Electrical Power Systems
1. Introduction
The function of an electric power system is to generate electrical energy economically
and with the minimum ecological disturbance and to transfer this energy over
transmission lines and distribution networks with the maximum efficiency and
reliability to consumers at specific voltage and frequency.
Modern industrial society’s muscle power is provided by electricity generated in
thermal, hydro and nuclear generating stations. The use of new renewable non-polluting
resources is continually increasing although their output still represents a small
proportion of total energy consumption.
1.1 Advantages of AC Generation
An electric power system comprises several components including generating plant at
power stations, transformers, switchgear, and overhead lines and underground cables
that supply electricity to consumers. Power systems were developed many years later
than power generation. Early power stations were developed to supply local loads.
Some produced alternating current (a.c.) and others produced direct current (d.c.). As
the distances over which electrical energy was transmitted increased and the loads
became more diverse, the advantages offered by a.c. transmission became evident.
A sinusoidal ac voltage can be stepped up or down by using a transformer. This means
that each part of a power system can operate at its optimum voltage. The generators can
produce power at around 11kV to 22kV to suit electrical machine design. The loads can
be supplied at 230V, 400V or at 11kV as required by the consumer, while transmission
of power can take place at 132kV, 275kV, 400kV or even higher voltages. These very
high voltages are essential for the efficient transmission of electric power. This is
because, for a given power, as the voltage is stepped up, the current is transformed
down by the same factor. Thus a 400kV line carries only one-third as much current as a
132kV line, if they are transmitting the same power. Power losses in the line are mainly
due to resistive heating of the conductors. This is proportional to I 2 R such that, for the
same power and the same size of conductor, the losses in the 400kV line are about one-
ninth of those in the 132kV line.
Another advantage of alternating current transmission compared with direct current is
that it is much easier (and hence cheaper) to design and construct circuit breakers to
interrupt alternating current due to the fact that alternating current crosses zero twice per
cycle.
2. Three-Phase Systems
While most domestic consumers are provided with single-phase power, all large power
systems use three phases. There are a number of advantages in having a three-phase
system:
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power and torque are constant in a three-phase motor or generator - this means
that the machines will run more smoothly than single-phase machines where the
torque pulsates at twice the system frequency;
for a given size of machine, i.e. for a given amount of steel and copper, a three-
phase machine delivers a greater power output;
a three-phase transmission system will carry a greater power than a single-phase
system, other things being equal.
The last two benefits listed are economic advantages. Since power systems are so large
and costly, economic considerations are very important and influence several aspects of
power systems.
2.1 Three-Phase Generators
In order to understand the fundamental principles of three-phase generators, it is
instructive to look at single-phase generation first. Consider first a simple single-phase
generator consisting of a narrow coil of N turns and area A square metres, rotating in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density B tesla as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Simple single-phase generator
With the coil positioned at an angle θ as shown, the magnetic flux linked by the coil is
given by:
Φ = NAB cosθ (Webers)
When the coil is rotated at a uniform angular velocity ω, such that θ = ωt , the flux
linked by the coil is therefore varying sinusoidally with time:
Φ = NAB cos ωt (Webers)
By Faraday’s law, an electromagnetic force (e.m.f.) is induced in the coil, that is equal
to the rate of change of flux linkage:
dΦ
e=−
dt
The e.m.f. induced in the coil is therefore given by:
e = NABω cos ωt (Volts)
2
The variation of this e.m.f. with time is represented in Figure 2.2. Note that the
maximum induced voltage occurs when the plane of the coil is aligned to the direction
of the magnetic flux while the induced voltage is zero when the plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux.
E.M.F. e
2π Time t
ω
Figure 2.2 E.M.F. from a simple single-phase generator
If instead of just one coil, we have three identical coils fixed together so that each
makes an angle of 120° with the other two, we now have three coupled single-phase
generators as shown in Figure 2.3. Taken individually the e.m.f. in each coil will be as
in Figure 2.2, but since the coils are displaced by 120°, the resulting e.m.f.s will be
displaced from each other in time by one-third of the period taken to complete one
revolution. In terms of phase, the e.m.f.s are displaced by 120°. From Figure 2.3, one
notes that coil 2 must rotate by 120° anticlockwise to occupy the position presently
taken up by coil 1 while coil 3 must rotate by 240° anticlockwise to occupy the same
position. As a result the e.m.f. of coil 2 lags that of coil 1 by 120°, while the emf of coil
3 lags that of coil 1 by 240°. The time dependence of the three e.m.f.s is illustrated in
Figure 2.4.
1 θ
B 2
Figure 2.3 Simple three-phase generator
3
e2
E.M.F. e
e1
Time t
e3
Figure 2.4 E.M.F.s from a simple three-phase generator
The e.m.f.s can be expressed mathematically by:
e1 = 2 E sin ωt
e2 = 2 E sin (ωt − 120°)
e3 = 2 E sin (ωt − 240°) OR e3 = 2 E sin (ωt + 120°)
where 2 E = NABω .
Equivalent elementary single-phase and three-phase generation can be achieved by
rotating a magnet within a single coil or a set or three-phase coils as shown in Figures
2.5 and 2.6.
Figure 2.5 Simple single-phase generator Figure 2.6 Simple three-phase generator
2.2 Three-Phase Connections
In order to obtain a three-phase generator from the three coupled single-phase
generators of Figure 2.3, we need to connect the ends of the coils together. There are
two ways of doing this:
• Star connection as shown in Figure 2.7: this is obtained by connecting together
similar ends (for example, the end of the coil where the winding finishes for
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each coil – this end of each coil is marked by a dot in Figure 2.7) of the three
coils to form what is called the star point. The three remaining ends form the
terminals of the three-phase generator. Another terminal can also be brought out
from the star-point although this is not essential.
• Delta connection as shown in Figure 2.8: this is obtained by connecting the end
of one coil to the start of the next coil such that the three coils form a loop. This
connection provides three terminals and no star point can be provided with a
delta connection.
IA
A IA
I1 A
I1
V1
V3 V1
VAB VAB
V3 VCA
VCA
I3 IB
I2 IB B
V2 B I2
I3 VBC
V2 IC
VBC
IC C
C
Figure 2.7 Star connection Figure 2.8 Delta connection
In Figures 2.7 and 2.8, V1, V2, and V3 are the phasors representing the voltages induced
in coils 1, 2, and 3 respectively. Note that in each case the voltage phasors are induced
in the same direction with respect to the dots. I1, I2, and I3 are the phasors representing
the currents flowing in coils 1, 2, and 3 respectively, while IA, IB, and IC are the phasors
representing the currents flowing out of the three-phase terminals. VAB, VBC, and VCA
are the line-to-line voltage phasors.
2.3 Phase and Line Quantities
In this study the three-phase systems considered will always be balanced. This means
that there are no significant differences between the supply phase voltage magnitudes
and that the three-phase voltages are displaced from each other by exactly 120°. Any
three-phase load connected is also assumed to be balanced. This means that the load
impedance appearing between each two line terminals is the same such that the line
currents drawn from these terminals are equal and displaced by 120° from each other.
In a star-connected generator as in Figure 2.7, the line currents are clearly equal to the
phase currents:
I A = I 1 ; I B = I 2 ; I C = I 3 and I L = I P
where IL is the line current magnitude and IP is the phase current magnitude.
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The line voltage phasors can be obtained from the phase voltage phasors using phasor
addition, whether through an analytical or a graphical approach. The instantaneous
voltage equations:
v1 (t ) = 2 E sin ωt
v2 (t ) = 2 E sin (ωt − 120°)
v3 (t ) = 2 E sin (ωt + 120°)
correspond to the phasor quantities:
V1 = E∠0°
V2 = E∠ − 120°
V3 = E∠120°
Note that the phasor magnitude is always an rms quantity.
These can be represented graphically as in Figure 2.9, which also illustrates the phasor
addition of V1 and -V2 (this is equivalent to subtracting V2 from V1) to obtain VAB
V3 -V2 VAB
30
V1
V2
Figure 2.9 Phasor addition of phase voltages in star connection
From the phasor diagram, phasor addition of V1 and -V2 leads to a rhombus shape due to
the equal sides. The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles and also
bisect the angles at the corners of the rhombus: phasor VAB thereofore leads V1 by 30°.
Also, half the line voltage magnitude is equal to cos30° times the phase voltage
magnitude. This implies that the line voltage magnitude is 3 the phase voltage
magnitude.
Alternatively, through the analytical approach:
[ (
V AB = V1 − V 2 = E∠0° − E∠ − 120° = E (1 + j 0 ) − − 12 − j 2
3
)] = E ( 3
2 + j 2
3
)= 3E∠30°
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and similarly V BC = 3E∠ − 90° and VCA = 3E∠150° .
For the delta-connected system in Figure 2.8, the line voltage phasors are equal to the
voltage phasors while the line currents are clearly not equal to the phase currents. By
applying Kirchoff’s current law (the sum of currents flowing into a node is equal to the
sum of currents flowing away from that node) at each node of the delta we can obtain
the line current values using phasor addition:
I1 = I A + I 3 ⇒ I A = I1 − I 3
I A = (I P ∠ − φ ) − (I P ∠ − φ + 120°)
= (I P ∠ − φ )[(1∠0°) − (1∠120°)]
[
= (I P ∠ − φ )(1 + j 0) − − 12 + j( 2
3
)]
= (I ∠ − φ )(
P
3
2
−j 2
3
)
= 3I P ∠ − φ − 30°
The result shows that for the delta connection, the line current magnitude is 3 the
phase current magnitude and that the line currents lag the phase currents by 30°.
2.4 Delta-Star and Star-Delta Transformations of Balanced Three-Phase
Loads
For equivalent star-connected and delta-connected loads, line voltages and line currents
must be identical in both systems. Consider therefore that for both systems in Figure
2.10 we have the following line voltage and line current phasors:
V AB = 3E∠30°; V BC = 3E∠ − 90°; VCA = 3E∠150°
I A = I L ∠ − φ ; I B = I L ∠ − φ − 120°; I C = I L ∠ − φ + 120°
IA IA
A A
I1 I3
Zstar
VAB VAB Zdelta
Zdelta
O
Zstar
IB Zstar IB I2 Zdelta
B B
VBC VBC
C C
IC IC
Figure 2.10 Equivalent star-connected and delta-connected balanced three-phase loads
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For the star-connected system, we therefore have V AO = E∠0° such that
V AO E∠0° E
Z star = = = ∠φ
IA I L∠ − φ I L
IL
For the delta-connected system, we have I 1 = ∠ − φ + 30° and therefore
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V AB 3E∠30° ⎛E ⎞
Z delta = = = 3⎜⎜ ∠φ ⎟⎟ = 3 Z star
I1 IL 3 ∠(− φ + 30°) ⎝ IL ⎠
This result shows that for equivalent star-connected and delta-connected balanced
three-phase loads, the impedance of the delta-connected load is three times that of the
star-connected load.
This result is relevant to the understanding of star-delta starting of three-phase induction
motors to reduce starting current. A three-phase induction motor is designed to operate
in a delta connection can be started with its windings connected in star such that it
initially presents an impedance three times higher than it would present in the delta
connection. The resulting starting current is therefore one third of that for the delta
connection. Once the motor is running and the line current has diminished, the motor
connections are reverted to the delta connection for normal operation. Such a starting
operation would normally be performed automatically through the use of contactors
controlled with a time delay.
2.5 Three-Phase Power Quantities
The real power generated by one phase of a three-phase generator or absorbed by one
phase of a three-phase load is V P I p cos φ where φ is the phase angle between the phase
voltage and phase current phasors. Each of the three-phases generates (or absorbs in the
case of a load) this power so that the total power, P is given by:
P = 3VP I P cos φ
For a star-connected generator or load we have shown that V L = 3VP and I L = I P , so
in terms of line quantities:
P = 3VL I L cos φ
For a delta-connected generator or load we have shown that V L = VP and I L = 3I P , so
in terms of line quantities we get the same expression again. Since quantities quoted in
three-phase systems are assumed to be line quantities, unless otherwise stated, the
expression for both star and delta connections can be expressed as:
P = 3VI cos φ
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Real power is the useful power that corresponds to the rate of conversion of electrical
energy into other forms of energy at the load. Real power is measured in Watts.
Reactive power represents the rate of electrical energy oscillating within the system
due to reactive components absorbing and returning electrical energy at twice the
frequency of the system. For a single phase of a generator or load, the reactive power is
given by V P I p sin φ where φ is the phase angle of the phase voltage phasor relative to
the phase current phasor, i.e. φ is positive when the voltage phasor leads the current
phasor as with inductive loads and negative when the voltage phasor lags the current
phasor as with capacitive loads. This convention designates inductive loads as ones that
absorb reactive power and capacitive loads as ones that supply reactive power. The
three-phase reactive power is given by:
Q = 3VI sin φ measured in volt-amperes reactive.
Apparent power is the product V P I p for single phase calculations. It is useful for
specifying the rating of components in which the maximum voltage and the maximum
current are fixed irrespective of the phase angle. For a three-phase system, apparent
power is given by:
S = 3VI measured in volt-amperes.
Note that P = S cos φ and Q = S sin φ .
The power factor is the ratio of the real power P to the apparent power S:
P
P.F . = = cos φ
S
The power factor is said to be lagging if the current phasor lags the voltage phasor.
Conversely, the power factor is said to be leading if the current leads the voltage. The
maximum value is 1 and occurs when the current is in phase with the voltage. This is
called unity power factor and this condition occurs when the load is purely resistive, or
when the reactive power supplied by capacitors connected close to an inductive load
balances out the reactive power absorbed by the load.
Taking the power system as a whole, the total energy generated must equal the total
electrical energy consumed at all times. This follows from the fact that electrical energy
cannot be stored in the system. This applies to both real power and reactive power: the
real power generated must be equal to the total of the real power consumed as well as
the reactive power generated must be equal to the total of the reactive power consumed.
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3. Power System Components
This section will look briefly at the components that make up an electric power system.
3.1 Alternators
We have already looked at the fundamentals of the electrical theory of the three-phase
generator. Large alternators are built such that the rotor provides a rotating magnetic
field and the generated e.m.f.s are induced in the fixed stator coils. Older machines used
slip rings and brushes to provide the direct current for the rotor magnetic field – the use
of slip rings for the dc supply rather than for the three-phase connections was preferred
as the dc supply operates at a lower current and voltage. Newer machines tend to use
brushless exciters with solid state rectifiers mounted on the rotor to provide dc - this
avoids the use of slip rings and brushes.
In order to produce an electrical output frequency of 50Hz in each winding of the
generator the two-pole rotor mounted magnetic field must complete 50 revolutions per
second, i.e. it must rotate at a frequency of 3000rpm. Generators with a higher number
of poles on the magnetic field can operate at a lower speed as one electrical cycle in this
case corresponds to the rotor moving such that a North pole is substituted by the next
North pole. For a generator with p pairs of poles, one electrical cycle is completed with
1/p rotor revolutions such that for a rotational speed N in r.p.m. the output frequency
can be found as follows:
Np
f = Electrical cycles per sec = (Hz)
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Except for very small power systems, starting a generator necessitates its
synchronisation with the electrical supply already established by other generators.
Before an alternator can be connected to the three-phase supply, it must have the same
phase sequence (this is taken care of at installation), the same frequency, the same
voltage and be in phase with the three-phase supply.
The load on an electric power system is continuously changing. At most times the input
power into the generators from their prime movers, for example steam turbines, does
not match exactly the total load on the system plus losses. At times that the output
electrical energy is greater than the mechanical energy supplied through the prime
movers, the extra energy comes from the kinetic energy of the machine rotors which
will slow down. Conversely at times that the output electrical energy drawn by the
system is less than the input mechanical power, the generators speed up. The change in
speed of rotation of the generator rotors leads to a drift of the electrical frequency which
is undesirable. The rotational speed of the generators and turbines is sensed such that
any change in speed leads to a compensating change in the input mechanical energy.
In order to ensure that a sudden increase in load can be met an electric power system
needs to maintain a number of generators running at no load. These can then be
deployed quickly to meet an increasing load that would exceed the maximum output of
the generating plant currently supplying real power. Such generators are termed
spinning reserve.
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3.2 Transmission Lines and Cables
Overhead lines and transmission cables are used to transmit electrical energy from the
generating plant to the consumer loads as well as to interconnect generating plant. In
large electric power systems, power stations are interconnected by a high-voltage
network known as the grid. This interconnection reduces the number of generators
required as reserve across the system to ensure that there is enough generating plant
while some generators might be out of service for maintenance or due to unexpected
failure. The number of generators used as a spinning reserve is also reduced as these
would be shared between the interconnected stations. Finally in a large electric power
system this also allows the use of the most economical plant to be used at times of low
demand. For example, in Britain, the grid consists mainly of links at 400kV and 275kV.
These allow power stations to be built at the most economic sites which may be a long
way from the load centre they supply.
The apparent power and current carrying capacity of lines and cables is limited by the
maximum allowable conductor temperature. The I 2 R losses lead to heating of the
electrical conductors and the allowable current must therefore be limited to restrict
temperature rise. Environmental conditions could allow a higher current limit or dictate
a lower current limit during winter and summer respectively.
The transmission of reactive power over long distances in the distribution network is
undesirable since:
The reactive power increases the current through transformers and transmission
lines and increases I 2 R losses, reducing their efficiency and their capacity to
deliver real power, the only component of apparent power that corresponds to
useful work done by the load.
Reactive power transmission leads to an increase in the voltage drops between
the transmitting and receiving ends of transmission lines compared to
transmission at unity power factor. Since the voltage level delivered to
consumers must be within a specified tolerance of the nominal value, it is
important to limit voltage drops within the network.
Transmission of reactive power can be reduced by supplying reactive power close to
load centres in the power network as well as by encouraging consumers to maintain a
power factor close to unity by the use of tariffs that charge for reactive power as well
rather than consider real power alone for billing purposes.
Underground transmission cables are much more costly, need repair more often and
take longer to repair than overhead lines. In large electric power systems with long high
voltage links, overhead lines are used wherever possible. Cables are used in urban areas
and also in areas of outstanding natural beauty to avoid the visual impact of overhead
lines and their supporting towers. Cables are highly capacitive while lines are mainly
inductive.
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3.3 Power Transformers
Power transformers allow the interconnection of equipment operating at different
voltage levels. Power transformers are highly efficient when operated close to rated
load, reaching efficiencies around 98-99%.
3.3.1 Principle of Operation
The principle of operation of the transformer will be explained with reference to the
single-phase transformer in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 (a) Simple single-phase transformer; (b) Transformer circuit diagram symbol
Consider first the case where no load is connected across the secondary terminals of the
transformer. When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary terminals, a small
current called the no-load current I0 flows. This current sets up an alternating magnetic
flux in the core which links both the primary and secondary windings and induces emfs
E1 and E2 in these windings respectively by Faraday’s law. The emf E1 induced in the
primary winding must be equal to V1 – this condition determines the magnitude of the
no-load current as well as the magnitude of the flux set up in the transformer core.
The rate of change of flux in the common core is the same for both windings such that
the induced emf per turn is the same for both windings:
E1 E 2
=
N1 N 2
The induced emf in the secondary provides the voltage V2 seen across the secondary
terminals. Assuming no losses in the transformer, we have E1 = V1 and E 2 = V2 . Hence
we have:
V1 V V N
= 2 ⇒ 1 = 1
N1 N 2 V2 N 2
The ratio of the primary and secondary voltages V1 V2 is called the voltage ratio (this
normally refers to the ratio of the rated voltages for the transformer windings) while
N 1 N 2 is termed the turns ratio or the transformation ratio. A step-down transformer is
one where N2 is less than N1 such that V2 is less than V1. A step-up transformer is one
where N2 is greater than N1 such that V2 is greater than V1.
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When a load is connected across the secondary terminals a current I2 flows in the
secondary winding. This current sets up a magnetic flux within the magnetic core which
MUST be balanced exactly by an equal and opposite magnetic flux due to the primary
current I1. This ensures that the alternating magnetic flux in the core remains the same
as in the no-load case such that the primary induced emf E1 balances the primary
voltage V1. The condition where the magnetic flux due to I1 is equal and opposite to that
due to I2 is given by:
I 2 N1
N1 I1 = N 2 I 2 ⇒ =
I1 N 2
Note that the primary current I1 flows in addition to the no-load current I0 – note that
these two primary current components are phasors and therefore phasor addition is
required to determine the total primary current.
For the ideal transformer, the no-load current I0 required to set up the core flux is
infinitesimally small and can therefore be ignored and the transformer losses are
assumed to be zero such that input and output power are equal:
V1 I 1 = V2 I 2
3.3.2 Three-Phase Transformers
Three-phase transformers are used to transform voltages in a three-phase distribution
network: these may be inherently three-phase, having three primary windings and three-
secondary windings mounted on a three-legged core or else consist of three single-phase
transformers connected to form a three-phase transformer bank. The windings of a
three-phase transformer can be connected in several ways as both the primaries and the
secondaries can be connected in star or in delta. When one set of windings is connected
in star and the other set of windings is connected in delta, the ratio of the three-phase
input and output voltages also depend on the type of connections in addition to the turns
ratio of the transformer.
In an electric power system the high voltage transmission lines do not include a neutral
as this would lead to unnecessary costs. The step-down three-phase transformer to
which single-phase consumers are connected is chosen to have a star-connected
secondary to provide a neutral connection for single-phase consumers. In the Maltese
distribution system, this star-point is connected to earth at the substation through a low
impedance connection. Single-phase consumers are provided with a phase and a neutral
connection while three-phase consumers are provided with the three phases and the
neutral connection. The earth conductor for each installation must be provided for by
the consumer in each installation through the use of earth electrodes.
3.4 Switchgear
Switchgear is required in a power system to perform the following functions:
Automatically isolate faulty components as rapidly as possible so that the
remainder of the system can continue operating;
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Allow equipment not required at the time to be taken out of service
Isolate equipment for routine servicing or repair
Prevent the spread of overvoltage surges. These are usually caused by lighting
discharges on or near overhead lines.
Switchgear falls into three main categories:
Circuit breakers: These are designed to open not only at full-load currents but
also when carrying higher fault currents. The maximum fault current that can be
opened by a circuit breaker is an important circuit breaker rating. For power
system circuit breakers this is normally expressed in terms of the fault apparent
power that can be interrupted.
Fuses: These are designed to open only on fault currents. They must be replaced
before the circuit can be re-energised.
Isolators: These switches can only be opened when the circuit is dead although
they can close onto a live circuit.
4. Power stations
As stated earlier, conventional power stations which generate most of the electrical
energy used in the world today fall into one of three categories: thermal, hydroelectric
and nuclear power stations.
The typical layout of a coal or oil-burning power station is illustrated in schematic form
in Figure 4.1 We will now briefly explain the various components shown in this layout.
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of a coal- or oil-burning power station
A boiler acts as a furnace, transferring heat from the burning fuel to a system of water
tubes that entirely surround the flames. Water is pumped at high pressure into the boiler
where it is converted into steam at high pressure and temperature, typically 150 bars and
550°C. A series of tubes called a superheater is used to heat the flow of steam before it
enters the high-pressure (HP) turbine in order to ensure that the steam is absolutely dry
– this raises the overall efficiency of the power station. The high-pressure steam drives
the turbines which in turn drive the electric generators, to which they are directly
coupled. In order to raise the thermal efficiency and to prevent premature condensation,
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the steam passes through a reheater before it drives the intermediate pressure (IP)
turbine. The low-pressure (LP) turbine is composed of two identical left-hand and
right-hand sections. The remaining usable energy is recovered from the steam in the LP
turbine as the steam exhausts from the LP turbine at a very low pressure, ideally a
vacuum.
The condenser causes the outlet steam to condense into water by letting it flow over
cooling pipes in a heat exchanger where the remaining energy in the steam is transferred
to the cooling water system. The condensation process creates a vacuum within the
condenser. At no point must the two systems mix.
The cold impure water flowing through the condenser can come from the sea in coastal
areas. In this case the warmed seawater can be returned to the sea away from the water
inlet. For inland power stations where there is no guaranteed supply of cooling water,
cooling towers are used to cool the impure water. The warm cooling water is piped to
the top of the cooling tower where it is sprayed from a number of fine jets. As the water
droplets fall the water cools by evaporation and by warming the air in the cooling tower
which induces a natural draught. Note that an evaporation of 1% of this water is enough
to cause a drop in temperature of 5.8°C in the remaining 99%. The water lost needs to
be replaced by topping up from a local river or other source of water.
In practice a steam power station has various other components to ensure high
efficiency and safe operation. We have just covered the basic components to enable the
understanding of the principle of operation of a thermal station.
Figure 4.2 shows an example of the power flow of a 30MW thermal generating station.
One notes that 50% of the boiler power output ends up in the cooling water in the
condenser – depending on the efficiency of the plant the proportion of power transferred
to the cooling water could vary up to 2/3 of the input power. The output electrical power
in this example represents 40% of the input power.
Figurer 4.2 An example of a 30MW thermal generating station
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Figure 4.3 shows the schematic diagram of a combined-cycle gas turbine which
combines a gas turbine and a steam turbine. The steam turbine is driven by steam
produced in a heat exchanger through which the hot exhaust gases of the gas turbine are
passed. Combined-cycle gas turbines achieve higher thermal efficiencies than coal- or
oil-burning power stations but comparisons on the output electrical energy costs more
have to take into account the relative fuel cost as well.
Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of a combined-cycle gas turbine power station
Figure 4.4 compares the basic components required in principle for hydro-powered,
thermal and nuclear power stations. The principal difference between the schematics for
the thermal and nuclear power stations lies in the source of heat. Hydro-powered
stations transfer the kinetic and potential energy of water to electrical energy through
the use of a hydraulic turbine coupled to a generator. The hydraulic turbine operates at
much lower speeds than steam turbines and generators used for hydro-power stations
are characterised by a high number of pole-pairs.
Figure 4.4 Comparison of main components of hydro, thermal and nuclear stations
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