Current Anthropology Volume 58, Supplement 16, August 2017 S191

Experimental Approaches to Archaeological

Fire Features and Their Behavioral Relevance
by Vera Aldeias

The uses and functions of fire in early human adaptations are commonly debated and at times very controversial
topics. It is important to recognize under what circumstances and conditions specific fire-related traces can be pro-
duced and preserved in the archaeological record. Currently, a growing body of data is emerging on the application of
experimental research to the study of archaeological hearths and their residues. In this review, I draw together aspects of
such available experimental data, particularly those pertaining to the sedimentary expression and components pro-
duced during simple campfires. I highlight not only what one can find in ideal preservation conditions but also what
type of indirect alteration proxies can be expected to survive in the archaeological record. I then discuss the implications
of such data for analyzing anthropic fire features, their timing, and their meaning in terms of behavioral complexity
in the use and manufacture of fire during the Paleolithic.

1. Introduction users (Aldeias et al. 2012; Dibble et al. 2017; Sandgathe et al.
2011a, 2011b). The lack of consensus on both the timing of
Fire is a key behavioral and technological adaptation in human the first use of fire and its recurrent incorporation into hu-
evolution, and today all modern societies routinely rely on fire. man adaptations largely stems from the inherent difficulty in
Early fire use by the genus Homo may have been a crucial ad- identifying intentionally used, maintained, and manufactured
aptation leading to behavioral traits, such as cooking, extend- hearths. There are several confounding aspects, such as natural
ing activity time by providing light, warmth, protection against landscape fires affecting archaeological occupations (Bellomo
predators, and as a driving mechanism for technological in- 1993; Buenger 2003; Gowlett 2017), geological processes pro-
novations (Brown et al. 2009; Mazza et al. 2006). Fire use might ducing materials that may be mistaken as combustion residues
also have been an important catalyst for the evolution of bio- (Stahlschmidt et al. 2015; Weiner et al. 1998), and issues re-
logical and social traits (Gowlett 2006; Twomey 2013; Wrang- lating to preservation of the original fire components (Albert,
ham 2006, 2017). It is therefore not surprising that decades of Bamford, and Cabanes 2006; Cabanes, Weiner, and Shahack-
research have focused on the first evidence for fire in the ar- Gross 2011; Huisman et al. 2012; March 2013; Stiner et al.
chaeological record (James 1989). A related aspect, and one of- 1995). We also lack criteria that would allow us to distinguish
ten less investigated, is when fire actually started to be system- the maintenance and manufacture of fire versus its harvesting
atically incorporated in the adaptive tool kit of past humans. as a natural landscape resource.
This differs from research dealing with first appearance of fire The archaeological visibility of fire residues greatly depends
use and focuses on when humans became proficient in mak- on our ability to identify and interpret combustion remains as
ing and repeatedly employing fire in their activities. Roebroeks pertaining to instances of intentional anthropic fire use. It is,
and Villa (2011) suggest that early European hominins did therefore, of utmost importance to recognize under what cir-
not “habitually” use fire before 400 kya, whereas clear evidence cumstances and conditions specific fire-related traces can be
for pyrotechnology exists in later Neanderthal contexts. Con- produced and preserved in the archaeological record. One way
versely, other authors argue that although Neanderthals did to obtain such data is through archaeological experimentation.
use fire, this was not an essential part of their adaptation, and There is a growing body of data from experimental work
European Neanderthals might not have been obligated fire dealing with fire features and artifactual thermal alteration.
In this paper I review some of the available experimental
data in the framework of Paleolithic contexts, focusing mainly
Vera Aldeias is Researcher in the Department of Human Evolution at
on sedimentary components and signatures and, to a lesser ex-
the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (Deutscher
Platz 6, 04107 Leipzig, Germany [vera_aldeias@[Link]]) and Re- tent, on alterations of artifacts that result from association with
searcher at the Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolu- fires. First I will focus on what the proxies for fire are. Then I
tion of Human Behavior at the Universidade do Algarve (Campus da will discuss experimental results for the types of fuel used, the
Penha, 80085-139 Faro, Portugal). This paper was submitted 25 VII 16, effects of hearth location on artifact alteration, and elements
accepted 20 I 17, and electronically published 16 V 17. indicating the intact or reworked nature of hearths (fig. 1).

q 2017 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. All rights reserved. 0011-3204/2017/58S16-0004$10.00. DOI: 10.1086/691210
 S192 Current Anthropology Volume 58, Supplement 16, August 2017

Finally, based on the available data, I discuss the archaeolog- are the by-products created by burning. The nature of these
ical significance of burned artifacts and inferences for hearth by-products is intrinsically dependent on the type of fuel used
functions. The overall goal is to present a comprehensive though and consists mainly of calcitic ashes, charcoals, siliceous com-
not exhaustive review of the application of experimental re- ponents (phytoliths and siliceous aggregates), calcined bone
search for the understanding of combustion features. fragments, or dung calcitic spherulites. A simple campfire can
create diagnostic sedimentary signatures expressed as a suc-
cession of discrete sedimentary lenses, typically with an up-
1.1. Fire Proxies and Their Contextual Arrangement
permost ash-rich lens commonly resting on blackish (often
Combustion residues can be broadly divided into direct (pri- charcoal-rich) deposits in wood-fueled fires. However, if these
mary) and indirect (secondary) evidence. Direct fire residues somewhat fragile sediments are not protected or rapidly bur-

Figure 1. Schematic diagram illustrating the several phases of hearth construction, use, and preservation, with main factors influ-
encing the archaeological expression of such evidence. The numbered circles refer to sections in this paper that deal with the available
data from experimental archaeology. A color version of this figure is available online.
Aldeias Fire Experiments S193

ied, they can then be easily displaced or chemically altered and properties of the plant matter that was used (e.g., physiological
may become essentially invisible in the archaeological record. condition, anatomic section, density, moisture content, size;
Another type of evidence for past fires relates to indirect Berna and Goldberg 2008; Braadbaart and Poole 2008; Braad-
proxies. These are artifacts or sediments altered because of fire baart et al. 2012; Brochier 1983; Etiegni and Campbell 1991;
temperatures. Depending on the temperature threshold, such March 1992; March et al. 2014; Théry-Parisot 2001; Théry-
heating can result in important structural and mineralogical Parisot, Chabal, and Chrzavzez 2010; Weiner 2010).
transformations (Aldeias et al. 2016a, 2016b; Chu et al. 2008; The by-products of combusted plant materials are mainly
Elbaum et al. 2003; Maki, Homburg, and Brosowske 2006; charcoals and ash. Charcoals result from the carbonization and
Schmidt 2013; Schmidt et al. 2013; Stiner et al. 1995; Toffolo incomplete charring of wood (Braadbaart and Poole 2008),
and Boaretto 2014; Weiner et al. 2015). Therefore, thermally whereas wood ash comprises the residual inorganic fraction left
altered artifacts (bones, lithics, shells, seeds, etc.) or deposits after organic material degradation. Ash is mainly composed
(soils or sediment aggregates mixed with the original fuel, or of micritic (!4 µm) calcium carbonate resulting from the al-
the heated substrate over which a fire is built) are relevant in- teration of cellular calcium oxalate crystals contained in plant
direct proxies for past fires. Diagenesis and taphonomic pro- tissues (e.g., Brochier 1996; Canti 2003; Mentzer 2014; Pereira,
cesses can equally affect burned artifacts and deposits, leading to Úbeda, and Martin 2012). Other residual components are si-
their displacement and loss of primary position and contextual liceous in nature, namely phytoliths and silica aggregates, as
association (fig. 1). What is important, however, is that several well as inorganic minerals from soil material originally con-
heat-related transformations are irreversible even at a geological tained or attached to the used fuel source (Albert, Berna, and
timescale. Therefore, diagnostic artifacts (e.g., burned lithics or Goldberg 2012; Canti 1998; Elbaum et al. 2003; Mentzer 2014;
bones) can have a higher chance of surviving in the archaeo- Schiegl et al. 1994, 1996; Weiner 2010). This residual acid in-
logical record when compared with the more “fragile” compo- soluble fraction was experimentally estimated to be on the
nents such as wood ash. order of only 2% by volume or weight of wood ash (Schiegl et al.
1996). Moreover, the proportion of different constituents var-
ies: phytoliths, for instance, occur in greater concentrations in
2. The Evidence for Fuel
certain portions of a plant (e.g., leaves and bark) and in grasses
The type of fuels being burned can result in distinct sedimen- or sedges than in wooden species (Albert and Cabanes 2007;
tary accumulations and are an essential variable for combus- Piperno et al. 1999; Tsartsidou et al. 2007; Weiner 2010).
tion parameters, such as the duration of the fire, management In thin section, ash accumulations have very distinct sedi-
strategies, and associated average and maximum temperatures mentary characteristics with a calcitic crystallitic groundmass,
(fig. 1; table 1). Fuel characteristics can also be relevant in- and it is sometimes possible to isolate individual or articulated
dicators of paleoenvironmental aspects (e.g., the type of veg- pseudomorph crystals of calcium oxalate (Canti 2003; Mentzer
etation cover surrounding a site) as well as higher-level in- 2014; Schiegl et al. 1996). While these pseudomorphs reflect
ferences about human behavior in terms of selection criteria, original crystal shapes in the plant tissues, experimental re-
gathering efforts and costs (Henry 2017; March 1992; Théry- search trying to link charred morphologies to the specific fuel
Parisot 2002a, 2002b; Théry-Parisot, Chabal, and Chrzavzez types have been largely unsuccessful (Wattez 1996; Wattez
2010), and efficiency in relation to desired hearth functions and Courty 1987). Experiments by Simpson et al. (2003) sug-
(Henry and Théry-Parisot 2014; March 1992; March and gest that some distinction between willow and birch woods
Wunsch 2003; Simpson et al. 2003; Théry-Parisot 2002a, could be attained by microscopically examining the crystallitic
2002b; Théry-Parisot and Henry 2012; Villa, Bon, and Castel b-fabric of ash pseudomorphs and its clustering in relation to
2002). Substantial experimental work has been done in the embedded charcoal fragments at combustions below 4007C.
domain of paleobotany and to a lesser extent with the sedi- Still, further research is needed to confirm such observations.
mentary expressions of fuel-related variables. Here I will focus Relatively few experiments have targeted the burning of
mainly on the latter. grasses or sedges. Miller and Sievers (2012) conducted a series
of fires using these types of fuels. Their micromorphological
results show the stratigraphically intermixed production of
2.1. Wood and Grasses as Fuel Source
laminated fibrous charcoals and abundant phytoliths, several
Wood, and to a smaller extent grasses or sedges, are commonly of which preserve a well-defined anatomical articulation. It is
used as fuel sources because of their optimal pyrogenic prop- also noteworthy that by burning grasses and sedges, the over-
erties. Their combustion by-products dominate the remains whelming quantity of combustion by-products were phyto-
found in ancient hearths. Thermal degradation of the organic liths, with no observed calcitic ash rhombs (Miller and Sievers
compounds starts at ~3007C in a chain reaction that is often 2012). There is little experimental data on the sedimentary
complex (Braadbaart and Poole 2008; Pereira, Úbeda, and manifestation of mixed-plant fuel sources, namely, the com-
Martin 2012). The composition of plant combustion residues bined combustion of wood and grasses within hearths. An
depends on pyrogenic variables (e.g., temperature, fire duration, interesting archaeological case study, followed by experimen-
oxygen availability, environmental factors, etc.) and intrinsic tal research, is described by Meignen, Goldberg, and Bar-Yosef
Table 1. Fuel types and maximum temperatures recorded in experimental fires

Recorded temperature (7C)

Fuel condition
Fuel type Maximum Maximum mean Fire duration Fire shape/dimensions (moisture/state) Study
Wood 900–1,000 NR Open flat fires NR Stiner et al. 1995
Wood 995 4 days Open flat fires NR Canti and Linford 2000
Wood 920 1 day Open flat fires NR Canti and Linford 2000
Wood 892 4 days Open flat fires NR Canti and Linford 2000
Wood 855 1 day Open flat fires NR Canti and Linford 2000
Wood 818 1 day Open flat fires NR Canti and Linford 2000
Wood 600 1–3 hours Open flat fires Bellomo 1993
Wood (sicklebush) 466, 760 3 hours 45 minutes, Open flat fires (ca. 40 cm Wheel-dried (12%–20% Bentsen 2013
5 hours diameter) moisture)
Wood (sicklebush) 562, 730 4 hours 15 minutes, Open flat fires (ca. 40 cm Wheel-dried (12%–20% Bentsen 2013
5 hours diameter) moisture)
Sedge (Cyperus involucratus) 1800 NR Flat horizontally laid sedges Sun-dried Miller and Sievers 2012
Grass (Themeda triandra and 225 Flat horizontally laid sedges Bellomo 1993
Imporada cylindrica)
Grass (Setaria plicatilis) 157 NR Open flat fires (30 cm # Not fully dry Miller and Sievers 2012
30 cm)
Bone (with some wood) 800–900 73–122 minutes Slightly lowered, cleared Mentzer 2009
surface (60 cm diameter)
Bone (with some wood) 825–605 NR Several (fresh and dry) Théry-Parisot et al. 2005
Tree stump 250 NR Bellomo 1993
Peat 800 NR Air-dried for 1 month Braadbaart et al. 2012
Cow dung 800 NR Air-dried for 1 month Braadbaart et al. 2012
Cattle and sheep dung 630 Shahack-Gross et al. 2005
Note. It is not uncommon for only the maximum peak temperature to be reported, though such a peak can be very short lived. Increased research on the average amount of heat and its durability might be of
interest in many questions dealing with archaeological hearths. NR p not reported.
Aldeias Fire Experiments S195

(2014). This study was conducted in order to clarify the pro- terial with a loss of up to 98% of the original thickness of fuel
venience of millimeter-sized reddish rounded soil aggregates during combustion.
embedded in ash layers at the site of Hayonim Cave. The au- These values can give some idea of the minimum quantity
thors observed similar clumps of terra rossa attached to the of material present in an archaeological site. However, while
roots of grasses growing in the soils around the site, and these experimental data tends to show some degree of correlation
would turn to similar reddish colorations when exposed to between amount of fuel and thickness of the final ash layer
heat. Meignen, Goldberg, and Bar-Yosef (2014) concluded that (March 1992; March et al. 2014), processes such as compres-
bushes or small branches were used as additional fuel sources, sion, fragmentation, and postdepositional dissolution can af-
possibly attesting to expedient gathering practices near to the fect calculations of ash thickness and original fuel yield without
site. a clear control for site-specific diagenetic rates in the archaeo-
One important sedimentary expression of fires is the cal- logical record.
culation of the expected volume of ash and charcoal produced
by combustion events. Ash yield seems to be a function of two
2.2. Bone as Fuel Source
main variables: the completeness of the combustion (which
can be more efficiently achieved by using dry wood sources Bone can be another fuel resource. Evidence for bone-fueled
and higher temperatures) and the relative amount of insoluble hearths has been proposed for several Paleolithic sites, mainly
fraction per weight of the original fuel material. This was in- in the Upper Paleolithic (Beresford-Jones et al. 2010; Marquer
ferred from several experimental studies. For instance, Schiegl et al. 2010; Schiegl et al. 2003; Théry-Parisot 2002a) and in
et al. (1996) found that, although normally used in smaller Middle Paleolithic or Middle Stone Age contexts (Gabucio et al.
quantities, the burning of bark, cones, and leaves actually 2014; see also Cain 2005; Dibble et al. 2009; Morin 2010; Yra-
produces substantially more ash than the combustion of wood vedra and Uzquiano 2013).
because of their higher content of siliceous aggregates and Because of their relatively high critical heat flux for ignition
phytoliths. Ash yield can also vary according to fuel condition, (around 3807C; Laloy 1981), it seems that bones cannot be used
namely, if the fuel source was fresh or naturally dried wood. as the sole fuel to start a fire (Théry-Parisot and Costamagno
A twofold increase in ash production was obtained experi- 2005). In experimental studies, a mixture of wood and bone is
mentally using naturally dried fuels as compared with green commonly used, particularly during the initial stages of com-
wood (Albert and Cabanes 2007), and this difference is mainly bustion. The assessment of use of bone as fuel is based on a set
due to the increased water content in green wood. Minor dif- of criteria, namely, the high percentage of calcined bone pieces,
ferences in relative ash weight and volume were also reported a higher proportion of bone to charcoal ratio, and intense frag-
in the case of different wood species (Schiegl et al. 1996). In mentation indexes with an abundance of bones in size ranges
limited oxygen conditions and with decreased heating (e.g., smaller than 2 cm (Costamagno et al. 2005; Joly and March
with temperatures 13007C, restricted ventilation, or with abrupt 2003; Marquer et al. 2010; Mentzer 2009). The size distribution
interruption of burning phase due to rain), the combustion of of burned fragments seems to be more a function of intensity of
organic compounds ends. This results in an increase in solid combustion as proposed by Stiner et al. (1995) than minor var-
carbonaceous residues in the form of charcoal in relation to the iations due to initial bone size (Costamagno et al. 2005; Mentzer
ash content (e.g., Braadbaart and Poole 2008; March 1992; 2009).
March et al. 2014). However, as emphasized by Théry-Parisot, Experimental research shows differences in pyrotechnology
Chabal, and Chrzavzez (2010), experimental results on the of bone fires when compared with simple wood-fueled fires,
amount of charcoal produced and its underlying parameters and it has been proposed that the use of bone fuels can pro-
varies greatly between different studies, making it difficult to vide certain advantages. Controlled experiments demonstrate
correlate the expected amount of charcoal to more specific that the use of fresh, spongy bones will significantly increase
combustion factors or wood selection criteria before burning. the duration of a combustion event (Costamagno et al. 2005;
In actualistic fire experiments, the resulting ash layer tends Mentzer 2009; Théry-Parisot and Costamagno 2005; Théry-
to be fairly thin, with reported maximum thickness rarely above Parisot et al. 2005), with a direct positive relationship between
2 cm (e.g., Bentsen 2012; Mallol et al. 2013a, 2013b; March the amount of bone used and the longevity of flames in a fire
et al. 2014). Such experimental hearths typically reflect short- (Théry-Parisot 2002a). This increased efficiency is due to the
duration events, with the combustion lasting for a couple of flammability of fatty components, indicating that complete
hours and only rarely for durations of more than one day. It fresh bones rich in grease content (i.e., spongy bone sections)
is indeed difficult to test experimentally the effects of hearths are substantially more effective combustibles than wood (Théry-
that are continuously used over the course of several months— Parisot 2002a; Théry-Parisot and Costamagno 2005). As can be
though ethnographic evidence shows that these can produce seen in table 1, there is not a substantial difference in maximum
ash layers more than 20 cm thick (Mallol et al. 2007). In their ex- temperatures achieved with bone instead of wood fuels in ex-
periments burning grasses and sedges, Miller and Sievers (2012) perimental fires, with high temperatures of 8007–9007C reached
observed a dramatic decrease in the volume of the burned ma- in bone fires as in wood (see also Joly and March 2003).
 S196 Current Anthropology Volume 58, Supplement 16, August 2017

Conversely, fragmented, dry, and compact bones exhibit sues (which can include ash pseudomorphs), and residual in-
quite different pyrogenic properties when they are used as the organic components (Brochier 1983; Matthews 2010; Shahack-
main fuel source. Although such pieces can more easily be Gross 2011). Gur-Arieh et al. (2013) used a ratio of wood ash
ignited because of their minor water content, experimentation pseudomorphs to dung spherulites to characterize the pre-
indicates that these are quickly consumed, and fires fueled with dominant use of dung versus wood fuels. Experiments by
fragmented dry bones tend to be of shorter duration and with Simpson et al. (2003) show the differences between the calcitic
lower average temperature than those using complete fresh nature of wood ashes, the organic-rich isotropic composition of
bones (Mentzer 2009; Théry-Parisot and Costamagno 2005). dung materials containing calcitic spherulites (in sheep dung),
Similarly, Théry-Parisot and Costamagno (2005) demonstrate and the rubefied (reddened) material with phytoliths and di-
that the use of compact bones, which are poor in fat content, atoms obtained from burning peat and turf. Braadbaart et al.
will not produce combustion durations distinct from those (2012) note that peat and cow dung, in particular, result in a
observed in purely wood-fueled fires. higher release of smoke than wood fires.
These important though subtle differences in the condition
and type of bones used before burning seem to indicate that 3. Hearth Location and Its Effect on Artifact
the advantages of bone fuels are not straightforward. If we
Alteration
could demonstrate their exploitation by past humans, this
would in turn indicate an important degree of knowledge about Thus far we have focused the discussion on fires and their
bone pyrogenic properties. Unfortunately, however, combined direct combustion residues. However, because of preservation
effects of combustion and taphonomy can confound the visi- of these fragile residues, it is common to rely on the concen-
bility of such differences in the archaeological record (e.g., Cain tration and dispersion of noncombustible artifacts to infer the
2005; Joly and March 2003). Original size selection of complete presence of fire. In fact, archaeological interpretations of past
fresh bones might not be detectable after burning. Further- fires are often solely based on indirect evidence for fire, that
more, as pointed out by Costamagno et al. (2005), subsequent is, the thermally altered artifacts found in a site. It is, there-
reuse of the same hearth will entail further fragmentation and fore, important to reconstruct when and how fires affect sur-
calcination of bones from previous events, creating increased rounding artifacts and deposits.
confounding evidence. Experiments dealing with heat-induced Archaeological visibility of past fire use is influenced by
changes in bone cremation practices have also revealed that it hearth location (fig. 2), namely, if hearths were built in an oc-
is challenging to infer bone condition (fleshed, green, or dry cupational site or outside it. The latter will entail little or no
bones) before burning (Gonçalves et al. 2011). Finally, pres- archaeological visibility, particularly in the case of simple, non-
ervation is an equally important aspect for assessing origi- structured combustion structures such as those commonly as-
nal bone type selection. Stiner et al. (1995) used agitation and sociated with Paleolithic contexts.
trampling experiments to demonstrate that burned bones are Several variables relate to the behavioral choice of hearth
more likely to be reduced to powder by both compaction and location within a site, and these in turn affect the type of evi-
trampling when compared with mildly heated or unburned dence produced. For instance, we should take into account the
fragments. Calcined bones are the most susceptible to such preservation bias toward fires built inside the drip line of caves
taphonomic damage (Nicholson 1992), and their macroscopic versus fires built outside, the latter being substantially more
visibility in the archaeological record might, therefore, be con- exposed to taphonomical processes and increased archaeo-
siderably biased. logical “invisibility.” The selection of location is also particu-
larly pertinent for its association with notions of occupation
duration and spatial organization of the habitat. Emergent
2.3. Animal Dung, Peat, and Turf as Fuel Sources
organizational patterns in a given archaeological site—namely
The use of other fossil (e.g., coal), animal (herbivore dung), activities developed around a fire—can be relevant for recon-
and organo-mineral-based (e.g., peat and turf) fuel sources are structing space management and activity areas. In this sense,
known mainly for later prehistoric and historic archaeological evidence for stacked hearths (i.e., distinct and vertically super-
periods. Only rarely have instances of such fuel sources been imposed combustion events) has been proposed for several
proposed for Paleolithic sites (e.g., Théry et al. 1996), and here Paleolithic sites, including early fire evidence at Qesem Cave
I only briefly discuss experimental data comparing these types around 400 kya (Barkai et al. 2017; Karkanas et al. 2007;
of fuel sources with wood. Shahack-Gross et al. 2014) and in later contexts (e.g., Aldeias
Livestock dung fuels have been investigated in terms of their et al. 2012; Courty et al. 2012; Goldberg et al. 2012; Meignen,
archaeological evidence and experimentally described (e.g., Goldberg, and Bar-Yosef 2007; Schiegl et al. 1996). Experi-
Braadbaart et al. 2012; Canti 2003; Gur-Arieh et al. 2014; Mat- mental work on the superimposition of fire events by Mallol
thews 2010; Shahack-Gross 2011; Shahack-Gross and Finkel- et al. (2013b) has noted the difficulty in discerning relighting
stein 2008). The burning of dung produces microscopic sedi- events over short-term intervals even at a microscale of analysis.
mentary components that can be readily identified by the Similarly, on the basis of macroscopic observations, Bentsen
presence of calcitic dung spherulites, burned organic plant tis- (2012) reports on multiple superimposed fires not resulting in
Aldeias Fire Experiments S197

Figure 2. From the behavioral choice of hearth location to the summarized effects in terms of archaeological visibility. A color
version of this figure is available online.

larger hearth areas when compared with single combustion onomic displacements (e.g., bioturbation) or behavioral man-
events. Such experiments suggest that discernible stacked com- agement of combustion residues (e.g., heat treatment of lithics
bustion features will be identified only in situations of either an or cleaning of previous residues), as will be further discussed
intentional deposition of material between distinct combustion below.
events or those related to a substantial amount of time elapsed
between each fire event (Aldeias et al. 2012; Mallol et al. 2013b).
3.2. Vertical Proximity to Hearths
A somewhat more complex issue is to reconstruct how deeply
3.1. Lateral Proximity to Hearths
a fire affects underlying substrate and embedded artifacts.
The degree to which a surface fire affects the surrounding Reports on maximum subsurface temperatures beneath a fire
sediments and artifacts depends mainly on two variables: tem- vary greatly because of uncontrolled variables and different
peratures reached during combustion and, most importantly, experimental conditions (Bennett 1999; Campbell et al. 1995;
the distance to the fire feature itself. Temperatures within the March et al. 2014; Sievers and Wadley 2008; Wadley 2009;
limits of a fire rise substantially during initial combustion with Werts and Jahren 2007). In our recent experimentation (Al-
all types of fuels (see table 1), with a rapid spike in tempera- deias et al. 2016a), we used a set of controlled parameters to
tures observed within the first few minutes of ignition. Our investigate subsurface heat transfer under a wide range of
experiments (Aldeias et al. 2016a) show that temperatures drop conditions and variables that have archaeological applicability.
dramatically outside the fireplace limits, and this is true for both This experimental work shows that while maximum temper-
the surface immediately adjacent to it and laterally buried atures and rate of heat transfer depends on a range of factors
deposits. Other experimental work has shown that, as expected, (substrate type, moisture content, porosity, fire temperature,
substantial thermal alteration is visible in artifacts directly fire duration, etc.), significant thermal alteration is expected
added into an active fire, while those positioned immediately only directly underneath a fire and not to its sides. The di-
outside the fire’s limits remain largely unaffected (Mallol et al. ameter of this alteration is a direct function of hearth size; that
2013a, 2013b; Sergant, Crombé, and Perdaen 2006; Wadley is, larger fires will effectively alter equally larger subsurface
2009). Only small-sized artifacts, namely pot lids, were dis- deposits than smaller, restricted features. This study suggests
persed farther away, being ejected distances of up to 3 m (Mallol that under a variety of experimental conditions, temperatures
et al. 2013b; Sergant, Crombé, and Perdaen 2006). around 4007C and as high as 8007C can be reached at shallow
These results suggest that the distribution of burned re- depths (2 cm below the surface) and that at 10 cm below a fire,
mains are a function of fire area and can mimic the limits and maximum temperatures may range from 857C to 2507C (Al-
extension of hearths. Therefore, dissociation between burned deias et al. 2016a). Subsurface temperatures continue to in-
artifacts and direct evidence for a hearth in any archaeologi- crease well after a fire is extinct, and it is expected that longer
cal context may point to a certain degree of artifact movement fire durations will further increase subsurface exposure to heat.
and reworking. Causes of such dispersion can be either taph- These results are generally in accordance with previous studies
 S198 Current Anthropology Volume 58, Supplement 16, August 2017

reporting on subsurface temperatures (Bennett 1999; Bentsen cavations (Mallol et al. 2013a, 2013b), and special attention to
2013; Campbell et al. 1995; March et al. 2014; Sievers and the provenience of burned artifacts versus the location of the
Wadley 2008; Wadley 2009; Werts and Jahren 2007). Although direct fire residues is required, particularly when using such
temperatures consistently decrease with depth independently materials for chronometric dating or inferences about hearth
of substrate material (Aldeias et al. 2016a; Canti and Linford function.
2000; March et al. 2014), it is interesting that Bellomo (1993)
observed that burning of tree stumps might show increased 4. Evidence for In Situ versus Reworked Hearths
subsurface temperatures linked to the smoldering root system.
4.1. The Effects of Hearth Shape
In general, experimentally obtained subsurface temperatures
suggest that artifact alteration can occur postdepositionally. There are a series of diagnostic sedimentary signatures created
An important variable is the duration of the fire event. For by a simple horizontal fire, such as a hearth or a campfire. Un-
instance, while in the experimental study by Stiner et al. (1995) disturbed fires tend to present a microstratigraphy with an
calcination levels were never achieved in buried bones, similar uppermost ash-rich lens that may contain occasional charcoal
experiments carried out by Bennett (1999) showed that longer fragments. These deposits can rest on a charcoal-rich layer
(48-hour fire durations) did in fact produce black bone alter- that in turn overlies thermally altered substrates. This discrete
ation at 10 cm of depth and calcined bones at shallower depths. stratigraphic arrangement in well-preserved hearths has been
Bennet (1999) further hypothesized that some differentiations attested experimentally (e.g., Godino et al. 2011; Mallol et al.
might be made in terms of surface alteration of bones indi- 2013a, 2013b; March, Ferreri, and Guez 1993; March et al.
rectly exposed to heat (buried bones) as compared with those 2014; Miller et al. 2010; Wattez 1996).
directly exposed to fire, with the former exhibiting more uni- Extensive experimental work by March and colleagues
form surface color alterations associated with minimum frac- (March 1992, 1996; March, Ferreri, and Guez 1993; March
turing and warping. Other studies have shown the effects of et al. 2014) has included research on different hearth shapes,
fire duration in the degree of artifact alterations. For instance, namely simple, open horizontal fires and those constructed
Wadley (2009) notes that red ochre might be artificially over inside “cuvette” structures (i.e., shallow basin-shaped depres-
represented in archaeological contexts as the result of thermal sions). These experiments indicate that fires built inside a de-
modification of yellow ochre and iron-rich rocks buried un- pression have a relatively high thermal efficiency when com-
derneath a fire. In her fire experiments, no color alteration was pared with flat open hearths. Cuvette fires tend to show uniform
observed in a short-lived fire event (lasting for 1.3 hours with temperatures throughout a larger surface area and, because
temperatures 12507C), whereas with longer fire duration (tem- of incomplete and slower combustion, have a higher ratio of
peratures 12507C for 19 hours) all of the buried materials be- charcoal production compared with open horizontal features
came reddened, even those buried at 10 cm below the surface (March 1992; March et al. 2014). These differences seem to
(Wadley 2009). Given that temperatures commonly reach above result from more controlled conditions of air circulation in-
1007C at up to 10 cm in depth (Aldeias et al. 2016a), experi- side shallow depressions versus surface fires. Accordingly, the
mental research suggests that other artifacts—such as organic exposure to increased fluctuations in open ventilation con-
materials like seeds, fruits, plant litter, grass, and rootlets—can ditions results in higher average temperatures in flat fires (see
be postdepositionally altered. Similarly, experimental fires by also Canti and Linford 2000), which, in turn, demands higher
Miller and Sievers (2012) resulted in the carbonization of a quantities of wood to keep a fire burning for a similar duration
layer of sedges buried below 5 cm of sediments (see also Sievers event. Interestingly, March et al. (2014) also observed that the
and Wadley 2008). Mallol et al. (2013a) note that in their substrates underlying cuvette fires may not show any signs of
experimental fires the black layer sharply underlying ash oxidation. This evidence is interpreted as resulting from the
remains is not innately linked to the fire event per se but in- rapid infilling of the depression with combustion residues,
stead represents the secondary charring of the surface in which namely ashes and charcoals, acting as thermal isolators and
the fireplace was built. Similarly, in our experiments we ob- topographically raising the center of combustion (March et al.
served the charring of an organic-rich layer buried beneath 2014). Such a hypothesis is in agreement with data on the
2 cm of sand with the development of a thin underlying rube- thermal isolation effects of ashes reported by Canti and Lin-
fied lens—a microstratigraphic superimposition that tends ford (2000) and further tested experimentally by Aldeias et al.
to reflect the typical arrangement of a surface fire but that in (2016a). Finally, variations in the diameter of open fires can
this case actually represents the postdepositional alteration of be broadly correlated with the amount of fuel used, as shown
previously deposited sediments (Aldeias et al. 2016a). in the experimental work of Bentsen (2012).
The presence and extent of postdepositional alterations due
to overlying later fires are relevant because any archaeological
materials embedded in secondarily altered deposits are tem-
4.2. Alteration of Underlying Substrate
porally and consequently behaviorally unrelated to the fire fea-
ture and its use. Accordingly, these materials and sediments A hearth built on top of sedimentary substrates will result in
should be separated from the direct fire residues during ex- some degree of thermal alteration of the material directly un-
Aldeias Fire Experiments S199

derlying. Thermally altered substrates are a good indication some degree of rubefication with the exception of heat ap-
that a fire was present in this exact location. Still, the degree and plied to limestone sand and calcitic ashes (Aldeias et al. 2016a).
aspect of thermal alteration varies greatly because it is intrin- In both of these cases, there were mineralogical and color
sically dependent on the nature and content of the substrate changes associated with thermal alteration, but these did not
itself and equally affected by pyrogenic properties, namely, fire assume the form of a rubefied substrate. In the cases where
temperature and duration. Thus far, the majority of work re- reddening was observed, the main factors driving its exten-
porting on fire-substrate alterations tends to concentrate on sion were sediment type and, to a lesser extent, mean tem-
the direct replication of site-specific archaeological evidence perature and combustion duration. The average thickness of
(e.g., Brodard et al. 2015; Mallol et al. 2013a; Miller and Sievers the rubefied layer was ~6 cm, with a maximum thickness of
2012; Sherwood and Chapman 2005). A small number of ex- 8.5 cm obtained in wet quartz sands heated for a longer du-
periments provide a wider range of factors that allow for in- ration of 19 hours at ~6007C. Similar to the results of pre-
depth generalizations about the type of modifications expected vious researchers (Canti and Linford 2000; March et al. 2014),
under certain conditions and, consequentially, what such al- when organic matter was present in the subsurface, there was
terations may mean for inferring past pyrogenic conditions. a marked decrease of visible alteration compared with exam-
One of the common thermally induced modifications is the ples from the same heating conditions and the same type of
development of a rubefied (i.e., reddening) layer usually re- sediments but without an organic component; specifically, sed-
lated to oxidation of iron-rich minerals. Experimental work by iments with organic matter showed only a 3 cm thick rubefied
Canti and Linford (2000) produced varied results, with some substrate, when compared with a 6 cm thick rubefied layer using
of the experimental fires showing a 2–3 cm thick rubefied base the same type of sediments but without organic matter (Aldeias
whereas others showed no macroscopic alteration. These dif- et al. 2016a).
ferences were not necessarily a direct function of temperature, In terms of the relationship between substrate alteration and
because fires registering lower subsurface temperatures actu- hearth shape, experimentation has shown that a fire built on a
ally became reddened while the hottest fires did not. These fires flat surface can produce an underlying semispherical config-
were not built on top of the same type of sediments, with fires uration of altered sediments when seen in cross section (Al-
on humic topsoil not presenting oxidized bases (Canti and deias et al. 2016a). This topography, readily visible in the case
Linford 2000). Similar results were obtained by Bellomo (1993), of rubefication, is an outcome of the way heat transfer occurs
who also did not observe any rubefication with the burning of in the subsurface and is not related to the original shape of the
several tree stumps on sandy humic soils, though in this case it hearth. That flat surface fires can have a cuvette-shaped sub-
is unclear whether this can also be related to the lower tem- strate is, therefore, shown through controlled experimentation,
peratures reached (a mean maximum of 2507C was recorded). actualistic studies (Bellomo 1993), and heat-transfer models (e.g.,
Bellomo further suggests that wood bark may act as a thermal Brodard et al. 2015; March et al. 2014). These secondarily altered
insulator preventing heat transfer to the surrounding soil, a deposits should not be interpreted as intentional hearth con-
hypothesis that rests largely untested in the case of natural tree struction in a depression.
stump fires. In any case, these studies suggest that soil organic
matter might prevent substantial rubefication.
4.3. The Role of Anthropic Actions
Not all substrate thermal alteration is in the form of red-
dened substrates. Other experimental fires show that substrate Besides forming combustion residues, humans can also act as
organic matter has an important role on the formation of agents of erosion and reworking of anthropogenic sediments.
black thermally altered zones underlying fire features. March Of particular interest is the identification of syndepositional
et al. (2014) noted the formation of thick blackish zones un- (i.e., after formation and before burial) human interactions
derneath fires on humic soils and volcanic or aeolian silts rich with fire residues, as such data can give us information on
in organic matter. The formation of black basal layers was space use, maintenance activities, and, at times, fire functions.
further investigated experimentally by Mallol et al. (2013a), For instance, in our experimental work with hearths used for
suggesting that these deposits can represent the fire-altered roasting shellfish, Aldeias et al. (2016b) showed that spread-
organic-rich surface and are not the result of direct combus- ing and dumping of fire residues outside the cooking area was
tion residues (i.e., the common attribution of black layers to an essential step in the cooking procedures. Such actions re-
charcoal-rich residues underlying an ash layer). sulted in the absence of a microstratigraphy associated with
The nature and components of the substrate logically play intact hearths, which in this case would not be due to poor
an important role in oxidation and associated reddening (i.e., preservation of the fire features but because removal of com-
whether there are iron minerals to be oxidized in the first bustion residues was an intentional activity that directly related
place). March et al. (2014) showed that oxidation dimensions to hearth use.
are related to both the temperatures attained and the nature Asserting possible functions for human manipulation in-
of the substrate, with reddish alteration visible between 3007C volves better characterization of the effects of actions such as
and 5007C depending on soil types. In our experimental stud- trampling, scooping, sweeping, and dumping of fire residues.
ies with a variety of sediment types, all sediments presented These have also been tested experimentally. Although having
 S200 Current Anthropology Volume 58, Supplement 16, August 2017

the lowest effects in terms of disturbing the original integrity and Cabanes 2007; Berna 2010; Berna, Matthews, and Weiner
of the fire features, experiments with trampling produce the 2004; Berna et al. 2007; Braadbaart and Poole 2008; Cabanes,
most diagnostic sedimentary signatures. Miller et al. (2010) Weiner, and Shahack-Gross 2011; Cohen-Ofri et al. 2006;
noted that after short episodes of trampling (1 minute du- Karkanas 2010; Karkanas et al. 2000; Schiegl et al. 1996;
ration), the original structure and microstratigraphic orga- Weiner 2010; Weiner, Goldberg, and Bar-Yosef 1993, 2002).
nization of the hearths was still discernible in thin section, From such data, the degree of preservation and taphonomy of
with the charcoal layer overlying altered substrate. Similar re- combustion-associated sediments can be indirectly assessed,
sults were obtained by Mallol et al. (2013b) in trampling epi- and past geochemical conditions can be inferred.
sodes of much longer duration (over the course of 21 days), In terms of the effects of bioturbation, a recent study has
where the blurred limits of the original structures were visible specifically dealt with the interaction of some carnivores with
macroscopically, though in thin section the uppermost ash hearth features, which can result in the reworking of the com-
component was intrinsically mixed with angular charcoal frag- bustion structures (Camarós et al., forthcoming). Bears, in
ments, subrounded sediment rip ups, and few rounded ash particular, were observed to interact and significantly disturb
aggregates. The underlying microstratigraphy showed little fire residues used for meat cooking by rubbing themselves in
modification from nontrampled substrates. Both studies sug- the ashes and charcoal, digging holes up to 50 cm in diameter,
gest that trampling results only in alterations of the uppermost and displacing stones and bones away from the original hearth
deposits (only a few centimeters thick) with increased sedi- location. As a result, the original experimental hearth sediments
mentary compaction, microscopic granular structure, abundant and stone arrangement were no longer recognizable (Camarós
in situ crushing of fragile artifacts (e.g., snapped and crushed et al., forthcoming).
bones), and the incorporation of burned remains into the under-
lying sediments (Mallol et al. 2013b; Miller et al. 2010).
Increased sedimentary disturbance was obtained in exper- 5. Archaeological Significance
iments involving sweeping and dumping of combustion resi-
The archaeological significance of fires depends on being able
dues. Sweeping produced the accumulation of a heterogeneous
to attest their anthropogenic origin. We need of course to keep
mix of deposits with a reworked ash layer embedding frag-
in mind that fires are natural processes and a phenomenon
ments of thermally altered substrate and a chaotic mixture of
that has occurred throughout Earth’s geological history. Ulti-
artifacts showing different degrees of burning (Mallol et al.
mately, therefore, reconstructing instances of anthropogenic
2013b; Miller et al. 2010). This accumulation rests on top of
(human-made) fire cannot rely solely on the nature of the
substrates not affected by heating. Scooping and dumping of fire
artifacts per se (the aforementioned direct and indirect prox-
residues performed by Miller et al. (2010) resulted in somewhat
ies) but needs to take into consideration their overall contex-
similar deposits, with an open chaotic structure containing
tual association (Goldberg, Miller, and Mentzer 2017). “Con-
burned artifacts and thermally altered sediment aggregates
text” refers to the entirety of data pertaining to the internal
embedded in a matrix of rounded calcitic ashes. Miller et al.
distribution, orientation patterns, and external association of
(2010) propose a possible distinction in terms of grain-size
burned sedimentary components. In other words, it embodies
distribution between sweeping and dumping, with coarser het-
the internal structure of combusted residues and their asso-
erogeneous deposits in dumped deposits and finer grain sort-
ciation with adjacent archaeological data. Understanding the
ing potentially associated with sweeping actions. In general,
contextual framework is relevant for higher behavioral infer-
these experimental results show that combustion accumula-
ences beyond the assessment of whether a material is burned or
tions resulting from sweeping and dumping do not preserve the
not and is essential to tease apart whether (1) burned residues
original hearth structure. Instead, the spreading of combusted
are in fact related to anthropogenic activities, (2) the presence
materials leads to a set of sedimentary characteristics associ-
or absence of burned residues is due to human behavior, or
ated with secondary ash dumps that allows for their identifi-
(3) burned residues are instead associated with natural land-
cation as disturbed, not in situ, accumulations of combustion
scape burning episodes. It is this understanding of the broader
material in the archaeological record.
context of combustion remains that is indeed fundamental for
well-grounded interpretations of past human pyrotechnology.

4.4. The Effects of Biogenic and Geogenic Processes

5.1. Indirect Proxies: Burned, Yes, but When?
Experimentally testing the effects of biogenic and geogenic
processes faces the issue of time. It is indeed difficult to test Archaeological sites are far from being pristine contexts even
diagenetic processes that occur over hundreds and thousands under ideal situations of preservation. Therefore, as mentioned
of years in archaeological fire features. Therefore, the over- above, the identification of traces for fire often relies on the de-
whelming quantity of data we have on taphonomy and dia- tection and analysis of the burned artifacts that tend to with-
genesis deals with individual combustion components and their stand the passage of time better than the more fragile com-
stability under varied environmental conditions (e.g., Albert bustion residues. These are the so-called indirect proxies for
Aldeias Fire Experiments S201

fires. Despite their unquestionable relevance, what the research to distinguish between discrete activities that might have oc-
described above does show is that we must distinguish between curred above or around a fire. On the other hand, there is also a
different types of indirect fire proxies. On one hand, there are conceptual issue. Several functions attributed to fires are dif-
materials that are used, consumed, and burned at the same ficult to test for or are even untestable through archaeological
time that a hearth is active. This heating is, therefore, contem- data simply because they leave no sedimentary signature. For
poraneous with the fire event and potentially related to hearth instance, light and warmth are automatic outcomes of every fire
function, the type of artifacts present, and the kinds of hu- regardless of whether their production was the intended ob-
man activities that took place around the hearth. Moreover, jective in the first place. Tackling such functions directly might
the study of these burned materials can provide a wealth of be a frustrating endeavor. However, it might be possible to
information about the fire itself because different materials better discern patterns in the role of fire by comparing the ev-
will respond to temperatures in distinct ways. idence between several sites and resorting to specifically tar-
Again, however, not all burning results from direct contact geted experimentation to build testable research hypotheses.
with a fire, as there might be a considerable elapsed interval of For example, the amount of light produced by one type of fuel
time between artifact manufacture, discard, burial, and post- compared to another can be tested experimentally (e.g., does
depositional exposure to heat. For example, a fire built on top bone fuel produce more luminosity than pine wood fires?). In
of previous occupations has the potential to directly alter un- turn, the obtained results might drive expectations that can
derlying deposits and embedded artifacts. In such cases, the be verified between different combustion features and distinct
thermal alteration may significantly postdate the fire event, sites, attributing a degree of probability that, in this example,
and these burned materials are neither temporally nor behav- light was a likely intended hearth function.
iorally associated with the overlying hearth. This is particularly Such intersite comparative analyses (with comparable ex-
pertinent in archaeological sites where a thin layer of sediments cavation and recording methodologies) are still fairly infre-
often denotes several human occupations overlying each other quent in archaeological research, though substantial efforts for
and represents sedimentary accumulations over hundreds or data collection and excavation standardization have been seen
even thousands of years. in recent years. In order to interpret hearth function, our re-
Thus, in order to distinguish between instances of contem- search questions need to be tailored to the type of data avail-
poraneous burning from postdepositional alteration, we need able. Archaeological experimentation is key for assessing such
to better understand how fires (both anthropic hearths and information on what to expect. As graphically illustrated in
natural fires) affect the surrounding and especially the under- figure 3, putative hearth uses might be dependent on multiple
lying deposits under a wide variety of conditions and substrate variables, and these need to be addressed from an interdisci-
sediment types. Above all, such interpretations must be based plinary perspective—not just from the study of the burned ar-
on context, for which detailed characterization of the sedimen- tifacts themselves but also the sediments embedding them and
tary and microstratigraphic association of burned materials is their contextual arrangement.
essential. For instance, we can expect the majority of heated
artifacts embedded in ashes to be related to the active fires, 6. Final Comments and Future Directions
whereas those retrieved from thermally altered substrates most
probably represent older artifacts pertaining to distinct and The identification of anthropic fire use is an important be-
possibly markedly different types of human occupations. This havioral question both in terms of its first appearance and the
distinction is important for archaeological interpretations, stud-
ies on spatial analyses, and dating of human occupations.

5.2. What Can We Say about Hearth Function?

The array of behaviorally relevant functions of fires (light,
warmth, cooking, protection against predators, etc.) is often
stated and lies at the core of why fire technology is seen as a
major technological advancement in human evolution. It is
also, nonetheless, one of the most frustrating and elusive as-
pects of ancient pyrotechnological research because pinpoint-
ing the exact function of a particular Paleolithic combustion
feature has proven to be extremely challenging. The reasons for
this are varied. On one hand, there is the nature of the direct
data we are dealing with; that is, the incompleteness of the ar-
chaeological record even in instances where a hearth has been
clearly identified. As seen throughout this review, the available Figure 3. Graphical illustration of the potentially complex inter-
artifactual and sedimentary data often lack enough resolution playing of variables for hearth function determination.
 S202 Current Anthropology Volume 58, Supplement 16, August 2017

recurrence of its application in human adaptive strategies. De- techniques can be used to closely investigate whether a mate-
tailed analyses on the content and context of fire residues can rial was burned, the degree of its alteration, and its micro-
provide a wealth of information. Still, we face conceptual and contextual association. Moreover, an important development
operational issues on how to identify ephemeral or patchy evi- is the close integration that archaeological-driven experimen-
dence of burning, particularly in older contexts where archae- tation has had with other disciplines, for example, borrowing
ological visibility and association might be an issue. Equally analytical techniques from the earth sciences, chemistry, and
challenging is the archaeological identification of fire produc- biology. A growing line of research applies microcontextual
tion, that is, being able to start a fire, versus simply its manage- approaches instead of averaging out the sedimentary debris
ment. Experimental data described above show the sedimen- from fire features. Such innovative methodologies are promis-
tary invisibility of several relevant aspects, namely relighting ing research avenues for the analyses of particular sedimen-
episodes. This suggests that thus far, we cannot distinguish be- tary components that until recently had remained virtually
tween fires that were maintained continuously lit from those invisible.
revived in short intervals of time. Such potential lack of sedi-
mentary evidence has consequences for questions relating to
the capacity of past humans (e.g., western European Neander- Acknowledgments
thals) to manufacture fire (Roebroeks and Villa 2011; Sandgathe
This research was supported by the Max Planck Society, and I
et al. 2011a, 2011b). Consequently, questions dealing with
would like to acknowledge the support provided by Jean-
the capability of humans to start a fire versus their choice to
Jacques Hublin and Shannon McPherron. I would like to thank
use or not use fire resources might go undetectable in the ar-
Paul Goldberg and Harold L. Dibble for their comments on an
chaeological record.
earlier version of this manuscript. The commentaries of two
How much fire was present in a given site and what those
anonymous reviewers greatly helped to improve this manu-
combustion events suggest in terms of human selection and
script. A special thanks to Dennis Sandgathe, Francesco Berna,
choices (e.g., fuels, hearth construction, and syndepositional
and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for the invitation to and the
maintenance activities) are both questions that profit from a
organization of the symposium “Fire and the Genus Homo.”
solid experimental background in order to interpret the com-
plexity of the archaeological evidence. The majority of ar-
chaeological experimentation tends to focus on what can hap-
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