NDT – Liquid Penetrant Test

Introduction
• Penetrant Testing, or PT, is a nondestructive testing
method that builds on the principle of Visual
Inspection.
• PT increases the “seeability” of small discontinuities
that the human eye might not be able to detect
alone.
 Terminologies Used
• Capillary Action - the tendency of certain liquids to
travel or climb when exposed to small openings.
• Contrast - the relative amount of light emitted or
reflected between the indication and its
background.
• Defect - a discontinuity that affects the
usefulness of a part or specimen.
• Developer - a finely divided material applied over
the surface of a part to help promote reverse
capillary action and thus bring out a penetrant
indication.
• Discontinuity - any interruption in the normal
physical structure of a part or weld. It may or
may not affect the usefulness of a part.
• Dwell Time - the period of time that a penetrant
or developer must remain in contact with the
surface of a part under test.
 Terminologies Used
• Emulsification Time - the time allowed for the
emulsifier to render the penetrant water washable and
thus allow the part to be washed.
• Emulsifier - a material applied over a film of
penetrant that renders it water washable.
• Evaluation - the process of deciding as to the severity
of the condition after an indication has been
interpreted.
• False Indication - an indication caused by improper
processing; not caused by a relevant or non-relevant
condition.
• Flash Time - the time required for the solvent to
evaporate from the surface of a part when used to
pre-clean or remove excess penetrant.
• Fluorescent Dye - a dye which becomes fluorescent
(gives off light) when exposed to short wave radiation
such as ultraviolet light.
 Terminologies Used
• Indication - the visible evidence or penetrant bleed-
out on the surface of the specimen
• Interpretation - the process of evaluating an indication
in an attempt to determine the cause and nature of
the discontinuity.
• Non-Aqueous Developer - a developer in which
developing powder is applied as a suspension in a quick
drying solvent
• Penetrant - a liquid used in fluorescent or visible dye
penetrant inspection to penetrate into the surface
openings of parts inspected via these methods
• Relevant Indication - an indication that has been
determined not to be false or non-relevant - and
actual defect
• Seeability - the characteristic of an indication that
enables it to be seen against the adverse conditions of
background, outside light, etc.
 Terminologies Used
• Sensitivity - the ability of a penetrant to detect
surface openings. Higher sensitivity indicates smaller
discontinuities can be detected
• Ultraviolet Light (or Black Light) - light energy just
below the visible range of violet light (356
nanometers).
• Viscosity - the resistance of a fluid to the motion of
its particles
• Washability - the property of a penetrant which
permits it to be cleaned from the surface of a part by
washing with water
 Basic working principle - A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics/ very low
viscosity (highly fluid) is applied to the surface of a component under test.
 The penetrant “penetrates” into surface breaking discontinuities/ fissures/ voids that
are open to the surface via capillary action and penetration mechanism.
 Once the excess penetrant is removed, the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow
back out, creating an indication.
 Penetrants may be "visible“ (they can be seen in ambient light) or fluorescent
(requires the use of a "black" light).
 When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested is
clean and free of any foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from
entering voids or fissures open to the surface of the part.
 After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the surface for a
specified period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is
carefully cleaned to remove excess penetrant from the surface.
 When removing the penetrant, the operator must be careful not to remove
any penetrant that has flowed into voids.
 A light coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time
("developer dwell time") to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to
seep up into the developer, creating a visible indication.
 Following the prescribed developer dwell time, the part is inspected visually,
with the aid of a black light for fluorescent penetrants.
 Most developers are fine-grained, white talcum-like powders that provide a
colour contrast to the penetrant being used.
 With good inspection technique, visual indications of any discontinuities
present become apparent.
 Penetrant testing can be performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials,
but does not work well on porous materials.
 Capillary Mechanism
• Every step of the LPT is vital
to promote capillary action.
• Rising or climbing of a liquid
when confined to small
openings due to surface
wetting properties of the
liquid.
• Some examples:
– Plants and trees draw water up
from the ground to their branches
and leaves to supply their
nourishment.
– The human body has miles of
capillaries that carry life
sustaining blood to our entire
body.
Materials Visualized using PT?

Any material
that has a
relatively
smooth, non-
porous surface
on which
discontinuities
or defects are
suspected.
 Materials not suitable for PT?
• Components with rough
surfaces, such as sand
castings, that trap and hold
penetrant.
• P/M components
• Porous ceramics
• Wood and other fibrous
materials.
• Plastic parts that absorb or Defect indications become less
distinguishable as the
react with the penetrant background “noise” level
increases.
materials.
• Components with coatings
that prevent penetrants from
entering defects.
Types of Defects/ Discontinuities detected
using PT?

Only surface defects like in

– Rolled products - cracks,
seams, laminations.
– Castings - cold shuts, hot
tears, porosity, blow holes,
shrinkage.
– Forgings – cracks, laps,
external bursts.
– Welds – cracks, porosity,
undercut, overlap, lack of
fusion, lack of penetration.
Basic Process of PT
1) Clean & Dry Component 4) Apply Developer
2) Apply Penetrant

5) Visual Inspection
3) Remove Excess Penetrant

6) Post Clean Component

 Choices of Penetrant Materials
Penetrant Type
I Fluorescent
II Visible

Method

A Water Washable
B Postemulsifiable – Lipophilic (Oily organic
compound insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvents)
C Solvent Removable
D Postemulsifiable – Hydrophilic
(strong affinity for water)

Developer Form
Dry Powder
Wet, Water Soluble
Wet, Water Suspendable
Wet, Non-Aqueous
 Penetrant Materials
To perform well, penetrants are formulated based on
the following important characteristics:
– Spreading easily over the component surface

– Easy to be drawn into surface breaking defects (Not too viscous

or too fluid  affects capillary action or other mechanisms)

– Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the
part.

– Remain fluid through the drying and developing steps  easy to

draw back to the surface.

– Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly  produces easy to see

indications.

– Not be harmful to the inspector or to the material being tested.

 Sensitivity Levels
• Higher the sensitivity level  smaller the defect that the
penetrant is capable of detecting.
• The five sensitivity levels are:
– Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
– Level 3 - High Sensitivity
– Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
– Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
– Level ½ - Very Low Sensitivity
• Increase in sensitivity level  Increase in number of non
relevant indications also (even small s/f features will be shown as
indications).
• Hence, penetrant selection is important, which will find only the
defects of interest but not produce too many non relevant
indications.
 Visible Vs Fluorescent PT
• Inspection  performed using visible
(or red dye) or fluorescent penetrant
materials.
• Visible - performed under white
light; Fluorescent - performed using
an ultraviolet light in a darkened
area. Photo Courtesy of Contesco
• All are all in the level 1 sensitivity
range.
• Fluorescent PT is more sensitive than
visible PT because the eye is more
sensitive to a bright indication on a
dark background. Sensitivity ranges
from 1 to 4.
 6 Steps of Penetrant Testing

1. Pre-Clean
2. Penetrant Application
3. Excess Penetrant
Removal
4. Developer Application
5. Inspect/Evaluate
6. Post-clean
 Pre-cleaning – Step 1

• Parts must be free of dirt, rust,

scale, oil, grease, etc. to perform
a reliable inspection.
• The cleaning process must remove
contaminants from the surfaces of
the part and defects, and must
not plug any of the defects.

Solvent Cleaning
Detergent Cleaning
Vapor Degreasing
Steam Cleaning
Ultrasonic Cleaning
Etching
 Caution about Metal Smearing
Some machining, surface finishing and cleaning Before Smearing
operations can cause a thin layer of metal to
smear on the surface and prevent penetrant
from entering any flaws that may be present.

Etching of the surface prior to inspection is

sometimes required. After Smearing

After Etching
 Penetrant Application – Step 2

Many methods of
application are
possible such as:
– Brushing
– Spraying
– Dipping/
Immersing
– Flow-on
 Dwell Time

• The penetrant solution

must be allowed to
“dwell” on the surface
of the part to allow the
penetrant time to fill
any defects present.
• The dwell time vary
according to penetrant
type, temperature,
material type and
surface finish.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3
The removal technique depends upon the type of
penetrant used, as stated earlier.
– Solvent Removable
– Water Washable
– Post Emulsifiable
 Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3
Penetrants are also classified by the method of

removing the excess penetrant.

• Solvent Removable
- penetrants are removed by wiping with a cloth
dampened with solvent.
- Supplied in aerosol cans for portability
- Primarily used for spot checks.
• Water Washable
- penetrants are removed with a course spray of
water.
- Easiest to employ
- Most cost effective when inspecting large areas.
 Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3

• Post-Emulsifiable
- penetrants are water-washable only after
they have reacted with an emulsifier solution.

- A post-emulsifiable system is used when

washing the penetrant out of the defect is a
concern.

- The emulsifier is given time to react with the

penetrant on the surface but not the
penetrant trapped in the flaw.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3

Solvent Removable (cont.)

Any time a solvent is
used in the penetrant inspection
process, a
suitable flash time is
required to allow excess solvent to
evaporate.
 Developer Application – Step 4

The method of developer application is dependent

on the type of developer used.

Types are:
– Dry

– Wet

– Non-aqueous Wet
 Developers

• The role of the developer is to pull trapped

penetrant out of defects and to spread it
out on the surface so that it can be seen.
Also provides a light background to
increase contrast when visible penetrant is used.
• Developer materials are available in several different forms
– Dry Powder is a mix of light fluffy powder that clumps together where
penetrant bleeds back to the surface to produces very defined indications.
– Wet, Water Suspendable is a powder that is suspended in a water
that covers the surface with a relatively uniform layer of developer when
the water is evaporated. The solution is somewhat difficult to maintain as
the powder settles out over time.
– Wet, Water Soluble is a crystalline powder that forms a clear solution
when mixed with water. The solution recrystallizes on the surface when
the water is driven off. Indications sometimes lack definition and look
milky. Not recommended for use with water-washable penetrants.
– Wet, Non-Aqueous - is supplied in a spray can and is the most sensitive
developer for inspecting small areas. It is too costly and difficult to apply
to large areas.
 Developer Application – Step 4
Dry Powder Developer
• Prior to applying a dry
powder developer, the
component must be
thoroughly dried. Drying
is usually accomplished in
a hot air circulating
oven.
• The developer is then
applied by immersing the
part in the powder or by
dusting of the part with
the powder.
• The part can also be
placed in a developer
dust cloud chamber.
Developer Application – Step 4
Wet Developer (water- suspended and
water- soluble)

• Wet developers are applied by

immersing or spraying the part
while it is still wet from the
penetrant removal process.

• The part is completely coated and

the excess liquid allowed to drain
to prevent pooling

• The part is then dried in a hot air

circulating oven.
 Developer Application – Step 4

Non-aqueous Developer (AKA Solvent-

Suspended)
• Non-aqueous developer is applied by
a aerosol spray to a thoroughly
dried and cooled part.
• A thin even coating should be
applied. The coating should be
white but still slightly transparent
when performing a visible dye
penetrant inspection, and even
thinner when performing a
fluorescent penetrant inspection.
Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5

 Inspector evaluates the

penetrant indications against
specified accept/reject
criteria and attempts to
determine the origin of the Non-relevant weld geometry indications

indication.

 Indications are judged to be

either relevant, non-relevant
or false.

Relevant crack indications from an

abusive drilling process
 Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5

 A very important step

of evaluation is to
document findings on an
inspection report form or
other record keeping
form.

 This is supported with

drawings or photos of
indications, etc.
 Post Clean – Step 6

 Final step: To thoroughly

clean the part that has been
tested to remove all
penetrant processing
materials.

 Residual materials could

possibly affect the
performance of the part or
affect its visual appeal.
Penetrant Inspection Systems
Penetrant systems can be highly portable or
stationary.

Image courtesy of Nebraska Army National Guard

Portable Penetrant System Stationary Penetrant

System
Verification of Penetrant System Performance

Since penetrant testing involves

multiple processing steps, the
performance of the materials
and the processes should be
routinely checked using
performance verification tools,
which include:
– PSM/TAM Panels (Penetrant
System Testing and
Monitoring)
– Crack Sensitivity Panels
– Run Check Panels
Advantages of Penetrant Testing

• Relatively ease of use.

• Can be used on a wide range of material types.
• Large areas or large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost.

• Parts with complex geometries are routinely inspected.

• Indications are produced directly on surface of the part
providing a visual image of the discontinuity.

• Initial equipment investment is low.

• Aerosol spray cans can make equipment very portable.
 Limitations of Penetrant Testing

• Only detects surface breaking defects.

• Requires relatively smooth nonporous material.
• Pre-cleaning is critical. Contaminants can mask defects (False
indication).

• Requires multiple operations under controlled conditions.

• Chemical handling precautions necessary (toxicity, fire, waste).
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding and other operations
inhibits detection. Materials may need to be etched prior to
inspection.

• Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals.

 Summary

• Penetrant testing (PT)  most widely used

nondestructive testing methods.
• Popularity is attributed to two main factors 
relative ease of use and its flexibility.
• However, PT involves a number of processing steps
that must be closely control to achieve optimal
sensitivity.
Acknowledgements:
All images are taken from Google search.