patterns, thickening
of skin
• Sexual function: sexual behavior, spermatogenesis and
libido
• Stimulation of anabolism: stimulate protein synthesis
and muscle and bone growth
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DUCTS: SPERM ROUTE
Epdidymis→ vas (ductus) deferens
→ ejaculatory duct (by seminal vesicles)
→ urethra in prostate
Pass bulbourethral glands (alkaline + mucus fluid)
→ penis and ejaculation
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ACCESSORY GLANDS
• Seminal vesicles: seminal fluid
Fructose (sperm ATP production
+ alkalinity (neutralize acid in tracts)
+ prostaglandins-activation of sperm
• Prostate: surrounds upper urethra
Increases volume + adds antibiotics
• Bulbourethral glands
More alkalinity + mucus fluid
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PENIS
• Contains urethra- root, body & glans penis
Passage for semen and urine
• Root: attached portion
• Body: 3 cylindrical masses→ erectile
Dorsal: Corpora Cavernosa Penis
Midventral: Corpus Spongiosum penis- contains
urethra
• Glans penis has external urethral oriface
• Uncircumcised glans covered by prepuce
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Ovaries: paired organs- produce
• Secondary oocytes→ ova (after fertilization)
• Hormones: progesterone & estrogens
• From same embryonic tissue as testes
Uterine (fallopian) tubes & uterus
Vagina
External organs (vulva or pudendum)
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
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OOGENESIS
Begins before birth
• Oocytes not continually produced
Meiosis I- start before birth & finish at puberty
• During fetal development→ form oogonia
• Before birth some → primary oocytes
• Monthly hormones → some to complete meiosis I
Two uneven haploid cells = secondary oocyte & polar body
(discarded)
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OOGENESIS
• Secondary oocyte has most of cytosol
• Then begins meiosis 2 & stops
• Then ovulation→ into uterine tube
• If fertilization then meiosis II is completed→ ovum + 2nd polar body
• Nuclei of sperm & ovum unite→
• Diploid zygote
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OOGENESIS
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UTERUS AND VAGINA
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UTERINE TUBES
• Two tubes- extend laterally from uterus
• End in fringe → fimbriae
• Fimbriae sweep secondary oocyte into tube
• Oocyte moved by cilia lining wall
• Zygote reaches uterus in ~7 days
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UTERUS
• Pathway for sperm & site of implantation
• Fundus: dome-shaped area above tubes=
• Body: tapering central portion
• Cervix: narrow opening into vagina
• Uterine cavity: interior of body
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VAGINA
• Extends from exterior to cervix
• Receptacles for penis and outlet for menstrual flow
• Fornix- recess surrounds cervix
• Acid environment- prevents bacterial growth
• Smooth muscular layer- adjusts for intercourse or birth
• Thin membrane fold can cover vaginal orifice = hymen
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UTERUS AND VAGINA
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MAMMARY GLANDS
• Modified sudoriferous glands
• Nipple: pigmented projection with openings
• Areola: surrounds nipple
• Internally:15-20 lobes→ lobules→ alveoli = milk
secreting glands
Matures at puberty
• Lactation = synthesis, secretion & ejection of milk
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MAMMARY GLANDS
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
CYCLE
• 24-34 days- cycles in both ovaries & uterus
• Ovarian cycle = maturation of follicle, ovulation &
corpus luteum formation
• Uterine Cycle = menstrual cycle
Controlled by hormones from ovary
Estrogens → growth of endometrium Progesterone
supports endometrium for implantation
• Combine cycles = reproductive cycle
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
CYCLE
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
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HORMONAL
REGULATION
• GnRH (hypothalamus) controls
• GnRH→ FSH & LH
• FSH→ follicle growth & estrogen secretion
• High estrogen → LH surge → ovulation
• LH supports corpus luteum → progesterone & estrogen
secretion + relaxin & inhibin
• Inhibin → decreased FSH release
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
HORMONES
• Estrogen development & maintenance of reproductive
structures & secondary characteristics
→ protein synthesis & growth
Lower blood cholesterol level
• Progesterone maintains myometrium for implantation
• Relaxin: relaxes uterus- inhibits myometrium
• Inhibin: inhibits FSH release
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
PHASES OF CYCLE
• Menstrual phase: ~1st 5 days of cycle
Several Ovarian follicles enlarge
Decreased progesterone & estrogen→ uterine arteries
constrict→ endometrium sloughs off
• Preovulatory: between menstruation & ovulation
Ovaries: follicles grow & secrete estrogen & inhibin→ one
dominates
Uterus: growth of new endometrium
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
PHASES OF CYCLE
• Ovulation
Release of 2o oocyte with LH surge
• Postovulatory
Ovaries: follicle collapses→ corpus luteum (luteal
phase)
If no fertilization→ FSH & LH → corpus albicans &
decreased Progesterone → menstruation
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PHASES OF CYCLE
• If fertilization & division→ human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG)→ stimulates corpus luteum→
secretion
• Uterus: Progesterone & estrogens→ complete
development of uterus for implantation
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SUMMARY OF HORMONAL
INTERACTIONS
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BIRTH CONTROL METHODS
Surgical: vasectomy in males
• Ductus deferens segment removed
Tubal ligation in females
• Close uterine tubes
Chemical interference
• Oral hormones, implants, injections, spermicide
Blocking physically
• IUD, condoms, cervical cap
Timing
• Temperature, mucus charting, calendar
Abortion
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT
REPRODUCTION
• Plants reproduce in a wide variety of ways.
• Among the many major group of plants, only one the
angiosperms (flowering plants) produces flower.
• Others such as mosses (bryophyta) and ferns
(pteridophyta), conifers (gymnosperms) reproduce
sexually without flowers.
• Many plants can undergo asexual reproduction
(vegetative reproduction)
• Bulbs (onion, tulip), Rhizomes (ginger, canna lily),
Runners (strawberry, some grasses), root tubers
(dahlia), suckers(banana, pineapple), stolons.
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF FLOWER
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
• Complete flowers have all 4 whorls of modified leaves.
Incomplete flowers are missing one or more flower parts.
1. Calyx
• The calyx is made up of sepals, green leaf-like structures that
enclose the unopened bud. They serve a protective role for
the flower before it opens, and afterward extend from the
base of the flower.
2. Corolla
• The corolla is made up of the petals of the flower, which are
usually brightly colored in order to attract insects. Together,
the corolla and calyx make up the perianth, the
nonreproductive portion of the flower.
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• The androecium is composed of the male reproductive
organs, the stamens.
• Each stamen consists of a long, slender filament
topped by a pollen-producing anther.
• The anther contains numerous sporangia, which give
rise to microspores.
4. Gynoecium
• The gynoecium, composed of a pistil or pistils (or
carpels, as they are also sometimes called), lies in the
very middle of the flower.
• The top of the pistil, where pollen grains land, is called
the stigma and the shaft leading down into the ovary is
called the style.
• The ovary, containing ovules and egg cells, makes up
the very bottom of the pistil.
PRODUCING THE FEMALE
GAMETOPHYTE
• In the ovule of the ovary, the megaspore mother
cell divides meiotically to produce 4 haploid
megaspores.
• Three of these 4 megaspores disintegrate. The
fourth megaspore undergoes 3 cycles of mitosis
to produce the female gametophyte, consisting
of 7 cells with a total of 8 haploid nuclei.
• The central cell contains 2 polar nuclei. Three
cells are found at each end of the large central
cell. The middle cell located near the micropyle,
a small opening in the ovule is the egg.
PRODUCING MALE GAMETOPHYTE
• In the anther, diploid microspore mother cells undergo
meiosis to produce 4 haploid microspores.
• The nucleus in each of these microspores divides once by
mitosis to produce a pollen grain with two haploid cells.
• This pollen grain is the male gametophyte.
• One of the cells of the pollen grain contains the tube
nucleus which enables the pollen tube to grow down the
style of the flower to the ovule.
• The other cell of the pollen grain, the generative cell,
divides mitotically to form 2 haploid sperm.
PLANT LIFE CYCLES
i) Formation of gametes begin with spore mother
cells.
Microspore mother cells - Microsporocyte
Megaspore mother cells - Megasporocyte
ii) Meiosis occurs in sporophytes and results in
production of haploid spores (microspores or
megaspores). Ooccur inside structures called
sporangia (inside ovule and anther)
iii) Spores divide by mitosis to form multicellular,
haploid gametophytes
- Male gametophyte - Microgametophyte (pollen grain)
- Female gametophyte – Megagametophyte (embryo sac)
iv) The gametophyte is already haploid, so it
produces sperm and egg by mitosis.
v) Fertilization occurs when two gametes fuse
to form a diploid zygote. The zygote then
grows by mitosis to form the sporophyte.
POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an
anther to stigma.
• Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination
• Self-pollination occurs when the pollen from the anther is
deposited on the stigma of the same flower or another flower
on the same plant.
• Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of
one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different
individual of the same species. stamen and carpel mature at
the same time and are positioned so that the pollen can land
on the flower’s stigma.
• This method of pollination does not require an investment
from the plant to provide nectar and pollen as food for
pollinators.
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
• Fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg unite
to form a diploid zygote.
• After landing on the stigma of a mature flower from
the same species, a pollen grain absorbs water and
germinates.
• It may germinate in response to a sugary fluid
secreted by the mature stigma of certain plants.
Lipids at the surface of the stigma may also
stimulate pollen tube growth for compatible pollen
• The male gametophyte produces a long filament
called a pollen tube.
• The generative nucleus divides by mitosis forming 2
sperm cells. These, along with the tube nucleus
(also known as the vegetative nucleus), migrate
down the pollen tube as it grows through the style,
the micropyle, and into the ovule chamber
• The fertilization process characteristic of flowering
plants, in which one sperm cell of a pollen grain
fertilizes an egg cell give rise to diploid zygote
• A second fuses with two polar nuclei to produce a
triploid body that gives rise to the triploid endosperm
mother cell.
PLANT DEVELOPMENT
1. Early cell division
i. First cell division occur to zygote
ii. One daughter cells is small, with dense
cytoplasm, the future embryo divide
repeatedly, forming ball of cells
iii. The other daughter cell divide to form
suspensor that links the embryo to the
nutrient tissue of the seed
iv. Cell near the suspensor to form root, those at
the other hand of the axis become a shoot
2. Tissue formation
i. From suspensor, three basic tissues
differentiate and embryo is still a ball of cell
ii. The outermost cells become epidermal cell,
second layer is ground tissue cells and the
core of embryo are the future vascular tissue
• Protoderm (outermost cells) - will become
dermal tissue - produce cells that protect
plant from desiccation
• Ground tissue cells (middle layer) - function in
food (cortex) and water storage (pith)
• Procambium (core of embryo) will become
vascular tissue, xylem and phloem.
3. Seed formation
i. Flowering plant embryo develops one or two seed
leaves called cotyledons
ii. Angiosperms that produce seeds with two cotyledons
are called dicots. Examples: beans,
iii. Angiosperms whose seeds contain only a single
cotyledon are monocots. Examples: corn
4. Germination
i. Seed response to the change in environment. Most
seed germinate when O2, water and temp (0-300C)
ii. Embryo resumes development and grows rapidly,
roots downward and leaf-bearing shoots upward
GERMINATION
Mechanism of germination
• First step of development outside its seed coat
begins when seed absorbs water
• Also require oxygen for cellular respiration
• Can occur in wide temperature (0oC to 30oC)
• Dormancy may be broken when conditions
favor plant growth
HOW DORMANCY IS BROKEN
5. Meristematic development and morphogenesis
Meristematic development
Apical meristems at the root and shoot generate large number of
cells to form leaves, flowers, etc.
Meristems activity was influenced by hormones – Auxin
• Auxin Increases the flexibility of the cell wall. A more flexible
wall will stretch more as the cell is actively growing.
• Auxin accumulates in the apical meristem. Allows selective
cell elongation. By interacting with other hormones, Auxin
also induces cell width.
Morphogenesis
• Plant cannot move. The direction in which plant cells divide
determine the direction in which the plant itself grows
• Generation of form in plants, results from changes in planes
and rates of cell division
• Direction of plant was controlled by microtubule and actin
during cell division